1.
Druze
–
The Druze are an esoteric ethnoreligious group originating in Western Asia who self-identify as unitarians. Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of all Mandaeans and Mahra from Druze Mountain, the Druze faith is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the teachings of Hamza ibn-Ali, al-Hakim, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Akhenaten. The Epistles of Wisdom is the text of the Druze faith. The Druze follow theophany, and believe in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul, at the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind. Although dwarfed by other, larger communities, the Druze community played an important role in shaping the history of the Levant, even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are not considered Muslims. Fatimid Caliph Ali az-Zahir, whose father al-Hakim is a key figure in the Druze faith, was harsh, causing the death of many Druze in Antioch, Aleppo. Persecution flared up during the rule of the Mamluks and Ottomans, most recently, Druze were targeted by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Al-Qaeda in order to cleanse Syria and neighboring countries of non-Islamic influence. The Druze faith is one of the religious groups in the Levant. They are found primarily in Syria, Lebanon and Israel, with communities in Jordan. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon, the Druze people reside primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. The Institute of Druze Studies estimates that forty to fifty percent of Druze live in Syria, thirty to forty percent in Lebanon, six to seven percent in Israel, about two percent of the Druze population are also scattered within other countries in the Middle East. Large communities of Druze also live outside the Middle East, in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America, the United States and they use the Arabic language and follow a social pattern very similar to those of the other peoples of the Levant. The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant, the name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī who was an early preacher. Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic, the name has been used to identify them, before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year, although the Druze religious books describe ad-Darazi as the insolent one and as the calf who is narrow-minded and hasty, the name Druze is still used for identification and for historical reasons. In 1018 ad-Darazi was assassinated for his teachings, some claim that he was executed by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Some authorities see in the name Druze a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic dāresah, others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word Darazo or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith
Druze
–
Sixth
caliph of the
Fatimids,
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
Druze
–
Fakhreddin castle in Palmyra
Druze
–
Druze woman wearing a
tantour during the 1870s in
Chouf,
Lebanon
2.
Muwahhid Muslim
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The People of Monotheism may translate several Arabic terms, Ahl al-Tawḥīd, a name the Druze use for themselves. Literally, The People of the Unity or The Unitarians, from tawḥid, al-Muwaḥḥidun is an Arabic term meaning the monotheists. It has currency as, the Arabic name of the Almohads, a term that adherents of Salafism use to describe themselves. A term that the Druze use to describe themselves, a term that the ʿAlawīs use to describe themselves. Ahl al-ʿAdl wa t-Tawḥīd, The People of Justice and Monotheism, a term used by the Muʿtazilis to describe themselves
Muwahhid Muslim
–
Allah Jalla Jalālah in
Arabic calligraphy
Muwahhid Muslim
–
Muwahhid symbols typically consisted of checkered diagrams, square lattices and 8 by 8 arrayed or columned tessellations.
3.
Reincarnation
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Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence and it is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation, in recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it. The word reincarnation derives from Latin, literally meaning, entering the flesh again, the Greek equivalent metempsychosis derives from meta and empsykhoun, a term attributed to Pythagoras. An alternate term is transmigration implying migration from one life to another, the term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel and has entered the English language. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, being born again, Rebirth is a key concept found in major Indian religions, and discussed with various terms. These religions believe that this reincarnation is cyclic and an endless Saṃsāra and they consider the release from the cycle of reincarnations as the ultimate spiritual goal, and call the liberation by terms such as moksha, nirvana, mukti and kaivalya. Gilgul, Gilgul neshamot or Gilgulei Ha Neshamot refers to the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, Gilgul means cycle and neshamot is souls. Kabbalistic reincarnation says that humans only to humans and to the same sex only. The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure, discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India. The Greek Pre-Socratics discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic Druids are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation, the ideas associated with reincarnation may have arisen independently in different regions, or they might have spread as a result of cultural contact. In ancient European, Iranian and Indian agricultural cultures, the cycles of birth, death. The idea of reincarnation has early roots in the Vedic period, predating the Buddha, the concepts of the cycle of birth and death, samsara, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Though no direct evidence of this has found, the tribes of the Ganges valley or the Dravidian traditions of South India have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs. Hinduisms Rigveda makes references to reincarnation in the Brahmanas layer, though these early textual layers of the Vedas, from 2nd millennium BCE, mention and anticipate the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the idea is not fully developed. It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre-Buddha and pre-Mahavira, the texts of ancient Jainism that have survived into the modern era are post-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and extensively mention rebirth and karma doctrines. The Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration, after death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts
Reincarnation
–
The drawing illustrating how the soul travels to any one of the four states of existence after the death depending on its karmas, according to
Jainism.
Reincarnation
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Temple door depicting
Dashavatar -the ten avatars, Sree Balaji Temple, Goa. (from leftmost upper corner, clock wise) Matsya, Narasimha, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Kalki, Vamana, Vithoba, Varaha and Kurma.
Reincarnation
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A 2nd-century Roman sarcophagus shows the mythology and symbolism of the Orphic and Dionysiac Mystery schools. Orpheus plays his lyre to the left
Reincarnation
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Sváfa holding the dying
Helgi in their first incarnation of three.
4.
Theophany
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Theophany refers to the appearance of a deity to a human. This term has been used to refer to appearances of the gods in the ancient Greek, while the Iliad is the earliest source for descriptions of theophanies in the Classical tradition/era, probably the earliest description of a theophany is in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Only a small number of theophanies are found in the Hebrew Bible, at Delphi the Theophania was an annual festival in spring celebrating the return of Apollo from his winter quarters in Hyperborea. The culmination of the festival was a display of an image of the gods, usually hidden in the sanctuary, later Roman mystery religions often included similar brief displays of images to excited worshippers. The appearance of Zeus to Semele is more than a mortal can stand, however, most Greek theophanies were less deadly. Unusual for Greek mythology is the story of Prometheus, not an Olympian but a Titan, there are no descriptions of the humans involved in this theophany, but Prometheus was severely punished by Zeus. The Bible states that God revealed himself to man, God speaks with Adam and Eve in Eden, with Cain, with Noah and his sons, and with Abraham and his wife Sarah. Isaiahs first revelation was also a sight of God, Amos had his visions, and so with Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Zechariah, Balaam also boasted of being one who saw the vision of the Almighty. Most vividly does Eliphaz describe such a revelation, In thoughts from the vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon me, a spirit passed before my face, the hair of my flesh stood up. He stood still, but I could not discern his appearance, a figure was before mine eyes, a whispering voice I heard. In Midian, while Moses was keeping the flock of his father in law Jethro, the theophany at Biblical Mount Sinai is related in Exodus 19, 16–25. Yahwehs manifestation is accompanied by thunder and lightning, there is a flame, reaching to the sky, the loud notes of a trumpet are heard. Out of the midst of the flame and the cloud a voice reveals the Ten Commandments,5, 4-19 is practically the same, and in its guarded language it strongly emphasizes the incorporeal nature of God. Moses in his points to this revelation as to the source of the election of Israel. God appears on Sinai like a sun and comes accompanied by holy myriads. Likewise, in the Song of Deborah the manifestation is described as a storm, the quakes, Sinai trembles. It is poetically elaborated in the prayer of Habakkuk, here past,2 and Judges v.4, God appears from Teman and Paran. His majesty is described as a glory of light and brightness, the mountains tremble violently, the earth quakes, the people are sore afraid
Theophany
–
Peter Paul Rubens ' Death of
Semele, caused by the theophany of Zeus without a mortal disguise
Theophany
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The Children of Israel Crossing the Jordan, Exodus 13:21-22 By day the Lord went ahead of them in a pillar of cloud to guide them on their way and by night in a
pillar of fire.
Theophany
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Ezekiel's Vision by
Raphael
Theophany
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Krishna displays his
Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra (Bhagavad-Gita, chapter 11).
5.
Seven pillars of Ismailism
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The Ismāīlī Shia – the Nizari, Druze and Mustaali – have more Pillars than those of the Sunni. The Shahadah, is not considered a Pillar and is seen as the foundation upon which they are built. Walayah Guardianship denotes love and devotion to God, the prophets, the scripture, the imams, in Ismāīlī doctrine, God is one and the true desire of every soul, creator of everything. The appointed duāt lead believers to the right path, the Druze refer to this pillar as Taslīm Submission, An informative article on the Seven Pillars and Walayah. An informative article on the relationship between Salah and Dua. These three times have been related with the three times that have mentioned in the Quran, sunrise, before sunset, and after sunset. In contrast, the Mustalī maintain five prayers and their style is closely related to that of the Twelvers. The Druze believe that the meaning of prayer is sidqu l-lisān speaking Truth and they do sometimes attend prayers, which is the practice of the uninitiated and historically was also done for reasons of taqiyya. The Ismāīlīs donate 10% to 12 and these institutions are run by the Aga Khan Development Network, which is one of the biggest welfare networks in the world. Thus, Ismāīlīs believe that as Muhammad was designated to take zakāt from the believers in the past, the Druze practice hifzu l-Ikhwān Protection of Ones Brothers instead of paying a fee, a culturally complex practice of interdependence. Sawm Fasting, Nizari and Mustalī believe in both a metaphorical and literal meaning of fasting, in particular, Ismāīlīs believe the real and esoteric meaning of fasting is avoiding devilish acts and doing the good deeds. Not eating during the month of Ramadan in conjunction with an implementation of fasting. The Druze emphasise the esoteric meaning, which they call tark ibādat al-awthān deserting idol-worship, hajj Pilgrimage, For Ismāīlīs, visiting the imām or his representative is one of the most aspired pilgrimages. There are two pilgrimages, Hajj-i-Zahiri and Hajj-i-Batini - the first is the visit to Mecca, the second, the Mustalī maintain also the practice of going to Mecca. The Druze interpret this completely metaphorically as fleeing from devils and oppressors, in addition, the Uqqāl Wise Ones, the religious cadre of the Druze, are pacifists. The ordering of the pillars as understood by Druze is as follows, Taslīm Submission denotes love and devotion to God, the prophets, the Imām and the du‘āt missionaries. In Ismā‘īlī doctrine, God is the desire of every soul, and he manifests himself in the forms of prophets and imāms. The Druze never mention ‘Alī, unlike most Ismā‘īlīs, as they believe al-Hakīm supersedes his authority, sidqu l-Lisān speaking Truth, The Druze believe that the meaning of prayer is sidqu l-lisān and do not believe in five daily prayers
Seven pillars of Ismailism
6.
Taqiya
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Taqiya is an Islamic term referring to precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution. Another term for this concept, kitmān, has a specific meaning of dissimulation by silence or omission. This practice is emphasized in Shia Islam whereby adherents are permitted to conceal their religion when under threat of persecution or compulsion, however, it is also permitted in Sunni Islam under certain circumstances. Taqiyya was initially practiced under duress by some of Muhammads Companions, later, it became particularly important for Shias due to their experience as a persecuted religious minority. According to Shia doctrine, taqiyya is permissible in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property, Taqiyya has also been politically legitimised, particularly among Twelver Shias, in order to maintain unity among Muslims and fraternity among the Shia clerics. Yarden Mariuma writes, Taqiyya is an Islamic juridical term whose shifting meaning relates to when a Muslim is allowed, under Sharia law, to lie. A concept whose meaning has varied significantly among Islamic sects, scholars, countries, the term taqiyya is derived from the Arabic triliteral root wāw-qāf-yā, denoting fear, or prudence, guarding against. In the sense of prudence, fear it can be used synonymously with the terms tuqa, tuqāt, taqwā and ittiqāʾ and these terms also have other meanings. For example, the term taqwa can mean piety, an alternative term for religious dissimulation is kitmān action of covering, dissimulation. Regarding 3,28, Ibn Kathir writes, meaning, except those believers who in some areas or times fear for their safety from the disbelievers, in this case, such believers are allowed to show friendship to the disbelievers outwardly, but never inwardly. He quotes Muhammads companion, Abu Ad-Darda, who said we smile in the face of people although our hearts curse them. A similar instance of the Quran permitting dissimulation under compulsion is found in Sura 16,106, Sunni and Shia commentators alike observe that verse 16,106 refers to the case of Ammar b. Yasir, who was forced to renounce his beliefs under physical duress, the doctrine of taqiyya was developed at the time of Jafar al-Sadiq, the sixth Imamiya Imam. It served to protect Shias when Al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, conducted a brutal and oppressive campaign against Alids, shiis lived mostly as a minority among a frequently-hostile Sunni majority until the rise of Safavid dynasty. This condition made taqiyya doctrine important to Shias, Taqiyya holds a central place in Twelver Shia Islam. This is sometimes explained by the minority position Shias had under the dominance of Sunni Muslims, requiring them to protect themselves through concealment. In Shia legal literature, there is a range of situations in which taqiyya may be used or even required, for Shia Muslims, taqiyya is to conceal their association with their faith when revealing it would result in danger. Taqiyya is done for reasons of safety, for example, a person may fear that he might be killed or harmed if he does not observe taqiyya
Taqiya
7.
