1.
Ubuntu (operating system)
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Ubuntu is published by Canonical Ltd, who offer commercial support. It uses Unity as its user interface for the desktop. Ubuntu is the most popular operating system running in hosted environments, so–called clouds, development of Ubuntu is led by UK-based Canonical Ltd. a company of South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth. Canonical generates revenue through the sale of technical support and other related to Ubuntu. The Ubuntu project is committed to the principles of open-source software development, people are encouraged to use free software, study how it works, improve upon it. Ubuntu is built on Debians architecture and infrastructure, to provide Linux server, desktop, phone, tablet, the first release was in October 2004. Starting with Ubuntu 6.06, every release, one release every two years, receives long-term support. Long-term support includes updates for new hardware, security patches and updates to the Ubuntu stack. The first LTS releases were supported for three years on the desktop and five years on the server, since Ubuntu 12.04 LTS, LTS releases get regular point releases with support for new hardware and integration of all the updates published in that series to date. Ubuntu packages are based on packages from Debians unstable branch, both distributions use Debians deb package format and package management tools. Debian and Ubuntu packages are not necessarily compatible with each other, however. Many Ubuntu developers are also maintainers of key packages within Debian, Ubuntu cooperates with Debian by pushing changes back to Debian, although there has been criticism that this does not happen often enough. Ian Murdock, the founder of Debian, had expressed concern about Ubuntu packages potentially diverging too far from Debian to remain compatible, before release, packages are imported from Debian unstable continuously and merged with Ubuntu-specific modifications. One month before release, imports are frozen, and packagers then work to ensure that the frozen features interoperate well together, Ubuntu is currently funded by Canonical Ltd. On 8 July 2005, Mark Shuttleworth and Canonical announced the creation of the Ubuntu Foundation, the purpose of the foundation is to ensure the support and development for all future versions of Ubuntu. Mark Shuttleworth describes the goal as to ensure the continuity of the Ubuntu project. On 12 March 2009, Ubuntu announced developer support for 3rd-party cloud management platforms, Unity has become the default GUI for Ubuntu Desktop, although following the release of Ubuntu 17.10 it will move to the GNOME3 desktop instead as work on Unity ends. A default installation of Ubuntu contains a range of software that includes LibreOffice, Firefox, Thunderbird, Transmission
2.
Software developer
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A software developer is a person concerned with facets of the software development process, including the research, design, programming, and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are used with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system design, software development, and programming are more apparent, even more so that developers become systems architects, those who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a large software system. In a large company, there may be employees whose sole responsibility consists of one of the phases above. In smaller development environments, a few people or even an individual might handle the complete process. The word software was coined as a prank as early as 1953, before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955. The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities, universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers, some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a basis, and other firms such as Computer Sciences Corporation started to grow. The computer/hardware makers started bundling operating systems, systems software and programming environments with their machines, new software was built for microcomputers, so other manufacturers including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS/400 amongst others. The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the computer in the mid-1970s. In the following years, it created a growing market for games, applications. DOS, Microsofts first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time, by 2014 the role of cloud developer had been defined, in this context, one definition of a developer in general was published, Developers make software for the world to use. The job of a developer is to crank out code -- fresh code for new products, code fixes for maintenance, code for business logic, bus factor Software Developer description from the US Department of Labor
3.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
4.
Repository (version control)
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In revision control systems, a repository is an on-disk data structure which stores metadata for a set of files and/or directory structure. Some of the metadata that a repository contains includes, among other things, a set of references to commit objects, called heads. The main purpose of a repository is to store a set of files and these differences in methodology have generally led to diverse uses of revision control by different groups, depending on their needs. Software repository Codebase Forge Comparison of source code hosting facilities
5.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
6.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
7.
Word processor
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A word processor is an electronic device or computer software application, that performs the task of composing, editing, formatting, and printing of documents. Later models introduced innovations such as spell-checking programs, and improved formatting options, as of 2009 there were only two U. S. companies, Classic and AlphaSmart, which still made them. Many older machines, however, remain in use, since 2009, Sentinel has offered a machine described as a word processor, but it is more accurately a highly specialised microcomputer used for accounting and publishing. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce a combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-setting capability. In its simplest form, a processor is like an Expensive Typewriter or Typewriter machine, with the improvement of being able to proofread. Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing software according to a tracking system built into the software. Microsoft estimates that half a billion people use the Microsoft Office suite. Many other word processing applications exist, including WordPerfect and open source applications OpenOffice. org Writer, LibreOffice Writer, AbiWord, KWord, web-based word processors, such as Office Online or Google Docs are a relatively new category. Word processors evolved dramatically once they became software programs rather than dedicated machines and they can usefully be distinguished from text editors, the category of software they evolved from. A text editor is a program that is used for typing, copying, pasting, text editors do not format lines or pages. Text editors are now used mainly by programmers, website designers, computer system administrators and they are also useful when fast startup times, small file sizes, editing speed, and simplicity of operation are valued, and when formatting is unimportant. Due to their use in managing complex software projects, text editors can sometimes provide better facilities for managing large writing projects than a word processor. Word processing added to the editor the ability to control type style and size, to manage lines, to format documents into pages. Functions now taken for granted were added incrementally, sometimes by purchase of independent providers of add-on programs, spell checking, grammar checking and mail merge were some of the most popular add-ons for early word processors. Word processors are capable of hyphenation, and the management. More advanced features found in recent word processors include, Collaborative editing, allowing users to work on the same document. Management, editing, and positioning of visual material, and sometimes sound files, automatically managed cross-references to pages or notes. Version control of a document, permitting reconstruction of its evolution, styles, which automate consistent formatting of text body, titles, subtitles, highlighted text, and so on
8.
Software license
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A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses
9.
GNU General Public License
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The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
10.
Free and open-source software
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Free and open-source software is computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright, the benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and stability, protecting privacy, and giving users more control over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones, Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used by many software packages. In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s to 1980s, it was common for users to have the source code for all programs they used. Software, including source code, was shared by individuals who used computers. Most companies had a model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled software with hardware. Organizations of users and suppliers were formed to facilitate the exchange of software, see, for example, SHARE, by the late 1960s, the prevailing business model around software was changing. In United States vs. IBM, filed 17 January 1969, while some software might always be free, there would be a growing amount of software that was for sale only. Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, an article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the GNU Manifesto. The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy, Free Software Definition, the Linux kernel, started by Linus Torvalds, was released as freely modifiable source code in 1991. Initially, Linux was not released under a free or open-source software license, however, with version 0.12 in February 1992, he relicensed the project under the GNU General Public License. Much like Unix, Torvalds kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers, freeBSD and NetBSD were released as free software when the USL v. BSDi lawsuit was settled out of court in 1993. OpenBSD forked from NetBSD in 1995, also in 1995, The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache, was released under the Apache License 1.0. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this code is today better known as Mozilla Firefox and Thunderbird. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the FSFs free software ideas, the new name they chose was open source, and quickly Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others signed on to the rebranding. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and this view perfectly summarizes the initial response to FOSS by some software corporations. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market, there has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of free and open-source software
11.