Walayah
–
Welayah or Welaya, is a word which empower gives authority/guardianship to a person, community, or country that is under the direction and rule on behalf of another. Wali is someone who has Walayah over somebody else, for example, in fiqh, a father is wali of his children. Two verbal noun are derived from the Arabic root of the word w-l-y ولي, Walayah and Wilayah which means to be near to something, to be a friend of someone, the term welayah also has similarity with AWLIA. The term Wali derives from Quran. It occurs also in a number of aḥādīṯ qodsīya or Hadith Qudsi, such as “whoever harms a friend of Mine, I declare war against him and others. There are several kinds of Walayah, Wila of love or nearness which implies that the household of the prophet are his near relatives, Awliya Allah means the friends of Allah or the beloved of Allah. Wila of socio-political leadership Spiritual Wila which concerns changing the potentials to the action and making the people to get to the divine nearness, the Wali has a kind of creative power over the world and the men. Corbin states that Walayah is the foundation of the prophecy and the mission of the messenger, and it concerns to the esoteric dimension of the prophetic reality. Abu al-Hasan Sharif Isfahani, a student of Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, by many hadith argues that the walayah is the inner, mulla Sadra states that the genealogical descendents of Muhammad and his spiritual heirs are Awliya. Dakake describes Walayah as an inheritance, esoteric knowledge, that Imams inherit from the prophets. Which expresses the spiritual and political authority of ahl al-Bayt, tabatabaei regards that Walayah is the esoteric dimension of the Imamah and it is not just guiding the man, but it is conveying the man to the Truth. By verse 42,23 and hadith of Ghadir, the called the Muslims to love his pure. Al-Tabari, Az-Zamakhshari and Fakhrud-Din ar-Razi state that verse 5,55 is revealed about Ali, the verse implies that Allah and His prophet is the Wali and the holders of the authority of the Muslims and the believers must accept their Wila. This bond of love further causes that the Muslims follow their speeches, deeds, in Quran, the term walayah is used in conjunction with nusrah and it is not only used in relation to God but also is used for those who have perfect devotion to God. Some traditions state that the verse 7,172 deals with the pact that God has taken for His Lordship and the Walayah to the prophet. In the Quran, the term showes a link between faithfulness to God and devotion to the members of the community, tabatabaei claims that wherever Quran ascribes the guardianship for the prophet, it means authority and devotion. Whosoever dies in enmity to the family of Muhammad, dies an nbeliever, whosoever dies in enmity of the family of Muhammad, will not smell the scent of Paradise. A hadith al-Baqir narrates that Islam is built upon five, prayer, alms-giving, fasting, pilgrimageand walayah, and not one of them was proclaimed, the way walayah was proclaimed. Hasan ibn Ali narrates that after professing tawhid and the mission of the prophets, jafar al-Sadiq told that Imam separates the people of the Heaven from the Hell, without any judgement, because their love for the Imam is their Heaven or Hell respectively
Walayah
8.
Jethro (Bible)
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In the Hebrew Bible, Jethro or Reuel was Moses father-in-law, a Kenite shepherd and priest of Midian. In Exodus, Moses father-in-law is initially referred to as Reuel and he was the father of Hobab in the Book of Numbers 10,29. He is also revered as the founder and chief prophet in his own right in the Druze religion. Jethro is called a priest of Midian and became father-in-law of Moses after he gave his daughter, Zipporah and he is introduced in Exodus 2,18. Jethro is recorded as living in Midian, a territory stretching along the edge of the Gulf of Aqaba in what is today northwestern Saudi Arabia. Some believe Midian is within the Sinai Peninsula, Biblical maps from antiquity show Midian on both locations. Jethros daughter, Zipporah, became Mosess wife after Moses had fled Egypt, having fled to Midian, Moses intervened in a water-access dispute between Jethros seven daughters and the local shepherds, Jethro consequently invited Moses into his home and offered him hospitality. However, Moses remained conscious that he was a stranger in exile, naming his first son Gershom, Moses is said to have worked as a shepherd for Jethro for 40 years before returning to Egypt to lead the Hebrews to Canaan, the promised land. After the Battle at Rephidim against the Amalekites, word reached Jethro that under Moses leadership the Israelites had been delivered out of Egypt, so he set out to meet with Moses. And Jethro said, “Blessed be the Lord, who has delivered you out of the hand of the Egyptians and out of the hand of Pharaoh, and who has delivered the people from under the hand of the Egyptians. Now I know that the Lord is greater than all the gods, for in the thing in which they behaved proudly, He was above them. ”Then Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, took a burnt offering. These events take place in the Torah portion Yitro, there is some disagreement over the name of Moses father-in-law. In the KJV translation of Judges 4,11, a man named Hobab appears as Moses father-in-law, while Numbers 10,29 makes him the son of Raguel the Midianite, Reuel is noted Exodus 2,16, as a priest of Midian who had seven daughters. Exodus 2,18 the girls returned to Reuel their father, Reuel becomes Moses father in law in Exodus 2,21 Moses agreed to stay with the man, who gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. In Numbers 10,29, the Hebrew for the name Raguel is the same as the Hebrew for Reuel, re-u-el, with the first syllable strong accented, is nearer to the true pronunciation. Some suppose he was father to Hobab, who was also called Jethro, another thing to consider is that there is only one Biblical Hebrew word for both brother-in-law and father-in-law. It is, in fact, the word for any and all relations by marriage, however, this is disputed among theologians. Jethro, Moses non-Hebrew father-in-law, is a figure, particularly in the rites and pilgrimages
Jethro (Bible)
–
Moses takes his leave of Jethro by
Jan Victors, c. 1635, from the incident in Exodus 4:18. Jethro is seated on the left, in red.
9.
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
–
Abū ʿAlī Manṣūr, better known by his regnal title al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh, was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam. Histories of al-Hakim can prove controversial, as views of his life. Born in 985 CE, Abu Ali Mansur was the first Fatimid ruler to have born in Egypt. Al-Ḥākim had blue eyes flecked with reddish gold, Al-Ḥākim was born on Thursday,3 Rābi‘u l-Awwal in 985. His father, Caliph Abū Mansūr al-‘Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts, one was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Azīziyyah or al-‘Azīzah. She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Azīz, different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily. Al-‘Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that al-‘Azīzah was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. The sage wrote the entire Quran in the surface of a bowl. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude and her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison. Druze sources claim that al-Ḥākims mother was the daughter of ‘Abdu l-Lāh, one of al-Mu‘īzz li Dīn al-Lāhs sons, historians such as Delia Cortese are critical of this claim, t is more likely that this woman was in fact a wife of al-Hakim, rather than his mother. In 996, al-Ḥākims father Caliph al-‘Azīz began a trip to visit Syria, the Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from stone with pains in the bowels, when he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son, Al-Ḥākim later recalled the event, I found him with nothing on his body but rags and bandages. I kissed him, and he pressed me to his bosom, exclaiming, How I grieve for thee, beloved of my heart and he then said, Go, my master, and play, for I am well. I obeyed and began to amuse myself with such as are usual with boys. Barjawan then hastened to me, and seeing me on the top of a tree, exclaimed, Come down, my boy, may God protect you. When I descended he placed on my head the turban adorned with jewels, kissed the ground before me and he then led me out in that attire and showed me to all the people, who kissed the ground before me and saluted me with the title of Khalif. On the following day, he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo, behind the camel bearing his fathers body and they arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘īzz
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
–
A portrait of the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
–
Al-Ḥākim Mosque
10.
Epistles of Wisdom
–
The full Druze canon or Druze scripture includes the Old Testament, the Quran and philosophical works by Plato and those influenced by Socrates among works from other religions and philosophers. The Druze claim that an understanding of these is necessary, the Epistles of Wisdom are also referred to as the Kitab al-Hikma and Al-Hikma al-Sharifa. The Epistles of Wisdom were revealed in the Arabic language and contain one hundred and they are organised into six books first compiled by one of the greatest Druze sages Abd-Allah Al-Tanukhi in 1479 AD. According to oral traditions there were originally twenty-four books, eighteen are reasonably assumed to have been lost, hidden or destroyed. Epistle number six is dated earliest and was written in July 1017 AD by Hamza ibn-Ali ibn-Ahmad, Epistles 109 and 110 are dated latest, written by Al-Muqtana Bahauddin in 1042 AD. Epistles 36 to 40 are attributed to Ismail al-Tamimi ibn Muhammad, the first epistle opens with the goodbye message from Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the original teacher of the Druze. He details his efforts to assist his peoples welfare and peace, a Syrian physician gave one of the first Druze manuscripts to Louis XIV in 1700, which is now kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale. Local disturbances such as the invasion of Ibrahim Pasha between 1831 and 1838, along with the 1860 Lebanon conflict caused some of these texts to fall into the hands of academics, other original manuscripts are held in the Robert Garrett collection at Princeton University. Sami Makarem has published sections of the works in English with commentary from a Druze compendium held in the Shaykh Nasib Makarem collection in Aytat, Lebanon. The first French translation was published in 1838 by linguist and orientalist Antoine Isaac, most of the Epistles are written in a post-classical language, often showing similarities to Arab Christian authors. These display a form of Arabic Neoplatonism blended with Ismailism and adopted Christian elements of great interest for the philosophy
Epistles of Wisdom
–
The Druze Faith
11.
Jabal al-Druze
–
Jabal al-Druze, officially Jabal al-Arab, is an elevated volcanic region in the As-Suwayda Governorate of southern Syria. Most of the inhabitants of this region are Arab Druze, and there are also small Muslim, safaitic inscriptions were first found in this area. The State of Jabal Druze was an area in the French Mandate for Syria. In the past, the name Jabal al-Druze was used for a different area, the Jabal al-Druze volcanic field, the southernmost in Syria, lies in the Haurun-Druze Plateau in SW Syria near the border with Jordan. The most prominent feature of this field is 1800m-high Jabal al-Druze. The alkaline volcanic field consists of a group of 118 basaltic volcanoes active from the lower-Pleistocene to the Holocene, the large SW Plateau depression is filled by basaltic lava flows from volcanoes aligned in a NW-SE direction. This volcanic field lies within the part of the massive alkaline Harrat Ash Shamah volcanic field that extends from southern Syria to Saudi Arabia. Druze in Syria Jabal al-Druze List of volcanoes in Syria Jabal ad Druze
Jabal al-Druze
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Tell Qeni (1803 m) is the highest point of Jabal al-Druze.
Jabal al-Druze
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Map of Jabal al-Druze
12.
Eid al-Adha
–
Eid al-Adha, also called the Sacrifice Feast, is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, as an act of submission to Gods command, before he sacrificed his son God intervened by sending his angel Jibrail, who then put a sheep in his sons place. In the Islamic lunar calendar, Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, in the international calendar, the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr, the word Eid appears once in Al-Maida, the fifth sura of the Quran, with the meaning solemn festival. Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two followed by a sermon. Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj, the performing the Hajj, from Mount Arafat. Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as days of remembrance and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar. Another Arabic word for sacrifice is Qurbani The Semitic root Q-R-B means to be close to someone/something, other words from the root include qarov, close, the senses of root meaning to offer suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering. The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu act of offering, Eid al-Kabir, an Arabic term meaning the Greater Eid, is used in Yemen, Syria, and North Africa. The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el-Kebir, translations of Big Eid or Greater Eid are used in Pashto, Kashmiri, Urdu and Hindi, Tamil and Malayalam. Albanian, however, uses Bajram i vogël or the Lesser Eid as a reference to Eid al-Adha. This term is borrowed into other Indian languages, such as Tamil Bakr Īd Peru Nāl. Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj, such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian (Hari Raya Haji Hajj celebration day, Lebaran Haji, Lebaran Kaji. When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines, when it became a legal holiday in 2009, it became officially known as Eid al-Adha. Some also reference it with local names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog. Eid al-Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world, in Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego. According to Islamic tradition, the valley of Mecca was a dry, rocky, God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar, his Arabian wife, and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan. As Abraham was preparing for his journey back to Canaan, Hagar asked him
Eid al-Adha
–
Eid al-Adha celebrations start at the same time as the annual
Hajj in
Mecca.
Eid al-Adha
–
Blessings for Eid Al-Adha.
Eid al-Adha
–
Eid prayer during
Eid al-Fitr at
Taipei Grand Mosque,
Taiwan
Eid al-Adha
–
Prayers in
Comilla, Bangladesh can be seen attending
Khutbah as part of the Eid al-Adha prayers on 7 November 2011.
13.
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
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It soon spread to the south of the country where the rebellion changed its character, with Druze turning against the Maronite Christians. Around 20,000 Christians were killed by the Druze and 380 Christian villages and 560 churches destroyed, the Druze and Muslims also suffered heavy losses. On 3 September 1840, Bashir Shihab III, a distant cousin of the once-powerful Emir Bashir Shihab II, was appointed emir of Mount Lebanon by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I. Geographically, the Mount Lebanon Emirate corresponded with the part of present-day Lebanon. In practice, the terms Lebanon and Mount Lebanon tend to be used interchangeably by historians until the establishment of the Mandate. Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering under Ibrahim Pashas rule resurfaced under the new emir, hence, the sultan deposed Bashir III, on 13 January 1842, and appointed Umar Pasha as governor of Mount Lebanon. This appointment, however, created more problems than it solved, representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. This arrangement came to be known as the Double Qaimaqamate, both officials were to be responsible to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut. The Beirut-Damascus highway was the line between the two districts. This partition of Lebanon was nurtured by outside powers, and animosities between the religious sects increased and these tensions led to conflict between Christians and Druzes as early as May 1845. Consequently, the European powers requested that the Ottoman sultan establish order in Lebanon, composed of members of the various religious communities, these councils were intended to assist the deputy governor. This system failed to keep order when the peasants of Keserwan, overburdened by heavy taxes, in 1858 Tanyus Shahin, a Maronite Christian peasant leader, demanded that the feudal class abolish its privileges. The demand refused, the peasants began to prepare for a revolt, in January 1859, an armed uprising headed by Shahin flared up. The uprising targeted the Maronite Khazen muqatajis of Keserwan, pillaging their land, having driven the Maronite feudal lords out of Keserwan and seizing their land and property, the insurgent peasants set up their own rule. The Keserwan uprising, as it known, had a revolutionary effect on other regions in Lebanon. The disturbances spread to Latakia and to central Lebanon, Maronite peasants, actively supported by their clergy, began to prepare for an armed uprising against their Druze masters. In August 1859, a brawl occurred between Druze and Maronite locals in the Metn area of the Double Qaimaqamates Christian sector, the dispute enabled Maronite Bishop Tobia Aoun to mobilize his Beirut-based central committee to intervene in the matter. The Druze lords began making war preparations, allegedly in coordination with the local Ottoman authorities, in March, the father of a Catholic monastery in Aammiq was killed and the monastery looted, and shortly afterward, a Druze man from Ainab allegedly killed a Christian man from Abadiyeh
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
–
Abdelkader El Djezairi saving Christians during the Druze–Christian strife of 1860, by
Jean Baptiste Huysmans
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
–
Christian refugees during the strife
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
–
Rashaya and its citadel, late 19th century
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
–
Zahle was a Christian stronghold during the war and the scene of a major battle where Druze forces triumphed over the town's defenders.
14.
Hauran Druze Rebellion
–
The Hauran Druze Rebellion was a violent Druze uprising against Ottoman authority in the Syrian province, which erupted in 1909. The Hauran is a plateau, located in southwestern Syria. With the advent of the Ottoman Turks and the conquest of Syria by Sultan Selim I in 1516, Druze villages spread and prospered in that region, which under Maan leadership so flourished that it acquired the generic term of Jabal Bayt-Maan or Jabal al-Druze. A year of truce attempts followed, but failed to achieve any stability in the area, Sami Pasha al-Farouqi arrived in Damascus in August 1910, leading an Ottoman expeditionary force of some 35 battalions. Though the Druze recognized their inferiority against such a force, several clashes followed, Zuqan al-Atrash led a fierce battle against the Ottomans near al-Kafr, where he faced the forces of Sami Pasha al-Farouqi. After engaging Ottoman troops in two villages the Druze resistance collapsed, Sami Pasha used military force and trickery and succeeded in occupying the whole Jabal el-Druze. The rebellion ended with massive casualties among the Druze inhabitants of the Hauran, the number of killed is put at 2,000 with a similar number of wounded and hundreds of imprisoned, taken into custody in Damascus and Acre. This led to significant depopulation of areas within the region. Zuqan, the leader of the revolt, was captured and later executed in 1911, following the collapse of the Druze revolt, al-Farouqi launched a campaign to disarm the Druze population - some 10,000 rifles were collected. Al-Farouqi also performed a census of the Hauran area, ordering 200,000 cards from Istanbul for the purpose, taxes were collected and arrears in cattle extracted when taxation was not available. Furthermore, one thousand Druze were conscripted into the Ottoman army, during the First World War, the Ottomans left Jabal al-Druze in peace as they feared rebellion. Sultan al-Atrash, son of Zuqan al-Atrash, was able to get in touch with Pan-Arab movements. When Arab forces reached Aqaba, he sent a men to join the revolt. He joined them himself with another 300 men, when they reached Bosra and his forces were the first to enter Damascus and raise the Arab flag on the government house on September 29,1918. Sultan al-Atrash was in relations with the Hashemite Emir Faisal. Sultan was awarded the title of Emir and the rank of a General in the Syrian army, in 1920, al-Atrash family was supporting the short-living Arab Kingdom of Syria, which was re-occupied by France after the Battle of Maysalun on July 24,1920. 1860 Druze–Maronite conflict Adana massacre Franco-Syrian War
Hauran Druze Rebellion
–
Hauran Druze rebellion
15.
Jabal Druze State
–
Jabal al-Druze was an autonomous state in the French Mandate of Syria from 1921 to 1936, designed to function as a government for the local Druze population under French oversight. On March 4,1922, it was proclaimed as the State of Souaida, after the capital As-Suwayda, the name comes from the Jabal al-Druze mountain. The Druze state was formed on May 1,1921, in former Ottoman territory, Jabal al-Druze was home to about 50,000 Druze. It was the first, and remains the only, autonomous entity to be populated and governed by Druze, the 1925 Syrian Revolution began in Jabal al-Druze under the leadership of Sultan al-Atrash, and quickly spread to Damascus and other non-Druze areas outside the Jabal al-Druze region. As a result of nationalist pressure, under the Franco-Syrian Treaty of 1936, Jabal al-Druze ceased to exist as an autonomous entity and was incorporated into Syria. org
Jabal Druze State
–
Geographic map of Jabal al-Druze.
Jabal Druze State
–
Flag
Jabal Druze State
–
Druze celebrating their independence in 1925.
16.
Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
–
The Jaysh al-Muwahhideen or Jaysh Abu Ibrahim is a Druze militant group in Syria. Their name means Army of Monotheists or Army of Unitarians, the group mainly operates in the Suwayda, Deraa, Damascus and other regions where the Druze are concentrated and announced their formation in the beginning of 2013. The leadership describes the group as Unitarian Druze engaging in defensive jihad, the group was set up in response to attacks on Druze civilians. The group commemorates anti-colonial figures such as Sultan al-Atrash, who was a prominent Arab Druze chieftain, list of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War Druze in Syria Jabal Druze State Druze IDF Sword Battalion
Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
–
Jaysh al-Muwahhideen logo Druze flag used by Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
17.
Druze in Syria
–
Druze in Syria refers to adherents of the Druze faith, an ethnoreligious esoteric group originating from the Near East who self identify as unitarians. The Syrian Druze people are believed to constitute an estimated 3.2 percent of the population, other sources claim that the Syrian Druze community numbers 450,000. The Druze faith is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion that does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam, fasting during the month of Ramadan, thus, they are not regarded by Muslims as Islamic. The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn. The Druze follow a style of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, nor into. When Druze live among people of religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are and this system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging. The Druze community in Syria played an important role in the formation of the state of Syria. In Syria, most Druze live in the Jebel al-Druze, a rugged and mountainous region in the southwest of the country, other notable communities live in the Harim Mountains, the Damascus suburb of Jaramana, and on the southeast slopes of Mount Hermon. The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its small population would suggest. Under the military leadership of Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, the Druze provided much of the force behind the Syrian Revolution of 1925–27. At independence the Druze, made confident by their successes, expected that Damascus would reward them for their sacrifices on the battlefield. They demanded to keep their autonomous administration and many political privileges accorded them by the French, when a local paper in 1945 reported that President Shukri al-Quwatli had called the Druzes a dangerous minority, Sultan Pasha al-Atrash flew into a rage and demanded a public retraction. If it were not forthcoming, he announced, the Druzes would indeed become dangerous, quwwatli could not dismiss Sultan Pashas threat. The military balance of power in Syria was tilted in favor of the Druzes, one advisor to the Syrian Defense Department warned in 1946 that the Syrian army was useless, and that the Druzes could take Damascus and capture the present leaders in a breeze. During the four years of Adib Shishaklis rule in Syria, the Druze community was subjected to a attack by the Syrian government. Shishakli believed that among his opponents in Syria, the Druzes were the most potentially dangerous. He frequently proclaimed, My enemies are like a serpent, the head is the Jebel al-Druze, the stomach Homs, if I crush the head the serpent will die
Druze in Syria
–
Top row (left to right)
Sultan al-Atrash •
Mansur al-Atrash •
Farid al-Atrash •
Salim Hatum •
Issam Zahreddine •
Faisal al-Qassem •
Ziad Hamzeh •
Asmahan
Druze in Syria
–
Druze warriors preparing to go to battle with Sultan Pasha al-Atrash in 1925
Druze in Syria
Druze in Syria
18.
Druze in Lebanon
–
Druze in Lebanon refers to adherents of the Druze faith, an ethnoreligious esoteric group originating from the Near East who self identify as unitarians. The Lebanese Druze people are believed to constitute about 5% of the population of Lebanon. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or believers in one God, are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east, under the Lebanese political division the Druze community is designated as one of the five Lebanese Muslim communities. Lebanons constitution was intended to guarantee representation for each of the nations ethno-religious groups. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the Chief of the General Staff must be a Druze. The Druze faith is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion that follows the Five Pillars of Islam, however, certain Muslim groups regard them as Rawafid or Deserters of true Islamic faith. However, other sources claim that the Druze faith does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam, fasting during the month of Ramadan, thus, they are not regarded by Muslims as Islamic and are seen as Rawafid or Deserters of true Islamic faith. The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn. The Druze follow a style of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, or into. When Druze live among people of religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are and this system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War, the Druze were in favor of Pan-Arabism, jumblatts post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, the BBC describes Jumblatt as the smartest leader of Lebanons most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty. The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan, in May 10,2008 as part of the 2008 Conflict, clashes occurred between Hezbollah forces and Druze militias in their mountain resulting is casualties on both sides. The clashes started in Aytat, near Kayfoun and soon expanded to many spots in Mount Lebanon including Baysur, Shuweifat. Most of the fighting was concentrated on Hill 888, after negotiations a ceasefire was called in from outside the country before Hezbollah could call in artillery support. Releases from Hezbollah leaders in 2016 stated that bombing the mountain with close-range artillery from the South, Hill 888 remains under Hezbollahs banner today with reports of heavy artillery pieces being moved in that can strike any point within the mountain. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or believers in one God, are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut
Druze in Lebanon
Druze in Lebanon
–
An estimate of the distribution of Lebanon's main religious groups, 1991, based on a map by GlobalSecurity.org
Druze in Lebanon
Druze in Lebanon
–
Lebanon religious groups distribution
19.
Druze in Israel
–
The Israeli Druze are a unique religious and ethnic minority located in Israel. In 2012, there were 130,600 Druze living in the country, even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are not considered Muslims. In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct community at the request of its communal leaders. The Druze are Arabic-speaking citizens of Israel who serve in the Israel Defense Forces, members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service. Before the establishment of the State of Israel, the Druze were not recognized as a community and were discriminated against by the judicial system. They live mainly in the north of the country, while most of Israeli Druze identifies as ethnically Arab, today, tens of thousands of Israeli Druze belong to Druze Zionist movements. The Druze are a monotheistic religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel. The religion incorporates elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism and other philosophies, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn Unitarians, Monotheists. Sheikh Amin Tarif was the preeminent religious leader of the community until his death in 1993, noble Druze men from nearby countries visited Druze villages in Palestine and preached neutrality. This decision was backed by Druze leaders in Jabal Druze, josh Palmon was tasked by the Jewish Agency to manage the relationship with the Druze. He initially led a preventive approach with the Druze, aimed at making sure the Druze will not join the Arab Higher Committee, the contacts between the Druze and the Jewish leadership were made through Labib Hussein Abu Rokan from Isfya and Salah-Hassan Hanifes from Shefa-Amr. Hanifas managed to bring Yarka to cooperate with the Jews, during the war Druze volunteers arrived to Mandatory Palestine in order to help defend the Druze villages there. Wahhab brought around 500 men and arrived to Shefa-Amr in Palestine, Wahhab traveled through the western Galilee region and sent men to the Druze villages of the Carmel. As the Druze volunteers arrived, there were attempts to talk with the volunteers, najib Mansour, the head of Isfiya met with agents of the Hagannah in Haifa to discuss the arrival of Wahhab. Manosur did not agree to the demand the local Druze will forcibly oppose the volunteers, Druze citizens are prominent in the Israel Defense Forces and in politics. The bond between Jewish and Druze soldiers is commonly known by the term a covenant of blood, five Druze lawmakers were elected to serve in the 18th Knesset, a disproportionately large number considering their population. So we are considered a very nationalistic, patriotic community, today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to such Druze Zionist movements. In 1973, Amel Nasser A-Din founded the Zionist Druze Circle and we invalidate and reject everything that the Adalah organization is requesting, he said
Druze in Israel
–
Ayoob Kara
Druze in Israel
–
Druze commander of the IDF Herev battalion
Druze in Israel
–
Samih al-Qasim
Druze in Israel
–
Amal Nasser el-Din
20.
Shia Islam
–
Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
Shia Islam
Shia Islam
–
The Investiture of
Ali at
Ghadir Khumm (
MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8
Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)
Shia Islam
–
The
Imam Hussein Shrine in
Karbala, Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
Shia Islam
–
Zulfiqar with and without the shield. The
Fatimid depiction of
Ali 's sword as carved on the Gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr. Two swords were captured from the temple of the pagan polytheist god
Manāt during the
Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali. Muhammad gave them to Ali, saying that one of them was
Zulfiqar, which became the famous sword of Ali and a later symbol of Shiism.
21.
Prophets and messengers in Islam
–
Belief in Islamic prophets is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith, and specifically mentioned in the Quran. Muslims believe the first prophet was also the first human being, Many of the revelations delivered by the 48 prophets in Judaism and many prophets of Christianity are mentioned as such in the Quran but usually in altered form and with different names. For example, the Jewish Elisha is called Alyasa, Job is Ayyub, Jesus is Isa, the Torah given to Moses is called Tawrat, the Psalms given to David is the Zabur, the Gospel given to Jesus is Injil). Notwithstanding, none of the seven Jewish Prophetesses are mentioned in the Quran as prophets, each came to preach Islam at different times in history and some told of the coming of the final Islamic prophet and messenger of God, who would be named Ahmed commonly known as Muhammad. Each Islamic prophet directed a message to a different group of people, in Arabic and Hebrew, the term nabī means prophet. Forms of this noun occur 75 times in the Quran, the term nubuwwah occurs five times in the Quran. The terms rasūl and mursal denote messenger or apostle and occur more than 300 times, the term for a prophetic message, risālah, appears in the Quran in ten instances. The Syriac form of rasūl Allāh, s̲h̲eliḥeh d-allāhā, occurs frequently in the apocryphal Acts of St. Thomas, the corresponding verb for s̲h̲eliḥeh—s̲h̲alaḥ, occurs in connection with the prophets in the Hebrew Bible. The words prophet and messenger appear several times in the Old Testament, the following table shows these words in different languages, In the Hebrew Bible, the word navi occurs more commonly, and the Hebrew word malakh refers to Angels in Judaism. According to Judaism, Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, with them, the authentic period of Nevuah died, and nowadays only the Bath Kol exists. In the New Testament, however, the word becomes more frequent. Messenger may refer to Jesus, to his Apostles and to John the Baptist, but the last book of the Old Testament, the Book of Malachi, speaks of a messenger that Christian commentators interpret as a reference to the future prophet John the Baptist. In Muslim belief, every Islamic prophet preached Islam, the beliefs of charity, prayer, pilgrimage, worship of God and fasting are believed to have been taught by every prophet who has ever lived. The Quran itself calls Islam the religion of Abraham and refers to Jacob, the Quran speaks of the Islamic prophets as being the greatest human beings of all time. A prophet, in the Muslim sense of the term, is a person whom God specially chose to teach the faith of Islam, before man was created, God had specifically selected those men whom He would use as prophets. This does not, however, mean that every prophet began to prophesy from his birth, some were called to prophesy late in life, in Muhammads case at the age of 40. Others, such as John the Baptist, were called to prophesy while still at a young age, the Quran verse 4,69 lists various virtuous groups of human beings, among whom prophets occupy the highest rank. Verse 4,69 reads, All who obey Allah and the messenger are in the company of those on whom is the Grace of Allah—of the prophets, the sincere, the witnesses, and we have made the evil ones friends to those without faith
Prophets and messengers in Islam
22.