GTK+
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GTK+ is a cross-platform widget toolkit for creating graphical user interfaces. It is licensed under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License and it is one of the most popular toolkits for the Wayland and X11 windowing systems, along with Qt. The GTK+ library contains a set of graphical elements, version 3.13.3 contains 203 active and 37 deprecated widgets. GTK+ is a widget toolkit written in the C programming language, it uses GObject. While GTK+ is primarily targeted at windowing systems based upon X11 and Wayland, it works on other platforms, including Microsoft Windows, there is also an HTML5 back-end called Broadway. GTK+ can be configured to change the look of the widgets drawn, several display engines exist which try to emulate the look of the native widgets on the platform in use. Starting with version 2.8, released in 2005, GTK+ began the transition to using Cairo to render the majority of its control elements. Since GTK+ version 3.0, all the rendering is done using Cairo, GDK acts as a wrapper around the low-level functions provided by the underlying windowing and graphics systems. GDK is found in the /gdk directory, GSK is the rendering and scene graph API for GTK+. GSK lies between the control elements and the rendering. GSK was finally merged into GTK+ version 3.90 released March 2017, GSK is found in the /gsk directory. GtkInspector has been introduced with version 3.14, gtkInspector can only be invoked after installing the development package libgtk-3-dev/gtk+-devel. There are several GUI designers for GTK+, the following projects are active as of July 2011, Glade, supports GtkBuilder, which is a GTK+ built-in GUI description format. Gazpacho, GUI builder for the GTK+ toolkit written in Python Crow Designer, relies on its own GuiXml format, Stetic, part of MonoDevelop, oriented towards Gtk#. GtkBuilder allows user interfaces to be designed without writing code, the interface is described in an Extensible Markup Language file, which is then loaded at runtime and the objects created automatically. The Glade Interface Designer allows creation of the interface in a WYSIWYG manner. The description of the interface is independent from the programming language being used. A library written in one programming language may be used in another language if bindings are written, Gtk# is a set of. NET bindings for the GTK+ GUI toolkit and assorted GNOME libraries
12.
Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
13.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
14.
ReactOS
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ReactOS is a free and open-source operating system for x86/x64 personal computers intended to be binary-compatible with computer programs and device drivers made for Windows Server 2003. Development began in 1996, as a Windows 95 clone project, ReactOS has been noted as a potential open-source drop-in replacement for Windows and for its information on undocumented Windows APIs. As stated on the website, The main goal of the ReactOS project is to provide an operating system which is binary compatible with Windows. Such that people accustomed to the user interface of Windows would find using ReactOS straightforward. The ultimate goal of ReactOS is to allow you to remove Windows, ReactOS is primarily written in C, with some elements, such as ReactOS File Explorer, written in C++. The project partially implements Windows API functionality and has been ported to the AMD64 processor architecture, around 1996, a group of free and open-source software developers started a project called FreeWin95 to implement a clone of Windows 95. The project stalled in discussions of the design of the system, while FreeWin95 had started out with high expectations, there still had not been any builds released to the public by the end of 1997. As a result, the members, led by coordinator Jason Filby. The revived project sought to duplicate the functionality of Windows NT, in creating the new project, a new name, ReactOS, was chosen. The project began development in February 1998 by creating the basis for a new NT kernel, the name ReactOS was coined during an IRC chat. While the term OS stood for operating system, the term referred to the groups dissatisfaction with –. In 2004, a copyright / license violation of ReactOS GPLed code was found when someone distributed a ReactOS fork under the name Ekush OS, in order to avoid copyright prosecution, ReactOS must be expressively completely distinct and non-derivative from Windows, a goal which needs very careful work. A claim was made on 17 January 2006, by now former developer Hartmut Birr on the ReactOS developers mailing list that ReactOS contained code derived from disassembling Microsoft Windows, the code that Birr disputed involved the function BadStack in syscall. S. as well as other unspecified items. Comparing this function to disassembled binaries from Windows XP, Birr argued that the BadStack function was simply copy-pasted from Windows XP, on 27 January 2006, the developers responsible for maintaining the ReactOS code repository disabled access after a meeting was held to discuss the allegations. When approached by NewsForge, Microsoft declined to comment about the incident, contributions from several active ReactOS developers have been accepted post-audit, and low level cooperation for bug fixes still occurs. In a statement on its website, ReactOS cited differing legal definitions of what constitutes clean-room reverse engineering as a cause for the conflict, consequently, ReactOS clarified that its Intellectual Property Policy Statement requirements on clean room reverse engineering conform to US law. Contributors to its development were not affected by events. In September 2007, with the audit nearing completion, the status was removed from the ReactOS homepage
15.
AmigaOS
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AmigaOS is a family of proprietary native operating systems of the Amiga and AmigaOne personal computers. It was developed first by Commodore International and introduced with the launch of the first Amiga, early versions of AmigaOS required the Motorola 68000 series of 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors. Later versions were developed by Haage & Partner and then Hyperion Entertainment, a PowerPC microprocessor is required for the most recent release, AmigaOS4. AmigaOS is a operating system based on a preemptive multitasking kernel. It includes an abstraction of the Amigas hardware, an operating system called AmigaDOS, a windowing system API called Intuition. The Amiga intellectual property is fragmented between Amiga Inc, the copyrights for works created up to 1993 are owned by Cloanto. On December 29,2015, the AmigaOS3.1 source code leaked to the web, AmigaOS is a single-user operating system based on a preemptive multitasking kernel, called Exec. AmigaOS provides an abstraction of the Amigas hardware, an operating system called AmigaDOS, a windowing system API called Intuition. A command-line interface, called AmigaShell, is integrated into the system. The CLI and Workbench components share the same privileges, notably, AmigaOS lacks any built-in memory protection. AmigaOS is formed from two parts, namely, a component called Kickstart and a software portion usually referred to as Workbench. Up until AmigaOS3.1, matching versions of Kickstart, however, since AmigaOS3.5, the first release after Commodores demise, only the software component has been updated and the role of Kickstart has been diminished somewhat. Firmware updates may still be applied by patching at system boot, Kickstart is the bootstrap firmware, usually stored in ROM. Kickstart contains the code needed to boot standard Amiga hardware and many of the components of AmigaOS. The function of Kickstart is comparable to the BIOS plus the operating system kernel in IBM PC compatibles. However, Kickstart provides more functionality available at boot time than would typically be expected on PC, for example, Kickstart contains many core parts of the Amigas operating system, such as Exec, Intuition, the core of AmigaDOS and functionality to initialize Autoconfig-compliant expansion hardware. Later versions of the Kickstart contained drivers for IDE and SCSI controllers, PC card ports, upon start-up or reset the Kickstart performs a number of diagnostic and system checks and then initializes the Amiga chipset and some core OS components. It will then examine connected boot devices and attempt to boot from the one with the highest boot priority, if no boot device is present a screen will be displayed asking the user to insert a boot disk, typically a floppy disk
16.