Succession to Muhammad
–
The succession to Muhammad raises questions about the leadership of Islam after his death, Muhammads successor, how they should be elected, conditions of legitimacy and the role of successor. Answers to these questions have led to divisions in the Muslim community since the first century of Muslim history, giving rise to the Sunni, Shia. After Muhammads death in AD632, disagreement broke out over who should succeed him as leader of the Muslim community, since none of his sons survived into adulthood, hereditary succession was not an option. Umar, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, others added their support, and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammads companions, who believed that Ali, his cousin, during the First and Second Fitnas the Islamic community divided into a number of groups, each of which had a specific idea about successorship. After the Rashidun caliphate evolved into monarchies and sultanates, Sunnis held power in most areas, Shias emerged in opposition. Sunnis believe that although Muhammad did not appoint a successor, Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph by the Muslim community, Shias believe that Muhammad named his successor, Ali, at Ghadir Khumm, Muslim leadership belonged to the person determined by divine order. The two groups also disagree on Alis attitude towards Abu Bakr and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar and Uthman ibn Affan, Ali believed that he could fulfil his imamate without fighting. Zaydis disagree with the Twelver Shia, after the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Ummayads, Aisha raised, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakrs mother was from Alis family, Qasims daughter, Farwah bint al-Qasim, was married to Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grandson of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, the Zaydis believe that Zayd ibn Ali was betrayed by the people in Kufa, who told him, May God have mercy on you. What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr, Zayd ibn Ali said, I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them. Historical works of later Muslim writers include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him, the earliest surviving written sira is Sirah Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq. Although the original work is lost, portions survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham, many scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, although this accuracy is uncertain. Studies by J. Schacht and Ignác Goldziher have led scholars to distinguish between legal and historical traditions, according to William Montgomery Watt, although legal traditions could have been invented, historical material may have been primarily subject to tendential shaping rather than invented. Hadith compilations are records of the traditions of Muhammad—his biography, perpetuated by community memory for it guidance, the development of hadith is a crucial element of the first three centuries of Islamic history. Early Western scholars mistrusted the later narrations and reports, regarding them as fabrications, the only contemporary source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays by Sulaym ibn Qays. This collection of hadith and historical reports from the first century of the Islamic calendar narrates events relating to the succession in detail, at a small gathering attended in Saqifah a companion of Muhammad, Abu Bakr, was nominated to lead the community
Succession to Muhammad
Succession to Muhammad
Succession to Muhammad
23.
Imamah (Shia doctrine)
–
In Shia Islam, the imamah is the doctrine that the figures known as imams are rightfully the central figures of the ummah, the entire Shiite system of doctrine focuses on the imamah. These Imams have the role of providing commentary and interpretation of the Quran as well as guidance to their followers as is the case of the living Imams of the Nizari Ismaili tariqah. According to Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the Imam is a means through which humans receive divine grace, because He brings men closer to obedience, as fulfilling the human being is his wish, it is logical that God appoints Imams to subject man to his wishes. So his existence and his deeds display two forms of grace of God toward man, the word Imām denotes a person who stands or walks in front. For Sunni Islam, the word is used to mean a person who leads the course of prayer in the mosque. It also means the head of a madhhab, all Muslims believe that Muhammad had said, To whomsoever I am Mawla, Ali is his Mawla. This hadith has been narrated in different ways by different sources in no less than 45 hadith books of both Sunni and Shia collections. This hadith has also narrated by the collector of hadiths, al-Tirmidhi,3713, as well as Ibn Maajah,121. The major point of conflict between the Sunni and the Shia is in the interpretation of the word Mawla, for the Shia the word means Lord and Master and has the same elevated significance as when the term had been used to address Muhammad himself during his lifetime. However, for the Sunnis the word means the beloved or the revered and has no other significance at all. Each succession dispute brought forth a different tariqah within Shia Islam, each Shia tariqah followed its own particular Imams dynasty, thus resulting in different numbers of Imams for each particular Shia tariqah. When the dynastic line of the separating successor Imam ended with no heir to succeed him, then either he or his successor was believed to have gone into concealment. The Shia tariqah with a majority of adherents are the Twelvers who are known as the Shia. After that come the Nizari Ismailis commonly known as the Ismailis, the Druze tariqah initially were part of the Fatimid Ismailis and separated from them after the death of the Fatimid Imam and Caliph al Hakim Bi Amrillah. The Shia Sevener tariqah no longer exists, another small tariqah is the Zaidi Shias, also known as the Fivers and who do not believe in The Occultation of their last Imam. Although all these different Shia tariqahs belong to the Shia group in Islam, the Shia Nizari Ismailis by definition have to have a present and living Imam until the end of time. Thus if any living Nizari Ismaili Imam fails to leave behind a successor after him then the Nizari Ismailism’s cardinal principle would be broken and it’s very raison dêtre would come to an end. They refer to the verse 5,3 of Quran which was revealed to the prophet when he appointed Ali as his successor at the day of Ghadir Khumm, regarding 17,71, no age can be without an Imam
Imamah (Shia doctrine)
–
Imamah of Islamic
Imamah (Shia doctrine)
–
Imamah
Imamah (Shia doctrine)
Imamah (Shia doctrine)
–
The name of Imam as it appears in
Masjid Nabawi.
24.
Islamic view of angels
–
Belief in Angels is one of the six Articles of Faith in Islam. They are considered heavenly beings without their own will unlike humans who perform tasks of God, the imagination of angels in Islam developed from the Quran and was influenced by other religions like Judaism and expanded by tafsir and the hadith literature. Angels take the role of performing different tasks of God. They are said to be created out of light, unlike humans or jinn, they have no biological needs and therefore no lower desires predicted by the natural world. They may be described as creatures of pure emotion and this is narrated in Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, book 56. Besides the personificated interpretation of angels, they are thought of carrying the laws of nature. Angels are not equal in status and consequently, they are delegated different tasks to perform, jibrail is the archangel responsible for revealing the Quran to Muhammad, verse by verse. Jibrail is the angel who communicates with the prophets and also for coming down with the blessings of Allah during the night of Laylat al-Qadr, mikail, who provides nourishments for bodies and souls. Mikail is often depicted as the archangel of mercy who is responsible for bringing rain, Israfil or Israafiyl, is an archangel in Islam who will blow the trumpet at the end of time. According to the hadith, Israfil is the responsible for signaling the coming of Qiyamah by blowing a horn. Azrael/Azraaiyl/Azrail also known as Malak al-maut, is the angel of death and he is responsible for parting the soul from the body of the deads. The angels of the Seven Heavens, hafaza, Kiraman Katibin, two of whom are charged to every human being, one writes down good deeds and another one writes down evil deeds. They are both described as Raqeebun Ateed in the Quran, muaqqibat who keep people from death until its decreed time and who bring down blessings. Jundullah, those who helped Muhammad in the battlefield Those who draw out the souls of the blessed and those angels who drive the clouds. The Angel of the Mountains Munkar and Nakir, who question the dead in their graves, dardail, who travel in the earth searching out assemblies where people remember Gods name. The angels charged with each existent thing, maintaining order and warding off corruption and their number is known only to God. Ridwan, the keeper of the Paradise, azazil is sometimes considered as an angel, who was the keeper of paradise and leader of an angelic army. He is also the instrument of divine anger, otherwise he is held for a Jinni raised to the angelic realm
Islamic view of angels
25.
Islamic eschatology
–
Islamic eschatology is the branch of Islamic scholarship that studies Yawm al-Qiyāmah or Yawm ad-Dīn. This is believed to be the final assessment of humanity by God, consisting of the annihilation of all life, resurrection, the time of the event is not specified, although there are major and minor signs which have been foretold to happen at al-Qiyamah. Many verses of the Quran contain the motif of the impending Last Judgment, surat al-Qiyama has as its main subject the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is also described in the hadith, and commentaries of the such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari. The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the hadith describe the end time with more specificity than the Quran, describing the events of al-Qiyamah through twelve major signs. At the time of judgment, terrible corruption and chaos will rule, the Mahdi will be sent and with the help of Jesus, will battle Masih ad-Dajjal. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values, however, there is no mention of the advent of Mahdi and Isa in one era in any of the hadith. Some Muslim scholars translate the Arabic word Imam as Mahdi to prove the advent of Mahdi, like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches resurrection of the dead, a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, malāḥim, the righteous are rewarded with pleasures of Jannah Paradise, while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam Hell. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, is one of the six articles of faith in Islam. The tribulation associated with it is described in the Quran and hadith, and commentaries of ulama like al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, the Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Hour, and the Last Day. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, relates to one of the six articles in Sunni Islam and seven articles in Shia Islam. There are two sources in Islamic scripture that discuss the Last Judgment, the Quran, which is viewed in Islam as infallible. Hadith are viewed with more flexibility due to the compilation of the traditions in written form. The concept has also discussed in commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir. The Quran describes the Last Judgment with a number of interpretations of its verses, there are specific aspects, The time is known only to God. Those who have been dead will believe that a time has passed between birth and death. God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron and those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife
Islamic eschatology
26.
Mourning of Muharram
–
Many of the events associated with the ritual take place in congregation halls known as Hussainia. The event marks the anniversary of the Battle of Karbala when Imam Hussein ibn Ali, family members, accompanying Hussein ibn Ali, were killed or subjected to humiliation. The commemoration of the event during yearly mourning season, from first of Muharram to twentieth of Safar with Ashura comprising the focal date, at present, Muharram observances are carried out in countries with a sizable Shia population. The words Azadari which mean mourning and lamentation, and Majalis-e Aza have been used in connection with the remembrance ceremonies for the martyrdom of Imam Hussain. Expression of grief with thumping of the chest by Shia Muslims is known as Latmya, Latmaya or latmia in Arabic-Persian countries, in India and Pakistan it is called Matam or Matam-Dari/Sina Zannee. Muharram rituals was often called by European observers the Feast of Hasan and Hosayn, the term majalis has both a grammatical meaning and a meaning which relates to Aza-e-Husayn. In its technical sense, a majalis is a meeting, a session or a gathering, according to Shia sources, The mourning of Muharram was started by the family, specially womenfolk, of Muhammad immediately after the death of his grandson and even before entering Damascus. News of Imam Husayn ibn Alis death was spread by Imam Zain-ul-Abideen, who succeeded Imam Husayn as the Shia Imam, via sermons and speeches throughout Iraq, Syria and Hejaz. Due to the History of the Prophets and Kings, when Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin gave the sermon in presence of Yazid, according to popular belief, Shia rituals spread to South Asia starting at the end of the 14th century with the conquests of Tamerlane. Observance has since spread to such as India, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, Syria, Nigeria, Tanzania, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh, Yemen, Bahrain, Azerbaijan. The type of mourning of Muharram varies between branches of Shia, Sunni, and different ethnic groups, Shia Muslims around the world every year commemorate the mourning custom of death of Husayn ibn Ali, his family and his follower in months of Muharram and Safar. They entitle him Prince of Martyrs and know his as a spiritual and political savior, still, he has important role in the religious and national consciousness of the people. According to the Shia belief taking part in the ritual will be an help to salvation on day of judgment. Of all the religions of lament which could be adduced for closer consideration that of the Islamic is the most illuminating. The lament itself, as an impassioned pack opening out, to a true e crowd, after a while to protecting the mourner from the weather, the Hussainiya and the Tekyeh were built. The event is observed by many Sunnis, but to a lesser extent, after almost 12 centuries, five types of major rituals were developed around the battle of Karbala. Imam Husayn Shrine is located at the mosqe and burial sites of Husayn ibn Ali, many Shia go on a pilgrimage to the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, one of the holiest places for Shias apart from Mecca and Medina. Up to one million pilgrims visit the city annually to observe the anniversary of Imam Husayn ibn Alis death, Shia Muslims believe that pilgrimmage to Husayn ibn Ali’s shrine like weeping saves them from condemned to hell at the day of judgment and all their guilt is removed
Mourning of Muharram
–
2008 Mourning of Muharram around the
Imam Husayn Shrine in
Karbala,
Iraq. The city, best known as the location of the
Battle of Karbala, one of the holiest shrines for
Shia.
Mourning of Muharram
–
Majlis in
Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania.
Mourning of Muharram
–
Shia Muslims in
Amroha Uttar Pradesh,
India Children on camels in front of Azakhana or
Hussainia Juloos as part of the commemoration of Muharram
Mourning of Muharram
–
Tabuiks (funeral biers) being lowered into the sea at a Muharram procession in
West Sumatra,
Indonesia.
27.
Shia clergy
–
In Shia Islam the guidance of clergymen and keeping such a structure holds a great importance. The clergy structure depends on the branch of Shiism is being referred to, usooli and Akhbari Shia Twelver Muslims believe that the study of Islamic literature is a continual process, and is necessary for identifying all of Gods laws. Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the process of finding Gods laws from the available Islamic literature will facilitate in dealing with any circumstance and they believe that they can interpret the Quran and the Twelver Shia traditions with the same authority as their predecessors. This process of ijtihad has provided a means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective, most Sunni scholars, preachers, and judges traditionally believe that the door of ijtihad, or private judgment, is closed. That is because they have been under the scrutiny and control of Islamic scholars over the years. Thus, traditionally religious rulings have been issued by ulama, in contrast, Shia scholars have traditionally been distanced from, and therefore, outside the direct control of governments. This has afforded these clerical establishments much more flexibility in dealing with religious as well as political matters, usooli Shia considering it obligatory to obey a mujtahid when seeking to determine Islamically correct behavior. They believe the 12th Imam, ordered them to follow the scholars who. guard their soul, protect their religion, the mujtahid they follow or emulate is known as a Marja Taqleedi. As of 2014 there were over 60 recognized Marj in the Shia Muslim world, the term Dāʻī al-Mutlaq literally means the absolute or unrestricted missionary. In Ismāīlī Islām, the term dāʻī has been used to refer to important religious leaders other than the hereditary Imāms, the Daʻwa was a term for the Ismāīlī faith itself from early on. They are also called Dāʻī Syednas, shiite Clerics between Quietism and Resistance, M. Ismail Marcinkowski
Shia clergy
28.
The Four Companions
–
Verily you and your Shia will be in Paradise. These companions are later referred to as Real Shia, abdullah ibn Abbas, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Malik al-Ashtar were other such partisans. However, it is only The Four Companions that are believed to have attained the rank of the Real Shi‘a, hadith of the pond of Khumm Sulaym ibn Qays Ahl ul-Baith
The Four Companions
29.
Mawlid
–
Mawlid is the observance of the birthday of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which is celebrated in Rabi al-awwal, the third month in the Islamic calendar. 12 Rabi al-awwal is the accepted date among most of the Sunni scholars and this seven days period, i. e. 12–17 Rabi al-awwal, is assigned by Islamic Republic of Iran as the unity week. The origin of Mawlid observance dates back to the period of the early four Rashidun Caliphs of Islam, the Ottomans declared it an official holiday in 1588. The term Mawlid is also used in parts of the world, such as Egypt. Mawlid is recognized as a holiday in most of the Muslim-majority countries of the world except Saudi Arabia. Shaykh Faraz Rabbani states that the Mawlid is generally approved of across the four Islamic schools of law, Mawlid is derived from the Arabic root word, meaning to give birth, bear a child, descendant. In contemporary usage, Mawlid refers to the observance of the birthday of Muhammad, the date of Muhammads birth is a matter of contention since the exact date is unknown and is not definitively recorded in the Islamic traditions. The issue of the date of the Mawlid is recorded by Ibn Khallikan as constituting the first proven disagreement concerning the celebration. Among the most recognisable dates, Sunni Muslims believe the date to have been on the twelfth of Rabi al-awwal and this celebration was introduced into the city Sabta by Abu lAbbas al-Azafi as a way of strengthening the Muslim community and to counteract Christian festivals. The early celebrations, included elements of Sufic influence, with sacrifices and torchlight processions along with public sermons. The celebrations occurred during the day, in contrast to modern day observances, emphasis was given to the Ahl al-Bayt with presentation of sermons and recitations of the Quran. This Shia origin is noted by those Sunnis who oppose Mawlid. Among Sunnis, the Mawlid celebration emerged in the 12th century, among Muslim scholars, the legality of Mawlid has been the subject of intense debate and has been described as perhaps one of the most polemical discussions in Islamic law. Traditionally, most Sunni and nearly all of the Shia scholars have approved of the celebration of Mawlid, while Wahhabi and Ahmadiyya scholars oppose the celebration. The Damascene Shafii scholar Abu Shama also supports the celebration of the Mawlid as does the Maliki scholar Ibn al-Hajj who spoke positively of the observance of the Mawlid in his book al-Madhkal. Likewise, the Shafii Egyptian scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami was a supporter of the Mawlid. This was supported and commented on by the Egyptian scholar and former head of Al-Azhar University Ibrahim al-Bajuri, another Hanafi Mufti Ali al-Qari too supported the celebration of the Mawlid and wrote a text on the subject as did the Moroccan Maliki scholar Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar al-Kattānī. Ibn al-Jazari, a Syrian Shafii scholar considers the celebration of the Mawlid to be a means of gaining Paradise, in the Muslim world, the majority of Sunni Islamic scholars are in favor of the Mawlid
Mawlid
–
Malaysian Sunni Muslims in a Mawlid procession in capital
Putrajaya, 2013.
Mawlid
–
Birth Place of Islamic prophet
Muhammad in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia.
Mawlid
–
Mawlid an-Nabawi celebrations in
Dhaka,
Bangladesh
Mawlid
–
Mawlid an-Nabawi celebrations in
Cairo in 1878
30.
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide that marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. The religious Eid is the first and only day in the month of Shawwal during which Muslims are not permitted to fast, the holiday celebrates the conclusion of the 29 or 30 days of dawn-to-sunset fasting during the entire month of Ramadan. The day of Eid, therefore, falls on the first day of the month of Shawwal, the date for the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality. Eid al-Fitr has a particular Salat consisting of two Rakats and generally offered in a field or large hall. Other Sunni schools usually have twelve Takbirs, seven in the first and this Eid al-Fitr salat is, depending on which juristic opinion is followed, Fard فرض, Mustahabb مستحب or mandoob مندوب. Muslims believe that they are commanded by Allah, as mentioned in the Quran, to continue their fast until the last day of Ramadan and pay the Zakat and fitra before offering the Eid prayers. If the moon is not observed immediately after the 29th day of the lunar month. Before the advent of Islam in Arabia, there is mention of festivals as well as some others among the Arabs, the Israelites had festivals as well, some directly prescribed in the Old Testament and others commemorating important days of their history. Eid al-Fitr was originated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and it is observed on the first of the month of Shawwal at the end of the month of Ramadan, during which Muslims undergo a period of fasting. According to certain traditions, these festivals were initiated in Medina after the migration of Muhammad from Mecca, anas reports, When the Prophet arrived in Madinah, he found people celebrating two specific days in which they used to entertain themselves with recreation and merriment. He asked them about the nature of these festivities at which they replied that these days were occasions of fun, Eid al-Fitr is celebrated for one, two or three days. Common greetings during this holiday are the Arabic greeting ‘Eid Mubārak or ‘Eid Sa‘īd. In addition, many countries have their own greetings in the local language – in Turkey, for example, Muslims are also encouraged on this day to forgive and forget any differences with others or animosities that may have occurred during the year. It is forbidden to fast on the Day of Eid and it is customary to acknowledge this with a small sweet breakfast, preferably of date, before attending a special Eid prayer. As an obligatory act of charity, money is paid to the poor and you can speak once youve left the Masjid, or mosque or any other place you were praying. Say Eid Mubarak to other Muslims Muslims recite the following incantation in a low voice while going to the Eid prayer, Allāhu Akbar, Allāhu Akbar, lā ilāha illà l-Lāh wal-Lāhu akbar, Allahu akbar walil-Lāhi l-ḥamd. Recitation ceases when they get to the place of Eid or once the Imam commences activities, Muslims are recommended to use separate routes to and from the prayer grounds. No call to prayer is given for this Eid prayer, the Eid prayer is followed by the sermon and then a supplication asking for Allahs forgiveness, mercy, peace and blessings for all living beings across the world
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr meal,
Tajikistan
Eid al-Fitr
–
Muslims in Britain celebrate Eid after ceremony at mosque, 1941
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr mass prayer in
Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, Indonesia
31.
History of Shia Islam
–
Shi‘a Islam, also known as Shi‘ite Islam or Shi‘ism, is the second largest branch of Islam after Sunni Islam. Shias adhere to the teachings of Muhammad and the guidance of his family or his descendants known as Shia Imams. Muhammads bloodline continues only through his daughter Fatima Zahra and cousin Ali who alongside Muhammads grandsons comprise the Ahl al-Bayt, thus, Shias consider Muhammads descendants as the true source of guidance. Shia Islam, like Sunni Islam, has at times divided into many branches, however. From a political viewpoint the history of the Shia was in several stages, the first part was the emergence of the Shia, which starts after Muhammads death in 632 and lasts until Battle of Karbala in 680. This part coincides with the Immam of Ali, Hasan ibn Ali, the second part is the differentiation and distinction of the Shia as a separate sect within the Muslim community, and the opposition of the Sunni caliphs. This part starts after the Battle of Karbala and lasts until the formation of the Shia states about 900, during this section Shiism divided into several branches. The third section is the period of Shia states, the first Shia state was the Idrisid dynasty in Maghreb. Next was the Alavid dynasty established in Mazandaran, north of Iran and these dynasties were local, but they were followed by two great and powerful dynasties. The Fatimid Caliphate formed in Ifriqiya in 909, and ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, the Buyid dynasty emerged in Daylaman, north of Iran, about 930 and then ruled over central and western parts of Iran and Iraq until 1048. In Yemen, Imams of various dynasties usually of the Zaidi sect established a political structure that survived from 897 until 1962. Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity, with Muhammads death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, others, after initial refusal and bickering, settled on Abu Bakr who was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by Muhammads earliest companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor, according to Sunni accounts, Muhammad died without having appointed a successor, and with a need for leadership, they gathered and voted for the position of caliph. Shia accounts differ by asserting that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor on a number of occasions, Abu Bakrs election was followed by a raid on Alis house led by Umar and Khalid ibn al-Walid. The succession to Muhammad is a contentious issue. The two groups also disagree on Alis attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar and Uthman or, Shia Islam and Sunnism split in the aftermath of the death of the Prophet Muhammad based on the politics of the early caliphs. Due to the Shia belief that Ali should have been the first caliph, because of this, any hadith that were narrated by these three caliphs were not accepted by Shia hadith collectors
History of Shia Islam
32.
The verse of purification
–
The verse of purification is verse in the Quran. The verse has special importance for Shiite Muslims due to giving information about Ahl al-Bayt of Muhammad, Shiite reportedly believe it to designate the People of the House as being Ismah, infallibility. Within Sunni Islam this viewpoint is seen as either rejected or partially supported such as the case of Sufism, some verses refer to Muhammads wives. And Allah only wishes to remove all abomination from you, ye members of the Family, the previous verses include instructions to the wives of Muhammad, and the verbs and pronouns are in the feminine plural. However, in verse, the pronouns are in the masculine plural. Therefore, it is no longer a discussion of the wives or of them alone. Thus, the expression Ahl al-bayt must mean family of Muhammad, the privilege then refers to those nearest to him. Some have attempted to add Muhammads wives to the list, however, each ayah is an individual sign of Allah. Ayah or aayah is the Arabic word for evidence or sign, The ayah uses the words Ankum and Yutahhirakum, the feminine for the above would be Ankunna and Yutahhirakunna. The sudden change in grammatical gender reference means that it is not about the wives, the similar use of switching subjects after Ayahs is found all throughout the Quran. A great example of this is Surah Haqqah, which does so in nearly every ayah, Allah says Allah keep away bad things from Ahlulbaiyt. We can believe the Ahlulbaiyt keep away from any Bad things, Muhammad says After me only two things are remained who that guide people in every generation 1st, Quran 2nd, Ahlulbaiyt Hadith of the Cloak Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad, A Study of the Early Caliphate
The verse of purification
33.
Event of Mubahala
–
The Event of Mubahala was a debate between Islamic prophet Muhammad and the Christians of Najran, where the call was extended to the sons and women. Mubahala is a Quranic evocation of the occasion of an encounter between Muslims and Christians during Muhammads lifetime, in this occasion Muhammad is instructed by Quran to issue a challenge to the visiting Christians of Najran. The call and challenge is based on Islamic tradition, according to an ancient ceremony, the Christians of Najran came to Medina claiming that Isa is divine and the son of Allah. In fact, they meant to determine whether Muhammads claims were in accordance with the prophecies of their holy books, the event is recorded in several Hadith collections and is referred to in the Quranic surah Al Imran. In such debates, each side would bring the most informed men, al-Mubahalah is derived from the Arabic word Bahlah, so the term Mubahala means cursing each other. It is an instance of Qurans critique of a central Christian doctrine, in this milieu Muslims challenged and critiqued major point of Christian faith, and Christians responded in defense of their defining doctrine and practice. Muhammad preached to them and requested them to accept Islam, the Christians, however, were not convinced. Their argument was that Jesus was born without a father, so he was the son of God, thereafter, according to the traditional account on this occasion the following verses came down to Muhammad. Surely the likeness of Jesus is with Allah as the likeness of Adam, He created him from dust, then said to him Be, the truth from your Lord, so be not of the disputers. Muhammad recited the verses to them, and after lengthy discussions which have presented in detail in Ibn Hishams sirah, no agreement was reached on the position. At the end of the discussions, the Prophet was instructed to suggest that the two engage in Mubahala. And say, We believe in what has been sent down to us and our God and your God are one and to Him we are submissive. There is one Quranic narrative in particular in which the occasion of revelation of a passage, the commentators agree that the verse of Mubahala was occasioned by the visit of the Christians of Najran who did not accept the Islamic doctrine about Jesus. According to Al-Mizan by Allamah Tabatabaei, a Shia scholar, the first us in this verse has a different import from the pronouns used in our sons, our women. The former refers to the both Islam and Christianity sides, while the other three ours refer to the side of Islam only and this way, a meaningful short sentence implies a longer sentence equal in meaning. Based on Madelung interpreting the term our sons as the two grandsons of the prophet is reasonable and consequently the parents, Ali and Fatimah, may be included in this verse. The members of the Muhammad family who were expected to participate this event is not modified in some of the Sunni sources while some others mention Fatima, Hasan and Husayn as the participants. Meanwhile, some of the Sunni sources are in agreement with Shia belief saying that Ahl al-Kisa, including Ali, - The verse of our selves, The Imam replied
Event of Mubahala
Event of Mubahala
34.
Hadith of the pond of Khumm
–
It has been interpreted variously by the two main sects of Islam, where Shia generally maintain that in this hadith the Islamic prophet Muhammad appointed Ali as his heir and successor. The Shia celebrate the anniversary of this event on 18 Dhu al-Hijjah, according to Shia narrators of traditions the verse of announcement was related to the succession of Ali at Ghadir Khumm. The verse of announcement was revealed during the return from the The Farewell Pilgrimage, proclaim the which hath been sent to thee from thy Lord. If thou didst not, thou wouldst not have fulfilled and proclaimed His mission, and Allah will defend thee from men. For Allah guideth not those who reject Faith, according to Sunnis, this verse was revealed much earlier than this incident. I think I am about to be called and thus I must respond, I am responsible and you are responsible, then what do you say. They said, We witness that you have informed, advised and they said, Yes, we bear witness. He said, O Allah, bear witness, then he said, O people, Allah is my Lord and I am the lord of the believers. I am worthier of believers than themselves, of whomsoever I had been Master, Ali here is to be his Master. O Allah, be a supporter of whoever supports him and an enemy of whoever opposes him, O people, I will go ahead of you and you will arrive at my Pond which is wider than the distance between Basra and Sana. It has receptacles as numerous as the stars, and two cups of gold and two of silver, I will ask you about the two weighty things that I have left for you when you come to me to see how you dealt with them. The greater weighty thing is Allahs book—the Holy Quran, one end is in Allahs hand and the other is in your hands. Keep it and you will not deviate and that other weighty thing is my family and my descendents. The Most Kind the Omniscient had told me that both of them, would not separate until they come to my Pond, another similar narration of part of the hadith goes as follows, O people. Reflect on the Quran and comprehend its verses, there are other versions of this hadith that say, I have left two matters with you. As long as you hold to them, you not go the wrong way. They are the Book of Allah and the Sunna of His Prophet, I leave for you the Quran alone you shall uphold it. The word mawla is significant in the first narration of this hadith, twenty-seven different meanings are given for the word mawla and hence the exact meaning should be derived from their syntactical and situational contexts
Hadith of the pond of Khumm
–
The Investiture of Ali at Ghadir Khumm (
MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8
Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)
Hadith of the pond of Khumm
–
Mosque at Johfa
35.