Cygwin
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Cygwin is a Unix-like environment and command-line interface for Microsoft Windows. Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications, data, and other resources with applications, software tools. Thus it is possible to launch Windows applications from the Cygwin environment, as well as to use Cygwin tools, Cygwin was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions, which was later acquired by Red Hat. It is free and open software, released under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3. Today it is maintained by employees of Red Hat, NetApp, programmers have ported many Unix, GNU, BSD and Linux programs and packages to Cygwin, including the X Window System, K Desktop Environment 3, GNOME, Apache, and TeX. Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services, allowing Microsoft Windows systems to emulate Unix, Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwins setup program, which downloads the necessary program and feature package files from repositories on the Internet. Setup can install, update, and remove programs and their source code packages, a complete installation will take in excess of 36 GB of hard disk space, but usable configurations may require as little as 1 or 2 GB. Initial mount-points can be configured in /etc/fstab, which has a similar format as on Unix systems. Filesystems can be mounted in binary mode, or in text mode, Cygwin 1.7 introduced comprehensive support for POSIX locales and many character encodings, whereby the UTF-8 Unicode encoding became the default. Windows file-names and other identifiers, which are encoded as UTF-16, are converted to. Windows drive letters map to a directory, so for example C. The /cygdrive prefix can be changed, Windows network paths of the form \\HOST\SHARE\FILE are mapped to //HOST/SHARE/FILE. Windows paths can also be used directly from Cygwin programs, but many programs do not support them correctly, full-featured /dev and /proc file-systems are provided. /proc/registry provides direct access to the registry. Cygwin supports POSIX symbolic links, representing them as files with the system attribute set. Cygwin 1.5 represented them as Windows Explorer shortcuts, but this has changed for reasons of performance. Cygwin also recognises NTFS junction points and symbolic links and treats them as POSIX symbolic links, the Solaris API for handling access control lists is supported and maps to the Windows NT ACL system. Special formats of /etc/passwd and /etc/group are provided that include pointers to the Windows equivalent SIDs, the fork system call for duplicating a process is fully implemented, but it does not map well to the Windows API
17.
X Window System
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The X Window System is a windowing system for bitmap displays, common on UNIX-like computer operating systems. X provides the framework for a GUI environment, drawing and moving windows on the display device and interacting with a mouse. X does not mandate the user interface – this is handled by individual programs, as such, the visual styling of X-based environments varies greatly, different programs may present radically different interfaces. X originated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1984, the protocol has been version 11 since September 1987. The X. Org Foundation leads the X project, with the current reference implementation, X. Org Server, available as free and open source software under the MIT License, X is an architecture-independent system for remote graphical user interfaces and input device capabilities. Each person using a terminal has the ability to interact with the display with any type of user input device. X provides the framework, or primitives, for building such GUI environments, drawing and moving windows on the display and interacting with a mouse. X does not mandate the user interface, individual client programs handle this, programs may use Xs graphical abilities with no user interface. As such, the styling of X-based environments varies greatly. Unlike most earlier display protocols, X was specifically designed to be used over network connections rather than on an integral or attached display device. X features network transparency, which means an X program running on a computer somewhere on a network can display its user interface on an X server running on other computer on the network. The fact that the server is applied to the software in front of the user is often surprising to users accustomed to their programs being clients to services on remote computers. Xs network protocol is based on X command primitives and this approach allows both 2D and 3D operations by an X client application which might be running on a different computer to still be fully accelerated on the X servers display. X provides no support for audio, several projects exist to fill this niche. X uses a model, an X server communicates with various client programs. The server accepts requests for graphical output and sends back user input, a client and server can even communicate securely over the Internet by tunneling the connection over an encrypted network session. An X client itself may emulate an X server by providing services to other clients. This is known as X nesting, open-source clients such as Xnest and Xephyr support such X nesting
18.
MeeGo
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MeeGo was a Linux distribution hosted by the Linux Foundation, using source code from the operating systems Moblin and Maemo. The Linux Foundation canceled MeeGo in September 2011 in favor of Tizen, a Finnish start-up, Jolla, picked up MeeGo’s community-driven successor Mer to develop a new operating system, Sailfish OS, and launched Jolla Phone smartphone at the end of 2013. All development of MeeGo and its supporting hardware have ceased, MeeGo T01 was first announced at Mobile World Congress in February 2010 by Intel and Nokia in a joint press conference. The stated aim is to merge the efforts of Intels Moblin, according to Intel, MeeGo was developed because Microsoft did not offer comprehensive Windows 7 support for the Atom processor. On February 16,2010 a tech talk notice was posted about the former Maemo development project founded in 2009 and code named Harmattan, that originally slated to become Maemo 6. Those notice stated that Harmattan is now considered to be a MeeGo instance, in addition it was made clear that only the naming was given up whilst development on that Harmattan will continue so that any schedules will be met. Aminocom and Novell also played a part in the MeeGo effort, working with the Linux Foundation on their build infrastructure. Amino was responsible for extending MeeGo to TV devices, while Novell was increasingly introducing technology that was developed for openSUSE. In November 2010, AMD also joined the alliance of companies that were actively developing MeeGo, quite noticeable changes in the project setup happened on February 11,2011 when Nokia officially announced to switch over to Windows Phone 7 and thus abandoning MeeGo and the partnership. On 27 September 2011, it was announced by Intel employee Imad Sousou that in collaboration with Samsung MeeGo will be replaced by Tizen during 2012, community developers from the Mer project however started to continue MeeGo without Intel and Nokia. MeeGo is intended to run on a variety of platforms including hand-helds, in-car devices, netbooks. All platforms share the MeeGo core, with different “User Experience” layers for each type of device, MeeGo provides support for both ARM and Intel x86 processors with SSSE3 enabled and uses btrfs as the default file system. Within the MeeGo project there are graphical user interfaces – internally called User Experiences. The Netbook UX is a continuation of the Moblin interface and it is written using the Clutter-based Mx toolkit, and uses the Mutter window manager. Samsung Netbook NP-N100 use MeeGo for its operating system, MeeGo’s netbook version uses several Linux applications in the background, such as Evolution, Empathy, Gwibber, Chromium, and Banshee, all integrated into the graphical user interface. The Handset UX is based on Qt, with GTK+ and Clutter included to provide compatibility for Moblin applications, to support the hundreds of Hildon-based Maemo applications, users have to install the Hildon library ported by the maemo. org community. Depending on the device, applications will be provided either the Intel AppUp or the Nokia Ovi digital software distribution systems. The MeeGo Handset UX’s Day 1 prerelease was on 30 June 2010, the preview was initially available for the Aava Mobile Intel Moorestown platform, and a ‘kickstart’ file provided for developers to build an image for the Nokia N900
19.
Nokia N9
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The Nokia N9 is a smartphone developed by Nokia, running on the Linux-based MeeGo Harmattan mobile operating system. Announced in June 2011 and released in September, it was the first and it was initially released in three colors, black, cyan and magenta, before a white version was announced at Nokia World 2011. Despite a limited release, the N9 received widespread critical acclaim and it was praised for both its software and hardware, including the MeeGo operating system, buttonless swipe user interface, and its high-end features. The successor of Nokia N900, internally known as N9-00, was scheduled to be released in late 2010, pictures of the prototype leaked in August 2010 showed an industrial design and a 4-row keyboard. A software engineer working for Nokias device division cited the N9-00 in the bug tracker for Qt. This would later be known as the N950 and this design was dropped, then Nokia started working on the N9-01, codenamed Lankku, a new variant without a keyboard. Nokia N9 was announced on 21 June 2011 at the Nokia Connection event in Singapore, at the time, the phone was presumed to become available to the public in September 2011. Users can get notified via e-mail of the availability of N9 in their country at the webpage of the Nokia Online Store, the N9 was announced only four months after partnering with Microsoft to use Windows Phone 7 as the flagship operating system to replace Symbian. At the time Nokias flagship device was the Symbian^3-based N8, Nokia CEO Stephen Elop said that the N9 will be the first and last MeeGo device from the company, something that MeeGo supporters already felt before the N9 announcement due to the Microsoft deal. They responded by creating a petition We want Nokia to keep MeeGo, despite the success of the alliance, it was broken and MeeGo canceled by Stephen Elops decision. Intel officially expressed regrets because of this situation, Elop restated that the company will not be continuing development of MeeGo even if the N9 would be a success, focusing solely on the future Lumia series. In August 2011, Nokia announced that Nokia N9 will not be released in the United States, other reports indicated that the device will not be available in other markets such as Japan, Canada and Germany. Nokia posted on the blog in the last week of September 2011 that N9 phones are heading to the stores. The initial retail price was announced to be around €480 and €560 before applicable taxes or subsidies, in Germany, devices imported from Switzerland are available online from Amazon and German Cyberport GmbH. In January 2012, they were made available in some major stores of the Saturn Media Markt chain. In February 2012, Nokia N9 appeared on the Italian Nokia site, prices in January 2012 were, depending on the size of the internal memory, between €500 and €630. The Nokia N9 is powered by a Texas Instruments OMAP3630 which is a System-on-a-chip based on a 45 nanometer CMOS process. It includes three processor units, a 1 GHz ARM Cortex A8 CPU which runs the system and applications
20.
Maemo
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Maemo is a software platform developed by Nokia and then handed over to Hildon Foundation for smartphones and Internet tablets. The platform comprises both the Maemo operating system and SDK, Maemo is mostly based on open-source code and has been developed by Maemo Devices within Nokia in collaboration with many open-source projects such as the Linux kernel, Debian, and GNOME. Maemo is based on Debian GNU/Linux and draws much of its GUI, frameworks and it uses the Matchbox window manager and the GTK-based Hildon framework as its GUI and application framework. The user interface in Maemo 4 is similar to many hand-held interfaces and features a screen, from which all applications. The Maemo 5 user interface is different, the menu bar and info area are consolidated to the top of the display. At the Mobile World Congress in February 2010, it was announced that the Maemo project would be merging with Moblin to create the MeeGo mobile software platform. Despite that, the Maemo community continued to be active, up to Maemo 4, the default screen is the Home screen — the central point from which all applications and settings are accessed. These can be modified using third party plug-ins, horizontally across the top left half is the menu bar, which shows the application name and window title, and gives access to the applications menu. Horizontally across the top right quadrant is the bar, containing icons such as battery life, wireless connection, volume, Bluetooth status. These can be expanded using third party plug-ins in the manner as the task-bar. The remaining large part of the display contains Home applets, which can display data as well as serving as a shortcut to applications. These include an RSS reader, Internet radio player, Google search box and contact list by default, the interface uses either the touch screen, or a directional pad and select button, with separate back, menu, and home buttons. It is capable of receiving text input through handwriting recognition, two different sizes of on-screen keyboard and hardware keyboard input with the N810, the user interface in Maemo 5 is different from its predecessors. It provides four fully customizable Home screens, called Panorama Desktop, switching from one desktop to the others is done by sliding ones finger horizontally on the background. The dashboard is accessed via the upper left icon and shows all the running applications, the application launcher, where all the installed applications can be launched, can also be accessed from the dashboard. If no task or application is running in the background, tapping the top left icon skips the dashboard, Maemo provides the Mozilla-based MicroB web-browser with complete Adobe Flash support. It supports an 800×480 display resolution, so some web pages can be viewed without horizontal scrolling and it can automatically connect to known wireless networks, download RSS feeds and email and disconnect automatically without user intervention. Advanced Packaging Tool with a command-line apt-get client can be used to install applications, users can subscribe to different software repositories, which can then be used to automatically keep software up to date
21.
Nokia N810
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The Nokia N810 Internet tablet is an Internet appliance from Nokia, announced on 17 October 2007 at the Web 2.0 Summit in San Francisco. It built on the hardware and software of the Nokia N800 with some features added, the Nokia N810 featured the Maemo Linux distribution operating system based on Maemo 4.0, which featured MicroB, a GPS navigation application, new media player, and a refreshed interface. The Nokia N810 had much in common with the N800 and Internet Tablet OS2008 operated on both, but there were significant differences between the two. The production of the Wimax Edition of the Nokia N810 ended in January 2009, Maemo was a modified version of Debian GNU/Linux. The N810 was bundled with applications including the Mozilla-based MicroB browser, Adobe Flash, Gizmo. Mobile Firefox Fennec was also available for N810, and promised to make users forget about the clunky. Installation added the Mozilla repository to the Application Manager, allowing automatic notification of updates, mobile Internet Device Nokia 770 Nokia N800 Nokia N900 Nokia N810 WiMAX Edition Nokia N810 UK Edition Online article from Dr. Dobbs Journal website reviewing the Nokia N810 WiMAX Edition
22.