First Fitna
–
The First Fitna or First confusion was a civil war within the Rashidun Caliphate which resulted in the overthrowing of the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty. It began when the caliph Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated by Egyptian rebels in 656 and it ended in 661 when Alis heir Hasan ibn Ali concluded a treaty acknowledging the rule of Muawiyah, the first Umayyad caliph. The Islamic state expanded very quickly under Muhammad and the first three caliphs, in 639 Muawiyah I was appointed the Governor of Syria by Umar after his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and 25,000 other people. The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower, the Sassanid Dynasty in Persia had already collapsed. The Islamic empire expanded at a rate, but there was a cost associated with it. Before Islam, the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars had occurred every few years for hundreds of years between 69 BC and 629 AD, high taxes were imposed on the populations in both the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires to finance these wars. There was also continuous bloodshed of the people during these wars, the Arab tribes in Iraq were paid by the Persian Sassanids to act as mercenaries, while the Arab tribes in Syria were paid by the Byzantines to act as their mercenaries. The Persians maintained an Arab satellite state of Lakhm and the Byzantine Empire maintained the Arab satellite state of Ghassan, the Syrians and the Iraqis had been fighting each other for centuries. Therefore, each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their area. As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary, slowly assuming more control, Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa. Sects started to form, among them the Sabaites named after Abdullah Ibn Saba There is also Jewish literature from that time, much of the Jewish literature on him from that time regards him as an apostate from Judaism and asks Jews to keep away from him. There was also the movement towards more autonomous tribal groupings, which was strong in Kufa, in Iraq. Among them developed a group called the Qurra, which became known as the Kharijites. Afterwards they were granted trusteeship over some of the lands in Sawad in Iraq and were now called Ahl al Ayyam, brunnow held that the Kharijites were Bedouin Arabs or full blooded Arabs. The Qurra received the highest stipend of the Muslim army, the sharaf al ata, the Qurra received stipends varying between 2,000 and 3,000 dirhams, while the majority of the rest of the troops received only 250 to 300 dirhams. The other Ridda tribesmen in Kufa, in Iraq, resented the position given to the Qurra. The tension between the Ridda tribesmen and the Qurra threatened the Qurras newly acquired prestige, the Qurra therefore felt obliged to defend their position in the new but rapidly changing society
First Fitna
–
Combat between the forces of Ali and
Muawiyah I during the
Battle of Siffin, from the Tarikhnama.
First Fitna
–
Region under the control of the
Rashidun (
Ali ibn Abi Talib)
36.
Battle of Karbala
–
The Battle of Karbala took place on Muharram 10, in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar a in Karbala, in present-day Iraq. The battle took place between a group of supporters and relatives of Muhammads grandson, Husayn ibn Ali, and a larger military detachment from the forces of Yazid I. The people of Kufa sent letters to Husayn, asking his help and pledging allegiance to him, as Husayn traveled towards Kufa, at a nearby place known as Karbala, his caravan was intercepted by Yazid Is army led by Al-Hurr ibn Yazid al Tamimi. The battle was followed by later uprisings namely, Ibn al-Zubayr, Tawwabin, the dead are widely regarded as martyrs by Sufi Sunni and Shia Muslims. The battle has a place in Shia history, tradition and theology. Mainstream Sunni Muslims, on the hand, do not regard the incident as one that influences the traditional Islamic theology and traditions. The Battle of Karbala is commemorated during an annual 10-day period held every Muharram by Shia and Alevi, culminating on its tenth day, Shia Muslims commemorate these events by mourning, holding public processions, organizing majlis, striking the chest and in some cases self-flagellation. The Battle of Karbala played a role in shaping the identity of Shia and turned the already distinguished sect into a sect with its own rituals. Husayns suffering and death became a symbol of sacrifice in the struggle for right against wrong, during Alis Caliphate, the Muslim world became divided and rebellion broke out against the ruling Ali byMuawiyah I. When Ali was assassinated by Ibn Muljam in 661, his eldest son, Hasan, succeeded him but soon signed a peace treaty with Muawiyah to avoid further bloodshed. In the treaty, Hasan was to hand power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure. This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, Husayn ibn Ali became the head of Banu Hashim after his older brother, Hasan ibn Ali, was poisoned to death in 670. His fathers supporters in Kufah gave their allegiance to him, however, he told them he was still bound by the peace treaty between Hasan and Muawiyah I as long as Muawiyah was alive. The Battle of Karbala took place within the environment resulting from the succession of Yazid I. Later, Husayn ibn Ali did not accept the request of Muawiyah for the succession of his son, Yazid, referring to the peace treaty. The legitimacy of Yazids succession as well as his worthiness for this position was questioned at the time and he insisted on his legitimacy based on his own special position as a direct descendant of Muhammad and his legitimate legatees. As a consequence, he left Medina, his home town, Muawiyah warned Yazid specifically about Husayn ibn Ali, since he was the only blood relative of Muhammad. Abd Allah ibn Abbas and Abdullah ibn Umar did not want to start civil war
Battle of Karbala
–
Abbas Al-Musavi's Battle of Karbala,
Brooklyn Museum
Battle of Karbala
–
Before the battle near Karbala. Ottoman miniature
Battle of Karbala
–
Battle of Karbala, Iranian painting, oil on canvas, 19th century from the
Tropenmuseum Amsterdam
Battle of Karbala
–
The Battle of Karbala
37.
Zaidiyyah
–
Zaidiyyah or Zaidism is a Muslim sect which emerged in the eighth century out of Shia Islam. Zaidis are named after Zayd ibn ʻAlī, the grandson of Husayn ibn ʻAlī who they recognize as the fifth Imam, followers of the Zaydi Islamic jurisprudence are called Zaydi Shia and make up about 35-40% of Muslims in Yemen. The Zaydi madhab emerged in reverence of Zayd’s failed uprising against the Ummayad Caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, which set a precedent for revolution against corrupt rulers. It might be said that Zaydis find it difficult to remain passive in an unjust world, or in the words of a modern influential Zaydi leader, Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, Zaydis were the oldest branch of the Shia and are currently the second largest group after Twelvers. Zaidis do not believe in the infallibility of Imāms, but promote their leadership, Zaydis believe that Zayd ibn Ali in his last hour was betrayed by the people in Kufa. Zaydis as of 2014 constitute roughly 0. 5% of the worlds Muslim population, in matters of Islamic jurisprudence, the Zaydis follow Zayd ibn ’Alis teachings which are documented in his book Majmu’ al-Fiqh. Zaydi fiqh is similar to the Hanafi school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, Abu Hanifa, a Sunni madhab shaykh, was favorable and even donated towards the Zaydi cause. In matters of theology, the Zaydis are close to the Mutazili school, There are a few issues between both schools, most notably the Zaydi doctrine of the Imamate, which is rejected by the Mutazilites. Of the Shia, Zaydis are most similar to Sunnis since Zaydism shares similar doctrines, like all Muslims, the Zaydi Shia affirm the fundamental tenet of Islam known as the Shahada or testament of faith – There is no god but Allah and Muhammed is his messenger. Traditionally, the Zaydi believe that Muslims who commit major sins without remorse should not be considered Muslims nor be considered kafirs and these Shia called themselves Zaydi so they could differentiate themselves from other Shiis who refused to take up arms with Zayd ibn Ali. Zaydis believe Zayd ibn Ali was the successor to the Imamate because he led a rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in action and the followers of Zayd believed that a true Imām must fight against corrupt rulers. The renowned Muslim jurist Abu Hanifa who is credited for the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam and he also urged people in secret to join the uprising and delivered funds to Zayd. The earliest group, called Jarudiyya, was opposed to the approval of certain companions of Muhammad and they held that there was sufficient description given by the Prophet that all should have recognised Ali as the rightful Caliph. They therefore consider the Companions wrong in failing to recognise Ali as the legitimate Caliph and deny legitimacy to Abu Bakr, Umar and Usman, however and they further condemn two other companions of Muhammad, Talhah and Zubayr ibn al-Awam, for their initial uprising against Caliph Ali. The Jarudiyya were active during the late Umayyad Caliphate and early Abbasid Caliphate, the second group, the Sulaymaniyya, named for Sulayman ibn Jarir, held that the Imamate should be a matter to be decided by consultation. They felt that the companions, including Abu Bakr and Umar, had been in error in failing to follow Ali, the third group is known as the Tabiriyya, Butriyya or Salihiyya for Kathir an-Nawa al-Abtar and Hasan ibn Salih. Their beliefs are virtually identical to those of the Sulaymaniyya, except they see Uthman also as in error, Zayd bitterly scolds the rejectors who deserted him, an appellation used by Sunnis and Zaydis to refer to Twelver Shiites to this day
Zaidiyyah
38.
Twelver
–
Twelver Shia Islam or Imamiyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam. Twelver belief is based on the Quran and the message of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad attested in hadith, according to Shia tradition, the Mahdis tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal. Twelvers believe that the Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Iran is the only country with state religion as Shia Islam. They also differ in the role and overall definition of an Imam, alevis in Turkey and Albania and Alawis in Syria share belief in the Twelve Imams with Twelvers, but their theological doctrines are remarkably different. The Twelvers are also known by names, The Shiah is commonly used as a synonym for Twelvers since this branch comprises the majority group in Shia Islam. Shia refers to a group of Muslims who believe that the succession to Muhammad must remain in his family for specific members who are designated by a divine appointment, tabatabaei states that the word referred to the partisans of Ali at the time of Muhammad himself. Jafari refers exclusively to the Twelver Juridical school which is followed by the majority of Shias and it also refers to the minority Akhbaris who advocate a distinct juridical approach within Jafari Jurisprudence. The term is derived from the name of Jafar al-Sadiq who is considered by the Twelvers to be their Sixth Imām, Jafar al-Sadiq is also respected and referenced by the founders of the Sunni Hanafi and Maliki schools of jurisprudence. Imami or Imamiyyah or Imamite is a reference to the Twelver belief in the infallibility of the Imāms, Ali is quoted as arguing that unity of God means that he has no like, he is not subject to numeration and is not divisible either in reality or imagination. On another occasion, he is quoted saying, The first step of religion is to accept, understand, the correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person. Sayyid Haydar Amuli a prominent Shia mystic and philosopher defines God as alone in being, along with his names, his attributes, his actions, the totality of being therefore is he, through him, comes from him, and returns to him. God is not a next to or above other beings, his creatures, he is being. The divine unitude does not have the meaning of a unity, among, next to. For, if there were being other than he, God would no longer be the Unique, as this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence, Essentially there is one Reality which is one and indivisible. According to Twelvers theology, Tawhid consists of several aspects including Tawhid of the Essence, the attributes, the creatorship, Tawhid of the essence of God means his essence is one and peerless. Regarding this, Quran 112 states, Say, He is Allah, One, Allah and he neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent. Tawhid of the attributes means Gods names and attributes have no other reality than His essence, Ali argues that Every attributes testifies to its being other than the object to which it is attributed, and every such object in turn testifies to its being other than the attribute
Twelver
–
18th century
mirror writing in
Ottoman calligraphy. Depicts the phrase 'Ali is the vicegerent of God' in both directions.
Twelver
–
Names of
The Fourteen Infallibles (Masūmeen - Descendants Of Muhammad) written in the form of
Arabic name على 'Ali'
Twelver
–
Imam Husayn Shrine in
Karbala,
Iraq, where the
Battle of Karbala took place
39.
Batiniyya
–
Batiniyya refers to groups that distinguish between an outer, exoteric and an inner, esoteric meaning in Islamic scriptures. The term has been used in particular for a type of scriptural interpretation developed among some Shia groups. It has been retained by all branches of Ismailism and its Druze offshoots, the Alawites practice a similar system of interpretation. Sunni writers have used the term polemically in reference to rejection of the evident meaning of scripture in favor of its bāṭin meaning. Al-Ghazali, a medieval Sunni theologian, used the term batiniyya pejoratively for the adherents of Ismailism, some Shia writers have also used the term polemically. Besides, theyd called Hassan-i Sabbah and Nur al-Din Muhammad II as the head of the Hukumat-ee Malāāhedah-ee Bāṭiniyyah, batin Esoteric interpretation of the Quran
Batiniyya
Batiniyya
–
The author of
Meftah ū'
l-Ghayb Gül Baba was a
Hurufi -
Ostad of the
Esoteric interpretation of the Quran, and later his
türbe became an important
Ziyarat /
Pilgrimage place.
Batiniyya
–
Evliya Çelebi, the author of the
Seyâhatnâme, reported that his
Salat al-Janazah was attended by more than 200,000
Muslims in
Budapest,
Hungary.
40.
Alevism
–
Alevism or Alevi is a mystical branch of Islam whose adherents are followers of Ali, the Twelve Imams and their descendant, the 13th century Alevi saint Haji Bektash Veli. Having some links with Twelver Shia Islam, the practices of the Alevis are based on Sufi elements of the Bektashi tariqa, Alevism is seen as one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey, the other being the majority Sunni Islam. Alevis are often classified as a sect of Shia Islam, as Alevis accept Twelver Shi‘a beliefs about Ali, moreover, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini decreed Alevis to be part of the Shia fold in the 1970s. There are, however, Alevi philosophies, customs, and rituals that are different than those of Twelver Shias in Iraq. In particular, much of language in the Alevi tradition is inspired by Sufi traditions. Some sources link Alevism in particular to the heterodox syncretic sufi group known as the Bektashi Order, many Alevis refer to an Alevi-Bektashi tradition, but this identity is not universally adopted, nor is the combined name used by non-Turkish Bektashis. In addition to its religious aspect, Alevism is also associated with Turkish folk culture. Alevis follow the teachings of Muhammad, the Quran, his Ahl al-Bayt, The Twelve Imams and their descendant Alevi saint. For this reason its also referred to as Shīʿah-ee Bāṭen’īyyah, Most of the believers live in Turkey, with some scattered minorities in Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Caucasus, Greece, Iran and the Turkish Diaspora. According to The President of the Islamic-Alevi Religious Services Dede İzzettin Doğan, Alevism is nothing, Alevi is generally explained as referring to Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. The name represents a Turkish form of the word ‘Alawi of or pertaining to Ali, according to Ishikists assertion, on the other hand, it was derived from Alev in reference to fire which is extensively used in Alevi rituals. However, traditional Islamic Alevis claim that the name Alevi is linked to Ali, just like the word Musevi is linked to Musa, Isevi is linked to Isa and Mevlevi is linked to Mevlana. According to them the use of candles is based on Quran chapter 24, verses 35 and 36, God is the Light of the heavens, Light upon light, God guides to His light whom He pleases. And God sets forth examples for the people, and God is aware of all things. In houses, which God has permitted to be raised to honor, for the celebration, in them, of His name, In them is He glorified in the mornings and in the evenings. Even though the term Alevi is thought to be simply the Turkish derived form of Arabic ‘Alawī, Alevi used to be grouped as Kızılbaş, a generic term used by Sunni Muslims in the Ottoman Empire for the various Shia sects from the 15th century. Many other names exist, among them Tahtacı Woodcutters, Abdal Bards, in Turkey, Shia Muslim people belong to the Jafari Islamic school, which tracks back to the sixth Shia Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, are called as the Jafarīs, who belong to Twelver Shia. Although the Alevi Turks are being considered as a part of Twelver Shia Islam, they are different than the Jafarī Muslims in their convictions, the Alevi-Turks has a unique and perplex conviction tracing back to Kaysanites and Khurramites which are being considered as Ghulat Shia Islam
Alevism
Alevism
–
"Alevi-
Bektashis acknowledge they are from
Ahl al Kitab " by stating that the last four holy books (
Quran,
Gospel,
Torah and
Psalms) has the same degree of importance in guiding people to the
Divine Truth. This confession is pronounced in
Turkish: "
Dört kitab 'ın Dördü de "
Hâkk ""
Four valid books in Islam, namely
Psalms,
Torah,
Gospel, and
Qu'ran are all the "
Righteous "
Alevism
Alevism
41.
Hurufism
–
Hurufism was a Sufi doctrine, which was born in Azerbaijan and spread in areas of western Persia and Anatolia in later 14th – early 15th century. The founder and spiritual head of the Hurufi movement was Azerbaijanian Fażlu l-Lāh Astar-Ābādī, born in Astrabad, Iran, he was strongly drawn to Sufism and the teachings of Mansur Al-Hallaj and Rumi at an early age. In the mid-1370s Nāimī started to propagate his teachings all over Persia, while living in Tabriz, Fazlallah gained an elite following in the Jalayirid court, where the writing of his main work, Jawidan-Al-Kabir, allegedly took place. At that time he was still in the mainstream of Sufi tradition, later, he did move towards more esoteric spirituality, and, failing to convert Timur, was executed in 1394 near Alinja castle in Nakhchivan by the rulers son Miran Shah. The uprising of Hurufis, who had gathered a following, was crushed in Azerbaijan. According to Fazlallah, the key to open seventh sealed book, the Universe is eternal and moves by rotation. Gods visage is imperishable and is manifest in Man, the best of forms — zuhur kibriya, god is incarnated in every atom. Hurufis considered Fażlu l-Lāh, a manifestation of Gods force after Adam, Moses, god is also embodied in words and the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet and the 32 letters of Persian one are the basis for love and beauty in the world. Seven is a key corresponding to noble parts of the face. Man is a copy of the divine and the key to haqiqa. After his death Nāimīs ideas were developed and propagated by ‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī and Ali-ul Ala in Azerbaijan, poet Nasīmī and other Hurufis make kabbalistic tendencies subordinate to mystic concepts of Sufism, and specifically those of Mansur Al-Hallaj, who was another great influence on Nasīmī. Through Nasīmīs poetry Hurufi ideas influenced, in different degrees, people like Niyaz-i Misri, Fuzuli, Habibi, Khatai, the Bektashi order that still is active in Anatolia and the Balkans was a repository for the Hurufi teachings and writings. One of Nasîmîs personal students, Rafîî, emigrated into the Balkans and he transmitted a central thesis of Hurufism, that the cardinalities of the Arabic and Persian alphabet respectively enumerate all types of shape and sound, by axes of symmetry. A Hurufi rebellion in Kwarezem was suppressed by the Mongols, the Bektashi manuscripts show almost 500 years of Hurufism in the Balkans, with a peak in the 1700s. Other Sufi orders, such as the Qadiriyya, and the Naqshbandi, contributed in the collection, retrieval, from the Balkans, a great number of records were recorded in what is today Albania, but the relation between Bektashism and Hurufism is evidenced from Greek transcriptions. In total, many of Hurufi manuscripts that are existent today were safeguarded in the libraries of Bektashi lodges, Hurufi terms and concepts permeate Bektashi poetry. Gül Baba provided an extensive compendium of Hurufi ideas in The Key to the Unseen, the Shattari tariqah is a contemporary repository of Hurf-e-Muqattiyat. The scenes of Fadlullahs execution and of Nasimis brutal flailing in Aleppo appear in the Azeri language movie Nasimi, Hurufism plays a role in Turkish author Orhan Pamuks novel The Black Book
Hurufism
Hurufism
42.
Bektashi Order
–
The Bektashi Order or the Bektashi Tariqah, is a dervish order named after the 13th century Alevi Wali Haji Bektash Veli from Khorasan, but founded by Balım Sultan. The order is found throughout Anatolia and the Balkans, and was particularly strong in Albania, Bulgaria. The order represents the ideology of Bektashism. The mystical practices and rituals of the Bektashi order were systematized and structured by Balım Sultan in the 16th century after many of the orders distinct practices. A large number of academics consider Bektashism to have fused a number of Shia and Sufi concepts, although the order contains rituals, throughout its history Bektashis have always had wide appeal and influence among both the Ottoman intellectual elite as well as the peasantry. Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood وحدة الوجود and this has often been labeled as pantheism, although it is a concept closer to panentheism. Bektashism is also permeated with Shiite concepts, such as the marked reverence of Ali, The Twelve Imams. The old Persian holiday of Nowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as Imam Alis birthday, in keeping with the central belief of Wahdat-ul-Wujood the Bektashi see reality contained in Haqq-Muhammad-Ali, a single unified entity. Bektashi do not consider this a form of trinity, there are many other practices and ceremonies that share similarity with other faiths, such as a ritual meal and yearly confession of sins to a baba. Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox and mystical interpretation and understanding of the Quran and they have no written doctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has been taught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi mystics outside of their own order, such as Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali, Bektashis hold that the Quran has two levels of meaning, an outer and an inner. They hold the latter to be superior and eternal and this is reflected in their understanding of both the universe and humanity, Bektashism is also initiatic and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress along the spiritual path to the Reality. First level members are called aşıks عاشق and they are those who, while not having taken initiation into the order, are nevertheless drawn to it. Following initiation one becomes a mühip محب, after some time as a mühip, one can take further vows and become a dervish. The next level above dervish is that of baba, the baba is considered to be the head of a tekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance. Above the baba is the rank of halife-baba, traditionally there were twelve of these, the most senior being the dedebaba. The dedebaba was considered to be the highest ranking authority in the Bektashi Order, traditionally the residence of the dedebaba was the Pir Evi which was located in the shrine of Hajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town of Hacıbektaş, known as Hajibektash complex. With the abolition of Janissaries, the Bektashi order was banned throughout the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 and this decision was supported by the Sunni religious elite as well as the leaders of other, more orthodox, Sufi orders
Bektashi Order
Bektashi Order
–
Order of Bektāshī dervishes Bektaşi Tarikatı
Bektashi Order
–
World Headquarters of the Bektashi Community in
Tirana,
Albania
43.
Alawites
–
The Alawites, also known as Alawis, are part of a branch of Islam, Alawi Islam, centered in Syria, who follow the Twelver school of Shia Islam but with syncretistic elements. Alawites revere Ali, and the name Alawi means followers of Ali, the sect is believed to have been founded by Ibn Nusayr during the 9th century. Today, Alawites represent 11 percent of the Syrian population and are a significant minority in Turkey, there is also a population living in the village of Ghajar in the Golan Heights. They are often confused with the Alevis of Turkey, Alawites form the dominant religious group on the Syrian coast and towns near the coast which are also inhabited by Sunnis, Christians, and Ismailis. Alawites have historically kept their beliefs secret from outsiders and non-initiated Alawites, Arabic accounts of their beliefs tend to be partisan. However, since the early 2000s, Western scholarship on the Alawite religion has made significant advances, at the core of Alawite belief is a divine triad, comprising three aspects of the one God. These aspects or emanations appear cyclically in human form throughout history, the last emanations of the divine triad, according to Alawite belief, were as Ali, Muhammad and Salman the Persian. Alawites were historically persecuted for these beliefs by the Sunni Muslim rulers of the area, the establishment of the French Mandate of Syria marked a turning point in Alawi history. It gave the French the power to recruit Syrian civilians into their forces for an indefinite period and created exclusive areas for minorities. The Alawite State was later dismantled, but the Alawites continued to be a significant part of the Syrian army, since Hafez al-Assad took power in 1970, the government has been dominated by a political elite led by the Alawite Al-Assad family. During the Islamic uprising in Syria in the 1970s and 1980s the establishment came under pressure, even greater pressure has resulted from the Syrian Civil War. French occupying forces used the term Alaouites, a transliteration into French, in older sources, Alawis are often called Ansaris. According to Samuel Lyde, who lived among the Alawites during the mid-19th century, other sources indicate that Ansari is simply a Western error in the transliteration of Nosairi. However, the term Nusayri had fallen out of currency by the 1920s and they characterised the older name as an invention of the sects enemies, ostensibly favouring an emphasis on connection with mainstream Islam—particularly the Shia branch. As such, Nusayri is now regarded as antiquated, and has even come to have insulting. Recent research has shown that the Alawi appellation was used by the sects adherents since the 11th century, the following quote from Alkan illustrates this point, In actual fact, the name Alawī appears as early as in an 11 th-century Nuṣayrī tract. Moreover, the term Alawī was already used at the beginning of the 20th century, lastly, it is interesting to note that in the above-mentioned petitions of 1892 and 1909 the Nuṣayrīs called themselves the Arab Alawī people our ʿAlawī Nuṣayrī people or signed with Alawī people. This early self-designation is, in my opinion, of triple importance, the Alawites are distinct from the Alevi religious sect in Turkey, although the terms share a common etymology and pronunciation
Alawites
Alawites
–
Zulfiqar, a stylised representation of the sword of Ali, is an important symbol for Alawites
Alawites
–
Alawite
falconer photographed by
Frank Hurley in
Baniyas,
Syria during
World War II
Alawites
–
Alawite woman
gleaning in 1938
44.
Qizilbash
–
The word Kızılbaş is Ottoman Turkish, meaning Crimson/Red Head. The name was originally a pejorative label given to them by their Sunni Ottoman foes, the origin of the Qizilbash can be dated from the 15th century onward, when the spiritual grandmaster of the movement, Haydar, organized his followers into militant troops. Like the Qizilbash, the latter were an early Shii ghulat group and dressed in red, in this context, Turkish scholar Abdülbaki Gölpinarli sees the Qizilbash as spiritual descendants of the Khurramites. The Qizilbash were a coalition of different tribes of predominantly Turkic-speaking Azerbaijani background united in their adherence to Safavi Shia Islam. The Qizilbash adhered to heterodox Shi’i doctrines encouraged by the early Safavi sheikhs Haydar and they regarded their rulers as divine figures, and so were classified as ghulat extremists by orthodox Twelvers. When Tabriz was taken, there was not a book on Twelverism among the Qizilbash leaders. The book of the well known Iraqi scholar al-Hilli was procured in the library to provide religious guidance to the state. The imported Shii ulama did not participate in the formation of Safavid religious policies during the formation of the state. However, ghulat doctrines were later forsaken and Arab Twelver ulama from Lebanon, Iraq, in Turkey, Shia Muslim people belong to the Jafari jurisprudence Madhhab, which tracks back to the sixth Shia Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, are called as the Jafaris, who belong to Twelver Shia. Although the Qizilbash Turks are considered a part of Twelver Shia Islam, the Qizilbashes has a unique and perplex conviction tracing back to Kaysanites Shia and Khurramites which are considered as Ghulat Shia. This belief provides strong clues about their Kaysanites Shia and Khurramites origins, in addition, the Safaviyya Tariqah leader Ismail I is a highly regarded individual in the belief of Qizilbash-Tariqah associating them with the Imamah conviction of the Twelver Shia Islam. Not all of the members believe that the fasting in Ramadan is obligatory although some Alevi-Turks performs their fasting duties partially in Ramadan, Some beliefs of Shamanism still are common amongst the Qizilbash Alevi-Turkish people in villages. On the other hand, the members of Bektashi Order have a conviction of Batiniyya Ismailism and Hurufism with a belief in the The Twelve Imams. In conclusion, Qizilbash-Alevis are not a part of Jafari jurisprudence fiqh and their conviction includes Batiniyya-Hurufism and Sevener-Qarmatians-Ismailism sentiments. Today, the remnants of the Qizilbash confederacy are found among the Afshar, the Qashqai, Turkmen, Shahsevan, Some of these names consist of a place-name with addition of the Turkish suffix -lu, such as Shāmlu or Bahārlu. Other names are those of old Oghuz tribes such as the Afshār, Dulghadir, or Bayāt, the origin of the name Ustādjlu, however, is unknown, and possibly indicates a non-Turkic origin of the tribe. As V. Minorsky put it, friction between two groups was inevitable, because the Turcomans were no party to the national Persian tradition. Shah Ismail tried to solve the problem by appointing Persian wakils as commanders of Qizilbash tribes
Qizilbash
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Mannequin of a
Safavid Qizilbash soldier, exhibited in
Sa'dabad,
Iran
Qizilbash
Qizilbash
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Shah Ismail I, the
Sheikh of the
Safavi tariqa, founder of the
Safavid Dynasty of
Iran, and the
Commander-in-chief of the Qizilbash armies.