QNX
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QNX is a commercial Unix-like real-time operating system, aimed primarily at the embedded systems market. The product was developed in the early 1980s by Canadian company Quantum Software Systems, later renamed QNX Software Systems. QNX was one of the first commercially successful microkernel operating systems and is used in a variety of devices including cars and mobile phones. As a microkernel-based OS, QNX is based on the idea of running most of the system kernel in the form of a number of small tasks. This differs from the traditional monolithic kernel, in which the operating system kernel is a single very large program composed of a huge number of parts with special abilities. In the case of QNX, the use of a microkernel allows users to turn off any functionality they do not require without having to change the OS itself, instead, the system is quite small, with earlier versions fitting on a single floppy disk. QNX Neutrino has been ported to a number of platforms and now runs on any modern CPU that is used in the embedded market. This includes the PowerPC, x86 family, MIPS, SH-4, QNX offers a license for non-commercial and academic users. The BlackBerry PlayBook tablet computer designed by BlackBerry uses a version of QNX as the operating system. Devices from BlackBerry running the BlackBerry 10 operating system are based on QNX. Both were convinced there was a commercial need for such a system, in 1982, the first version of QUNIX was released for the Intel 8088 CPU. In 1984 Quantum Software Systems renamed QUNIX to QNX in an effort to avoid any trademark infringement challenges, over the years QNX was used mostly for larger projects, as its 44k kernel was too large to fit inside the single-chip computers of the era. The system garnered a reputation for reliability and found itself in use running machinery in a number of industrial applications. In the late-1980s, Quantum realized that the market was moving towards the POSIX model. During this time Patrick Hayden, while working as an intern, along with Robin Burgener and this patented concept was developed into the embeddable GUI named the QNX Photon microGUI. QNX also provided a version of the X Window System and this resulted in QNX Neutrino, released in 2001. Along with the Neutrino kernel, QNX Software Systems became a member of the Eclipse consortium. The company released a suite of Eclipse plug-ins packaged with the Eclipse workbench in 2002 under the name QNX Momentics Tool Suite, in 2004, the company announced it had been sold to Harman International Industries
23.
MacOS
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Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface
24.
XQuartz
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XQuartz is Apple Inc. s version of the X server, a component of the X Window System for macOS. The name XQuartz derives from Quartz, the macOS graphics framework, XQuartz is a required component that allows cross-platform applications to run on the macOS, many of which are not specifically designed for macOS. This includes numerous scientific and academic software projects, X11. app was initially available as a downloadable public beta for Mac OS X v10.2 and later included as a standard package for Mac OS X v10.3. In Mac OS X v10.4, Apples X11 implemented X11 protocol release 6.6 and this implementation includes an XFree864.4 based X11 window server, Quartz rootless window manager, libraries, and basic utilities such as xterm. Rootless means that X window applications show up on the Quartz desktop, in Mac OS X v10.5, X11 was updated to use X. Org Server rather than XFree86. The source code for X11 is available from Apple, some source code is available under the Apple Public Source License while the bulk is licensed under the MIT License. As of version 2.7.9, XQuartz does not provide support for high-resolution Retina displays to X11 apps, mac-on-Mac is a port of Mac-on-Linux for macOS. It is intended to be user-friendly, with this software, Mac OS X10.0 through 10.3, Mac OS9, OpenDarwin, and Linux can be run in a separate window on a Macintosh computer running macOS. The software requires X11 and a PPC-based Mac to run
25.
Productivity software
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Its names arose from the fact that it increases productivity, especially of individual office workers, from typists to knowledge workers, although its scope is now wider than that. Office suites, which word processing, spreadsheet, and relational database programs to the desktop in the 1980s, are the core example of productivity software. Some 78% of middle-skill occupations now require the use of productivity software, in the 2010s, productivity software has become even more consumerized than it already was, as computing becomes ever more integrated into daily personal life. Productivity software traditionally run directly on a computer, for example, Commodore Plus/4 model of computer contained in ROM four applications of productivity software. Productivity software is one of the people use personal computers. Productivity software help the professional or common user to enhance and complete their tasks, an office suite is a collection of bundled productivity software intended to be used by knowledge workers. The components are generally distributed together, have a consistent user interface and usually can interact with each other, the earliest office suite for personal computers was Starburst in the early 1980s, comprising the word processor WordStar, together with companion apps CalcStar and DataStar. Various other suites arose in the 1980s, and over the course of the 1990s Microsoft Office came to dominate the market, existing office suites contain wide range of various components
26.
Android (operating system)
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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
27.
Google Play
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Google Play is a digital distribution service, including a digital media store, the Google Play Store, operated and developed by Google. Google Play also serves as a digital media store, offering music, magazines, books, movies and it previously offered Google hardware devices for purchase until the introduction of a separate online hardware retailer, Google Store, on March 11,2015. Applications are available through Google Play either free of charge or at a cost and they can be downloaded directly to an Android device through the Play Store mobile app, or by deploying the application to a device from the Google Play website. Applications exploiting hardware capabilities of a device can be targeted to users of devices with specific hardware components, the Google Play store had over 50 billion app downloads in 2013 and has reached over 2.7 million apps published in 2017. Google Play was launched on March 6,2012, bringing together the Android Market, Google Music, and the Google eBookstore under one brand, marking a shift in Googles digital distribution strategy. The services operating under the Google Play banner are, Google Play Books, Google Play Games, Google Play Movies & TV, Google Play Music, as of February 2017, Google Play features over 2.7 million Android applications. Developers in over 150 locations can distribute apps on Google Play, to distribute apps, developers have to pay a one-time $25 registration fee for a Google Play Developer Console account. App developers can control which countries an app is distributed to, Developers receive 70% of the application price, while the remaining 30% goes to the distribution partner and operating fees. Developers can set up sales, with the original price striked out, Google Play allows developers to release early versions of apps to a select group of users, as alpha or beta tests. Developers can also release apps through staged rollouts, in which your update reaches only a percentage of your users, users can pre-order select apps to have the items delivered as soon as they are available. Some network carriers offer billing for Google Play purchases, allowing users to opt for charges in the phone bill rather than on credit cards. Users can request refunds within 48 hours if something you bought isnt working, isnt what you expected, was bought by accident, Apps meeting specific usability requirements can qualify as an Android Wear app. Google Play Games is a gaming service for Android that features real-time multiplayer gaming capabilities, cloud saves, social and public leaderboards. The service was introduced at the Google I/O2013 Developer Conference, Google Play Music is a music and podcast streaming service and online music locker. It features over 40 million songs, and gives users free cloud storage of up to 50,000 songs, as of January 2017, Google Play Music is available in 62 countries. Google Play Books is a digital distribution service. Google Play offers over five million ebooks available for purchase, as of January 2017, Google Play Books is available in 75 countries. Google Play Movies & TV is a video on demand service offering movies and television shows available for purchase or rental, Google Play Newsstand is a news aggregator and digital newsstand service offering subscriptions to digital magazines and topical news feeds
28.
Spell checker
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In computing, a spell checker is an application program that flags words in a document that may not be spelled correctly. Spell checkers may be stand-alone, capable of operating on a block of text, or as part of an application, such as a word processor, email client, electronic dictionary. A basic spell checker carries out the processes, It scans the text. It then compares each word with a known list of correctly spelled words and this might contain just a list of words, or it might also contain additional information, such as hyphenation points or lexical and grammatical attributes. An additional step is a language-dependent algorithm for handling morphology, even for a lightly inflected language like English, the spell-checker will need to consider different forms of the same word, such as plurals, verbal forms, contractions, and possessives. For many other languages, such as those featuring agglutination and more complex declension and conjugation, as an adjunct to these components, the programs user interface will allow users to approve or reject replacements and modify the programs operation. An alternative type of spell checker uses solely statistical information, such as n-grams and this approach usually requires a lot of effort to obtain sufficient statistical information. Key advantages include needing less runtime storage and the ability to correct errors in words that are not included in a dictionary, clustering algorithms have also been used for spell checking combined with phonetic information. Research extends back to 1957, including spelling checkers for bitmap images of cursive writing, in 1961, Les Earnest, who headed the research on this budding technology, saw it necessary to include the first spell checker that accessed a list of 10,000 acceptable words. Gorin made SPELL publicly accessible, as was done with most SAIL programs, spell, its algorithms and data structures inspired the Unix ispell program. The first spell checkers were widely available on computers in the late 1970s. A group of six linguists from Georgetown University developed the first spell-check system for the IBM corporation, the first spell checkers for personal computers appeared for CP/M and TRS-80 computers in 1980, followed by packages for the IBM PC after it was introduced in 1981. On the PCs, these spell checkers were standalone programs, many of which could be run in TSR mode from within word-processing packages on PCs with sufficient memory. However, this required increasing sophistication in the routines of the software, particularly with regard to heavily-agglutinative languages like Hungarian. Firefox 2.0, a web browser, has spell check support for content, such as when editing Wikitext, writing on many webmail sites, blogs. The web browsers Google Chrome, Konqueror, and Opera, the email client Kmail, mac OS X now has spell check systemwide, extending the service to virtually all bundled and third party applications. The first spell checkers were verifiers instead of correctors and they offered no suggestions for incorrectly spelled words. This was helpful for typos but it was not so helpful for logical or phonetic errors, the challenge the developers faced was the difficulty in offering useful suggestions for misspelled words
29.
Grammar checker
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A grammar checker, in computing terms, is a program, or part of a program, that attempts to verify written text for grammatical correctness. The first system was called Writers Workbench, and was a set of writing tools included with Unix systems as far back as the 1970s, the whole Writers Workbench package included several separate tools to check for various writing problems. The diction tool checked for wordy, trite, clichéd or misused phrases in a text, the tool would output a list of questionable phrases, and provide suggestions for improving the writing. The style tool analyzed the writing style of a given text and it performed a number of readability tests on the text and output the results, and gave some statistical information about the sentences of the text. Aspen Software of Albuquerque, NM released the earliest version of a diction and style checker for personal computers, Grammatik, Grammatik was first available for a Radio Shack - TRS-80, and soon had versions for CP/M and the IBM PC. Reference Software of San Francisco, CA, acquired Grammatik in 1985, development of Grammatik continued, and it became an actual grammar checker that could detect writing errors beyond simple style checking. Other early diction and style checking programs included Punctuation & Style, Correct Grammar, until 1992, grammar checkers were sold as add-on programs. There were a number of different word processing programs available at that time, with WordPerfect. In 1992, Microsoft decided to add grammar checking as a feature of Word, and licensed CorrecText, WordPerfect answered Microsofts move by acquiring Reference Software, and the direct descendant of Grammatik is still included with WordPerfect. There are free and open-source grammar checking software like LanguageTool, which can be used from Wikimedia Labs onto Wikipedia articles, the earliest writing style programs checked for wordy, trite, clichéd, or misused phrases in a text. This process was based on pattern matching. The heart of the program was a list of hundreds or thousands of phrases that are considered poor writing by many experts. The list of questionable phrases included alternative wording for each phrase, the checking program would simply break text into sentences, check for any matches in the phrase dictionary, flag suspect phrases and show an alternative. These programs could also perform some mechanical checks, for example, they would typically flag doubled words, doubled punctuation, some capitalization errors, and other simple mechanical mistakes. True grammar checking is more complex, while a computer programming language has a very specific syntax and grammar, this is not so for natural languages. One can write a complete formal grammar for a natural language. One of the most important parts of a natural language grammar checker is a dictionary of all the words in the language, the fact that natural words can take many different parts of speech greatly increases the complexity of any grammar checker. A grammar checker will find each sentence in a text, look up each word in the dictionary, using various rules, the program can then detect various errors, such as agreement in tense, number, word order, and so on
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Microsoft Word
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Microsoft Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft. It was first released on October 25,1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems, commercial versions of Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft Office, Windows RT or the discontinued Microsoft Works suite. Microsoft Word Viewer and Office Online are freeware editions of Word with limited features, in 1981, Microsoft hired Charles Simonyi, the primary developer of Bravo, the first GUI word processor, which was developed at Xerox PARC. Simonyi started work on a word processor called Multi-Tool Word and soon hired Richard Brodie, a former Xerox intern, Microsoft announced Multi-Tool Word for Xenix and MS-DOS in 1983. Its name was simplified to Microsoft Word. Free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of PC World and that year Microsoft demonstrated Word running on Windows. Unlike most MS-DOS programs at the time, Microsoft Word was designed to be used with a mouse and it was not initially popular, since its user interface was different from the leading word processor at the time, WordStar. However, Microsoft steadily improved the product, releasing versions 2.0 through 5.0 over the six years. In 1985, Microsoft ported Word to Mac OS and this was made easier by Word for DOS having been designed for use with high-resolution displays and laser printers, even though none were yet available to the general public. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Mac OS added true WYSIWYG features and it fulfilled a need for a word processor that was more capable than MacWrite. After its release, Word for Mac OSs sales were higher than its MS-DOS counterpart for at least four years, Word 3.0 included numerous internal enhancements and new features, including the first implementation of the Rich Text Format specification, but was plagued with bugs. Within a few months, Word 3.0 was superseded by a more stable Word 3.01, after MacWrite Pro was discontinued in the mid-1990s, Word for Mac OS never had any serious rivals. Word 5.1 for Mac OS, released in 1992, was a popular word processor owing to its elegance, relative ease of use. Many users say it is the best version of Word for Mac OS ever created, in 1986, an agreement between Atari and Microsoft brought Word to the Atari ST under the name Microsoft Write. The Atari ST version was a port of Word 1.05 for the Mac OS and was never updated due to the degree of software piracy on the Atari platform. The first version of Word for Windows was released in 1989, with the release of Windows 3.0 the following year, sales began to pick up and Microsoft soon became the market leader for word processors for IBM PC-compatible computers. When Microsoft became aware of the Year 2000 problem, it made Microsoft Word 5.5 for DOS available for download free, as of March 2014, it is still available for download from Microsofts web site. In 1991, Microsoft embarked on a project code-named Pyramid to completely rewrite Microsoft Word from the ground up, both the Windows and Mac OS versions would start from the same code base