Qizilbash
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A
Safavid -
Kızılbaş (Qizilbash) soldier.
45.
Taiyabi Ismaili
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The Ṭaiyabi Ismailis are the only surviving sect of the Musta’li Ismaili branch of Ismaili Islam. The other Mustaali branch, Hafizis are extinct, the Taiyabi have split into three major branches, Dawoodi, Sulaymani, and Alavi Bohras. The Taiyabi originally split from the Fatimid Caliphate-supporting Hafizi branch by supporting the right of at-Tayyib Abul-Qasim to the Imamate, upon the death of the twentieth Imam, al-Amir bi-Ahkamil-Lah, his two-year old child at-Tayyib Abul-Qasim was appointed twenty-first Imam. As he was not in position to run the dawah, Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi, the Dai had now been given absolute authority and made independent from political activity. Dai Zoeb bin Moosa used to live in and died in Haus and his mazoon was Khattab bin Hasan. After death of Abdullah, Zoeb bin Moosa appointed Yaqub as the wali of the Taiyabi organization in India, Yaqub was the first person of Indian origin to receive this honor. He was son of Bharmal, minister of the Rajput King Jayasimha Siddharaja, fakhruddin, son of Tarmal, was sent to western Rajasthan. One Dai after another were continued until the twenty-fourth Dai, Yusuf Najmuddin ibn Sulaiman, due to prosecution by a local ruler, the dawah then shifted to India under the twenty-fifth Dai, Jalal bin Hasan. In 1592, the Taiyabi broke into two factions in a dispute over who should become the twenty-seventh Dai, Dawood Bin Qutubshah or Sulayman bin Hassan, the followers of the former, primarily in India, became the Dawoodi Bohra, the latter the Sulaymani of Yemen. In 1637, the Alavi Bohra split from the Dawoodi bohra community, there is also a community of Sunni Bohra in India. In the fifteenth century, there was schism in the Bohra community of Patan in Gujarat as a number converted from Mustaali Ismaili Shia Islam to mainstream Hanafi Sunni Islam. The leader of this movement to Sunni was Syed Jafar Ahmad Shirazi who also had the support of Mughal governor of Gujarat. Thus this new group is known as Jafari Bohras, Patani Bohras or Sunni Bohras, in 1538, Syed Jafar Ahmad Shirazi convinced the Patani Bohras to cease social relations with Ismaili Bohras. The cumulative results of these resulted in large number of Bohras converting from Ismaili Shia fiqh to Sunni Hanafi fiqh. The Hebtiahs Bohra are a branch of Mustaali Ismaili Shia Islam that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 39th Dai al-Mutlaq in 1754 and they have further split into two more branches, the Atba-e-Malak Badar and Atba-i-Malak Vakil. The Progressive Dawoodi Bohra is a reformist sect within Mustaali Ismaili Shia Islam that broke off circa 1977 and they disagree with mainstream Dawoodi Bohra, as led by the Dai al-Mutlaq, on doctrinal, economic and social issues. At present, the largest Taiyabi faction is the Dawoodi Bohra, the Hafizids and Tayyibids Abul Qaasim Maulaana Imaam Taiyeb - The noor and rehmat of Haqq
Taiyabi Ismaili
46.
Alavi Bohras
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The Alavi Bohras علوي بھرۃ are a Taiyebi Mustaalavi Ismaili Shii Muslim طیبي مستعلوي اسماعیلي شیعۃ مسلم community from Gujarat, India. Two major splits during this period resulted in the formation of three groups of Bohras, Alavis, Dawoodis and Sulaymanis. e. From 1st Dai Saiyedna Zoeb bin Saiyedi Moosa till 23rd Dai Saiyedna Mohammad Izzuddin, in Sindh and India too Wali-ul-Hind ولي الھند were appointed by these Duaat دعاۃ one after another until Wali-ul-Hind Maulaai Jafar, Maulaai Abd ul Wahab and Maulaai Qaasim Khan bin Hasan. The last three wali were of help in the era of the 21st to 24th Dai i. e. Saiyedna Husaamuddin, Saiyedna Shamsuddin, Saiyedna Izzuddin. Following the death of the 26th Dai Saiyedna Dawoodji Burhaanuddin bin Saiyedi Ajabshah in 997 AH/1591 AD in Ahmedabad, Sulayman bin Hasan, the grandson of 24th Dai, was wali in Yemen and claimed the succession, supported by the other Yemeni Bohra. However, the Indian Bohra denied his claim of nass, declaring supporting documentation to be forged, the two factions separated, with the followers of Sulayman becoming the Sulaymanis, and the followers of 27th Dai Saiyedna Dawoodji Burhaanuddin bin Saiyedi Qutubshah becoming the Dawoodi Bohra. Saiyedna Ali, the 29th Alavi Dai was born in the city of Vadodara in Fakhri Mohalla. His father Saiyedi Ibrahim died during his childhood and he was born on 8th Rabi ul-Awwal 1379 AH/10-9-1959 AD, Thursday in Vadodara. He is the actual Dai of Alavi Bohras. After this Hierarchy comes the Status of 24 Hudood, Vadodara City is the Headquarters of Alavi Bohras where Saiyedna saheb stays along with the family members at Devdi Mubaarak. It is the place right from 32nd Dai stayed and imparted knowledge to their subjects in their respective periods. It has now become the hub of Ismaili-Taiyebi branch of Learning, as it houses the Islamic Personal Library of Rare Books and the Unique Personal Collection of MSS pertaining to Ismaili Taiyebi Literature. Under strict supervision and permission Saiyedna saheb himself manages the Library affairs, during the seclusion of Imam, his deputy-Da’i performs this act of succession whom he finds eligible for the status of Da’i. He might not be from his sons, unlike the succession of Imam where an Imam always appoints his successor from one of his sons, after Mohammad this rank is on the 6th position and after this comes Mazoon-مأذون and Mukaasir-مکاسر. In Yemen, after the seclusion, Da’i was given Itlaaq-إطلاق or a free conduct and absolute religious and social authority and his command is regarded as a final decree guided by the divine support of Imam and this is the reason he is called Da’i al-Mutlaq. Saiyedna Haatim Zakiyuddin is the 45th Da’i al-Mutlaq of Alavi Bohras in the line of succession of these Da’is in which 24 are in Yemen,7 are in Ahmedabad,1 is in Surat and 12 are in Vadodara. At any cost he always assists and obeys his superior and his Master and his prime responsibility is to conduct teaching sessions and make them understand the basic things of Isma’ili Taiyebi faith. In the absence of Da’i he acts as his legatee, Da’i may appoint his Mazoon as his successor. And if not Da’i can appoint someone more learned and efficient for the post of Da’i after him, as the respectable post of Mazoon is necessary for the completeness of Spiritual Hierarchy
Alavi Bohras
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Alavi Bohras are marked as dark blue
47.
Dawoodi Bohra
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The Dawoodi Bohras are a sect within the Ismāīlī branch of Shia Islam. Bohras mainly reside in the cities of India and also in Pakistan, Yemen. The main language of the community is Lisan ud-Dawat, a dialect of Gujarati with inclusions from Arabic, Urdu, a Bohra woman wears a two piece dress called a rida. The Dawoodi Bohra follow a sort of Shia Islam as propagated by the Fatimid Imamate in medieval Egypt. They pray 5 times a day joining both afternoon prayers Zuhr & Asr and both evening prayers Maghreb and Isha, fast in the month of Ramadan, perform Haj and Umrah, the Dawoodi Bohras, being Ismailis and thus Jafaris, were included as Muslims in the Amman Message. There are some criticisms of the Amman message, the word Bohra comes from the Gujarati word vehru, in reference to their traditional profession. The term Dawoodi comes from the given to Dawood Bin Qutubshah during a schism that the community faced in 1592 when there was a leadership dispute. The Dawoodi Bohra sect is a Shia sect also referred to as the Tayyabī Mustalī Ismāīlī sect, the Ismailis were split from the now mainstream Ithna Ashari Shias over the succession issue of Imam Jafar Al-Sadiq. The Ismailis took Ismail bin Jafar as their Imam whereas the Twelvers took Musa Kazim bin Jafar Al-Sadiq as their Imam, the Ismailis split into Druze and mainstream Ismailis due to a succession issue and further down the line they again split into Nizari and Mustaali branches. The Mustaali branch to which Dawoodi Bohra trace their legacy continues until the 21st Imam Al-Tayyab and his direct descendent is considered as the current Imam and remains in seclusion. While the Imam is in seclusion, the governance of the sect has been entrusted to the Dai al-Mutlaq, splinter groups of the Bohras have subsequently emerged over the succession dispute of the preceding Dai. The role of Dai was created by Queen Arwa bint Ahmed of Yemen and it should not be confused with other offices that exist in the Imamate such as Dai-ad-Duat and Dai al-Balagh. Zoeb bin Moosa is the first Dai-al-Mutlaq and they believe that Muhammad chose Ali as his successor and publicly declared this while he was returning from his first and last Haj in 632 CE. Dawoodi Bohras, in keeping with all Shia believe that after Muhammad, Ali had been the rightful wasi, Imam and caliph, Ali was the final Rashidun Caliph from 656-661 CE, the Imamate and caliphate were united in this period. After Hasan, Husain and his family and companions were killed at the Battle of Karbala, Dawoodi Bohras believe that Husains head was buried first, in the courtyard of Yazid, then transferred from Damascus to Ashkelon, and then to Cairo. The first through the fifth Ismāʿīlī Imams - until Jafar al-Sadiq - are commonly accepted by all the Shia, Bohras and Nizari Ismāʿīlīs treat Ali as Vasi and Imam Hasan as first Imam whereas Twelvers number Ali as the first. The followers of Jafars son, Ismail ibn Jafar, became Ismailis, Twelvers believe that Musa al-Kadhim was heir to Jafar instead, their Imams diverged at that point. During the period of Jafar, the Abbasid Caliphate replaced the Umayyads, due to strong suppression by the Abbasids, the seventh Ismāʿīlī Imam, Muhammad ibn Ismail, went into a period of Occultation
Dawoodi Bohra
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Dawoodi Bohra in their customary attire
Dawoodi Bohra
Dawoodi Bohra
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Tree of the
Shia Islam.
Dawoodi Bohra
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Zarih of Arwa al-Sulayhi,Yemen
48.
Sulaymani
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Sulaymani Bohras are a Musta‘lī Ismaili community that predominantly reside in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Pakistan and India. They number between several hundred thousand and one million in Saudi Arabia alone and they belong to Tayyibi Ismailis, which bifurcated into various Bohras including major group Dawoodi Bohra. The Shia of India London 1953 Lokhandwalla, a Muslim community of Gujarat 1955 Hazrat Mohammed Shakir Zia Urdu translation from Arabic, Biography of Dai- Mutlaq Sayedna Sulayman B. Mulla Saadullah bin Sayyadi Almansub Nasrullah Saheb, - References from scores of History books of Dawa, including letters from Duat and Manaaseeb by and between them. Mulla Masood M. Ali Sulaymani Census and Survey in India & Pakistan Mulla Masood m. Ali Extracted, asif A. Fyzee Three Sulaymani Dais Hussain B
Sulaymani
–
Tree of the
Ismāʿīlī Shia Islam.
Sulaymani
Sulaymani
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The divisions of the Mustaali, sometimes referred to as Bohras.
49.
List of extinct Shia sects
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The following is a list of extinct sects of Shia Islam. These branches of Shii are thought no longer to have any living followers or practitioners, bazighiyya– who believed that Jafar al-Sadiq was God. Dhammiyya– who believed that Ali was God and Muhammad was his appointed Messenger, ghurabiyya– who believed the angel Gabriel was mistaken when passing on the prophecy to Muhammad instead of Ali. Ya’furiyya– who believed in reincarnation and that a man named Mu’ammar al-Kufi was their Lord, kaysanites– who believed in the Imamate of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah after the death of Husayn Ibn Ali Ibn abu Talib. Hurufiyya– who believed God is incarnated in every atom, reminiscent of the Alevi-Bektashism, nuqtavites– who believed in a cyclical view of time, reminiscent of the Ismaili Shia. Soldiers of Heaven– who believed that their former leader Dia Abdul Zahra Kadim was the Mahdi, dukayniyya– who believed Muhammad’s followers fell into unbelief after his death because they did not uphold the Imamate of Ali. Jarudiyya– who believed the companions were sinful in failing to recognise Ali as the legitimate Caliph and they became extinct in Iran and Iraq but still survive in Yemen under the Hadawi sub-sect. Khalafiyya– who believed in a line of Imams after Zayd ibn Ali ibn Husayn Ibn Ali Ibn abu Talib, starting with a man named Abd al-Samad. Khashabiyya– who believed that the Imamate must remain only among the descendents of Hasan and Husayn, even if that Imam is ignorant, immoral and tyrannical. Tabiriyya/Butriyya/Salihiyya– who believed the companions, including Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, had been in error in failing to follow Ali, fathites– who believed Abdullah al-Aftah was the succeeding Imam after his father Jafar al-Sadiqs death. Muhammadites– who believed that Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi was the true 11th Imam, tawussites– who believed that Jafar al-Sadiq was the Mahdi and that he was alive and did not die. Waqifites– who believed in the Imamate of Musa al-Kadhim but refused to accept the Imamate of his successor Ali ar-Ridha, hafizi– who believed the ruler of the Fatimid Empire, Al-Hafiz, was also the Imam of the Time. Qarmatians– who believed in a view where every phenomenon repeated itself in cycles
List of extinct Shia sects
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