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HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
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Office Open XML
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Office Open XML is a zipped, XML-based file format developed by Microsoft for representing spreadsheets, charts, presentations and word processing documents. The format was initially standardised by Ecma, and by the ISO, starting with Microsoft Office 2007, the Office Open XML file formats have become the default target file format of Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office 2010 provides read support for ECMA-376, read/write support for ISO/IEC29500 Transitional, Microsoft Office 2013 and Microsoft Office 2016 additionally support both reading and writing of ISO/IEC29500 Strict. In 2000, Microsoft released a version of an XML-based format for Microsoft Excel. In 2002, a new format for Microsoft Word followed. The Excel and Word formats—known as the Microsoft Office XML formats—were later incorporated into the 2003 release of Microsoft Office, Microsoft announced in November 2005 that it would co-sponsor standardization of the new version of their XML-based formats through Ecma International as Office Open XML. The presentation was made to Ecma by Microsofts Jean Paoli and Isabelle Valet-Harper, Microsoft submitted initial material to Ecma International Technical Committee TC45, where it was standardized to become ECMA-376, approved in December 2006. This standard was then fast-tracked in the Joint Technical Committee 1 of ISO, the resulting four-part International Standard was published in November 2008 and can be downloaded from the ITTF. A technically equivalent set of texts is published by Ecma as ECMA-376 Office Open XML File Formats — 2nd edition, the ISO standardization of Office Open XML was controversial and embittered, with much discussion both about the specification and about the standardization process. The same InfoWorld article reported that IBM threatened to leave standards bodies that it said allow dominant corporations like Microsoft to wield undue influence, richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation has stated that Microsoft offers a gratis patent license for OOXML on terms which do not allow free implementations. Microsoft, the contributor to the standard, provided a covenant not to sue for its patent licensing. The covenant received a reception, with some like the Groklaw blog criticizing it. The Open Specification Promise was included in documents submitted to ISO/IEC in support of the ECMA-376 fast-track submission, Ecma International asserted that, The OSP enables both open source and commercial software to implement. The Office Open XML specification exists in a number of versions, the ECMA standard is structured in five parts to meet the needs of different audiences. Open Packaging Conventions The Open Packaging Conventions, for the package model and it defines core properties, thumbnails, digital signatures, and authorizations & encryption capabilities for parts or all of the contents in the package. XML schemas for the OPC are declared as XML Schema Definitions, markup Compatibility and Extensibility Describes extension facilities of OpenXML documents and specifies elements & attributes through which applications can operate across different extensions. Later versions of the ECMA-376 standard are aligned and technically equivalent to the corresponding ISO standard, Part 4 is to be read as a modification to Part 1, which it requires. A technically equivalent set of texts is published by Ecma as ECMA-376 2nd edition
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Plain text
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In computing, plain text is the data that represent only characters of readable material but not its graphical representation nor other objects. It may also include a number of characters that control simple arrangement of text. Plain text is different from formatted text, where information is included. The encoding has traditionally been either ASCII, sometimes EBCDIC, unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 are gradually replacing the older ASCII derivatives limited to 7 or 8 bit codes. Files that contain markup or other meta-data are generally considered plain-text, the use of plain text rather than bit-streams to express markup, enables files to survive much better in the wild, in part by making them largely immune to computer architecture incompatibilities. According to The Unicode Standard, Plain text is a sequence of character codes. Styled text, also known as rich text, is any text representation containing plain text completed by such as a language identifier, font size, color. For instance, Rich text such as SGML, RTF, HTML, XML, wiki markup, according to The Unicode Standard, plain text has two main properties in regard to rich text, plain text is the underlying content stream to which formatting can be applied. Plain text is public, standardized, and universally readable, Plain text represents the basic, interchangeable content of text. Plain text represents character content only, not its appearance and it can be displayed in a variety of ways and requires a rendering process to make it visible with a particular appearance. If the same plain text sequence is given to disparate rendering processes, instead, the disparate rendering processes are simply required to make the text legible according to the intended reading. This legibility criterion constrains the range of possible appearances, the relationship between appearance and content of plain text may be summarized as follows, Plain text must contain enough information to permit the text to be rendered legibly, and nothing more. The Unicode Standard encodes plain text, the distinction between plain text and other forms of data in the same data stream is the function of a higher-level protocol and is not specified by the Unicode Standard itself. The purpose of using plain text today is primarily independence from programs that require their own special encoding or formatting or file format. Plain text files can be opened, read, and edited with countless text editors, a command-line interface allows people to give commands in plain text and get a response, also in plain text. Plain text files are almost universal in programming, a code file containing instructions in a programming language is almost always a plain text file. Plain text is commonly used for configuration files, which are read for saved settings at the startup of a program. Plain text is used for much e-mail, a comment, a. txt file, or a TXT Record generally contains only plain text intended for humans to read
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LaTeX
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LaTeX is a document preparation system. When writing, the writer uses plain text as opposed to the text found in WYSIWYG word processors like Microsoft Word or LibreOffice Writer. The writer uses markup tagging conventions to define the structure of a document, to stylise text throughout a document. A TeX distribution such as TeX Live or MikTeX is used to produce a file suitable for printing or digital distribution. Within the typesetting system, its name is stylised as LaTeX and it also has a prominent role in the preparation and publication of books and articles that contain complex multilingual materials, such as Tamil, Sanskrit and Greek. LaTeX uses the TeX typesetting program for formatting its output, LaTeX can be used as a standalone document preparation system or as an intermediate format. In the latter role, for example, it is used as part of a pipeline for translating DocBook. LaTeX is intended to provide a language that accesses the power of TeX in an easier way for writers. In short, TeX handles the layout side, while LaTeX handles the content side for document processing, LaTeX comprises a collection of TeX macros and a program to process LaTeX documents. LaTeX was originally written in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International, LaTeX is free software and is distributed under the LaTeX Project Public License. It therefore encourages the separation of layout from content while still allowing manual typesetting adjustments where needed and this concept is similar to the mechanism by which many word processors allow styles to be defined globally for an entire document or the use of Cascading Style Sheets to style HTML. The LaTeX system is a language that also handles typesetting and rendering. LaTeX can be extended by using the underlying macro language to develop custom formats. Such macros are often collected into packages, which are available to address special formatting such as complicated mathematical content or graphics. Indeed, in the example below, the environment is provided by the amsmath package. In order to create a document in LaTeX, you first write a file, say document. tex, then you give your document. tex file as input to the TeX program, and TeX writes out a file suitable for viewing onscreen or printing. This write-format-preview cycle is one of the ways in which working with LaTeX differs from what-you-see-is-what-you-get word-processing. It is similar to the code-compile-execute cycle familiar to computer programmers, today, many LaTeX-aware editing programs make this cycle a simple matter of pressing a single key, while showing the output preview on the screen beside the input window
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WordPerfect
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WordPerfect is a word processing application owned by Corel with a long history on multiple personal computer platforms. The program was developed under contract at Brigham Young University for use on a Data General minicomputer in 1979. The authors retained the rights to the program, forming Satellite Software International to sell it under the name WordPerfect in 1980, a port to MS-DOS followed in 1982 and several greatly updated versions quickly followed. The applications feature list was more advanced than its main competition, WordStar. Despite its comprehensive abilities, it gained praise for its minimalistic look of spareness. WordPerfect rapidly displaced most other systems, especially after the 4.2 release in 1986, by release 5.1 in 1989, WordPerfect had become a standard in the DOS market. At the height of its popularity, in the 1980s, it was a dominant player in the processor market, partly because of extensive, no-cost support. While best known in its DOS and Microsoft Windows versions, its popularity was based partly on its availability for a wide variety of computers. Its dominant position ended after a release for Microsoft Windows. Microsoft Word, having been tuned for some time on the Mac, was introduced at the time in a much superior version. Word rapidly took over the market, helped by aggressive bundling deals that ultimately produced Office, the common filename extension of WordPerfect document files is. wpd. Older versions of WordPerfect also used file extensions. wp. wp7. wp6. wp5. wp4, Bastian and Ashton kept the rights to the WordPerfect software they produced. The two founded Satellite Software International, Inc. of Orem, Utah, to market the program to other Data General users, WordPerfect 1.0 represented a significant departure from the previous Wang standard for word processing. The first version of WordPerfect for the IBM PC was released the day after Thanksgiving,1982 and it was sold as WordPerfect 2.20, continuing the version numbering from the Data General. Over the next months, three more minor releases arrived mainly to correct bugs. The developers had hoped to program WordPerfect in C. Most of the programming languages then available were unsuited for the job. All versions of WordPerfect up to 5.0 were written thus, in addition, WordStar was extremely slow in switching to support for subdirectories
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XML
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In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
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Link grammar
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Link grammar is a theory of syntax by Davy Temperley and Daniel Sleator which builds relations between pairs of words, rather than constructing constituents in a phrase structure hierarchy. Link grammar is similar to grammar, but dependency grammar includes a head-dependent relationship. Colored Multiplanar Link Grammar is an extension of LG allowing crossing relations between pairs of words, the relationship between words is indicated with link types, thus making the Link grammar closely related to certain categorial grammars. For example, in a language like English, the verb would look left to form a subject link. Nouns would look right to complete the link, or left to complete the object link. In a subject–object–verb language like Persian, the verb would look left to form a link. Nouns would look to the right for both subject and object links, Link grammar connects the words in a sentence with links, similar in form to a catena. Unlike the catena or a dependency grammar, the marking of the head-dependent relationship is optional for most languages. That is, in English, the relationship is obvious, in that the subject is almost always to the left of the verb. In the case of inversion, a distinct link type is employed. For free word-order languages, this can no longer hold, Link grammar also differs from traditional dependency grammars by allowing cyclic relations between words. Thus, for example, there can be links indicating both the verb of a sentence, the head subject of the sentence, as well as a link between the subject and the verb. These three links thus form a cycle, cycles are useful in constraining what might otherwise be ambiguous parses, cycles help tighten up the set of allowable parses of a sentence. For example, in the parse +---->WV--->+ +--Wd--+-Ss-+--Pa--+ | | | | LEFT-WALL he runs fast the LEFT-WALL indicates the start of the sentence, the directional WV link points at the head verb of the sentence, it is the Wall-Verb link. The Wd link indicates the head noun of the sentence, the link type Wd indicates both that it connects to the wall and that the sentence is a declarative sentence. The Ss link indicates the relationship, the lower-case s indicating that the subject is singular. Note that the WV, Wd and Ss links for a cycle, the Pa link connects the verb to a complement, the lower-case a indicating that it is a predicative adjective in this case. Parsing is performed in analogy to assembling a puzzle from puzzle pieces
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OpenOffice.org
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OpenOffice. org, commonly known as OpenOffice, is a discontinued open-source office suite. It was a version of the earlier StarOffice, which Sun Microsystems acquired in 1999. OpenOffice included a word processor, a spreadsheet, an application, a drawing application, a formula editor. Its default file format was the OpenDocument Format, an ISO/IEC standard and it could also read a wide variety of other file formats, with particular attention to those from Microsoft Office. Sun open-sourced the OpenOffice in July 2000 as a competitor to Microsoft Office, in 2011 Oracle Corporation, the then-owner of Sun, announced that it would no longer offer a commercial version of the suite and soon after donated the project to the Apache Foundation. Apache renamed the software Apache OpenOffice, other active successor projects include LibreOffice and NeoOffice. OpenOffice. org was primarily developed for Linux, Microsoft Windows and Solaris and it was distributed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3, early versions were also available under the Sun Industry Standards Source License. OpenOffice. org originated as StarOffice, an office suite developed by German company StarDivision from 1985 on. In August 1999, StarDivision was acquired by Sun Microsystems for US$59.5 million, the new project was known as OpenOffice. org, and the code was released as open source on 13 October 2000. The first public release was Milestone Build 638c, released in October 2001. OpenOffice. org became the office suite on Linux and spawned many derivative versions. It quickly became noteworthy competition to Microsoft Office, achieving 14% penetration in the enterprise market by 2004. It was made OpenOffice. orgs native format from version 2 on, many governments and other organisations adopted OpenDocument, particularly given there was a free implementation of it readily available. Development of OpenOffice. org was sponsored primarily by Sun Microsystems, developers who wished to contribute code were required to sign a Contributor Agreement granting joint ownership of any contributions to Sun, in support of the StarOffice business model. This was controversial for many years, an alternative Public Documentation Licence was also offered for documentation not intended for inclusion or integration into the project code base. After acquiring Sun in January 2010, Oracle Corporation continued developing OpenOffice. org and StarOffice, oracles lack of activity on or visible commitment to OpenOffice. org had also been noted by industry observers. TDF released the fork LibreOffice in January 2011, which most Linux distributions soon moved to, in April 2011, Oracle stopped development of OpenOffice. org and fired the remaining StarDivision development team. In June 2011, Oracle contributed the trademarks to the Apache Software Foundation and it also contributed Oracle-owned code to Apache for relicensing under the Apache License, at the suggestion of IBM, as IBM did not want the code put under a copyleft license
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Comparison of word processors
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This is a comparison of word processing software. This table provides information about selected word processors. This table gives characteristics of each word processor and this table gives a comparison of what operating systems are compatible with each word processor in their last version. Can run unsupported Version 5.1 This table gives a comparison of the file formats each word processor can import or open and this table gives a comparison of the file formats each word processor can export or save. It should be noted that in cases, omitting an Export format was a sales rather than a technical measure
