1.
Druze
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The Druze are an esoteric ethnoreligious group originating in Western Asia who self-identify as unitarians. Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of all Mandaeans and Mahra from Druze Mountain, the Druze faith is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the teachings of Hamza ibn-Ali, al-Hakim, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Akhenaten. The Epistles of Wisdom is the text of the Druze faith. The Druze follow theophany, and believe in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul, at the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind. Although dwarfed by other, larger communities, the Druze community played an important role in shaping the history of the Levant, even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are not considered Muslims. Fatimid Caliph Ali az-Zahir, whose father al-Hakim is a key figure in the Druze faith, was harsh, causing the death of many Druze in Antioch, Aleppo. Persecution flared up during the rule of the Mamluks and Ottomans, most recently, Druze were targeted by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Al-Qaeda in order to cleanse Syria and neighboring countries of non-Islamic influence. The Druze faith is one of the religious groups in the Levant. They are found primarily in Syria, Lebanon and Israel, with communities in Jordan. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon, the Druze people reside primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. The Institute of Druze Studies estimates that forty to fifty percent of Druze live in Syria, thirty to forty percent in Lebanon, six to seven percent in Israel, about two percent of the Druze population are also scattered within other countries in the Middle East. Large communities of Druze also live outside the Middle East, in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America, the United States and they use the Arabic language and follow a social pattern very similar to those of the other peoples of the Levant. The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant, the name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī who was an early preacher. Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic, the name has been used to identify them, before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year, although the Druze religious books describe ad-Darazi as the insolent one and as the calf who is narrow-minded and hasty, the name Druze is still used for identification and for historical reasons. In 1018 ad-Darazi was assassinated for his teachings, some claim that he was executed by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Some authorities see in the name Druze a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic dāresah, others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word Darazo or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith
2.
Muwahhid Muslim
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The People of Monotheism may translate several Arabic terms, Ahl al-Tawḥīd, a name the Druze use for themselves. Literally, The People of the Unity or The Unitarians, from tawḥid, al-Muwaḥḥidun is an Arabic term meaning the monotheists. It has currency as, the Arabic name of the Almohads, a term that adherents of Salafism use to describe themselves. A term that the Druze use to describe themselves, a term that the ʿAlawīs use to describe themselves. Ahl al-ʿAdl wa t-Tawḥīd, The People of Justice and Monotheism, a term used by the Muʿtazilis to describe themselves
3.
Reincarnation
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Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence and it is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation, in recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it. The word reincarnation derives from Latin, literally meaning, entering the flesh again, the Greek equivalent metempsychosis derives from meta and empsykhoun, a term attributed to Pythagoras. An alternate term is transmigration implying migration from one life to another, the term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel and has entered the English language. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, being born again, Rebirth is a key concept found in major Indian religions, and discussed with various terms. These religions believe that this reincarnation is cyclic and an endless Saṃsāra and they consider the release from the cycle of reincarnations as the ultimate spiritual goal, and call the liberation by terms such as moksha, nirvana, mukti and kaivalya. Gilgul, Gilgul neshamot or Gilgulei Ha Neshamot refers to the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, Gilgul means cycle and neshamot is souls. Kabbalistic reincarnation says that humans only to humans and to the same sex only. The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure, discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India. The Greek Pre-Socratics discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic Druids are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation, the ideas associated with reincarnation may have arisen independently in different regions, or they might have spread as a result of cultural contact. In ancient European, Iranian and Indian agricultural cultures, the cycles of birth, death. The idea of reincarnation has early roots in the Vedic period, predating the Buddha, the concepts of the cycle of birth and death, samsara, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Though no direct evidence of this has found, the tribes of the Ganges valley or the Dravidian traditions of South India have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs. Hinduisms Rigveda makes references to reincarnation in the Brahmanas layer, though these early textual layers of the Vedas, from 2nd millennium BCE, mention and anticipate the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the idea is not fully developed. It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre-Buddha and pre-Mahavira, the texts of ancient Jainism that have survived into the modern era are post-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and extensively mention rebirth and karma doctrines. The Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration, after death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts
4.
Theophany
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Theophany refers to the appearance of a deity to a human. This term has been used to refer to appearances of the gods in the ancient Greek, while the Iliad is the earliest source for descriptions of theophanies in the Classical tradition/era, probably the earliest description of a theophany is in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Only a small number of theophanies are found in the Hebrew Bible, at Delphi the Theophania was an annual festival in spring celebrating the return of Apollo from his winter quarters in Hyperborea. The culmination of the festival was a display of an image of the gods, usually hidden in the sanctuary, later Roman mystery religions often included similar brief displays of images to excited worshippers. The appearance of Zeus to Semele is more than a mortal can stand, however, most Greek theophanies were less deadly. Unusual for Greek mythology is the story of Prometheus, not an Olympian but a Titan, there are no descriptions of the humans involved in this theophany, but Prometheus was severely punished by Zeus. The Bible states that God revealed himself to man, God speaks with Adam and Eve in Eden, with Cain, with Noah and his sons, and with Abraham and his wife Sarah. Isaiahs first revelation was also a sight of God, Amos had his visions, and so with Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Zechariah, Balaam also boasted of being one who saw the vision of the Almighty. Most vividly does Eliphaz describe such a revelation, In thoughts from the vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon me, a spirit passed before my face, the hair of my flesh stood up. He stood still, but I could not discern his appearance, a figure was before mine eyes, a whispering voice I heard. In Midian, while Moses was keeping the flock of his father in law Jethro, the theophany at Biblical Mount Sinai is related in Exodus 19, 16–25. Yahwehs manifestation is accompanied by thunder and lightning, there is a flame, reaching to the sky, the loud notes of a trumpet are heard. Out of the midst of the flame and the cloud a voice reveals the Ten Commandments,5, 4-19 is practically the same, and in its guarded language it strongly emphasizes the incorporeal nature of God. Moses in his points to this revelation as to the source of the election of Israel. God appears on Sinai like a sun and comes accompanied by holy myriads. Likewise, in the Song of Deborah the manifestation is described as a storm, the quakes, Sinai trembles. It is poetically elaborated in the prayer of Habakkuk, here past,2 and Judges v.4, God appears from Teman and Paran. His majesty is described as a glory of light and brightness, the mountains tremble violently, the earth quakes, the people are sore afraid
5.
Seven pillars of Ismailism
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The Ismāīlī Shia – the Nizari, Druze and Mustaali – have more Pillars than those of the Sunni. The Shahadah, is not considered a Pillar and is seen as the foundation upon which they are built. Walayah Guardianship denotes love and devotion to God, the prophets, the scripture, the imams, in Ismāīlī doctrine, God is one and the true desire of every soul, creator of everything. The appointed duāt lead believers to the right path, the Druze refer to this pillar as Taslīm Submission, An informative article on the Seven Pillars and Walayah. An informative article on the relationship between Salah and Dua. These three times have been related with the three times that have mentioned in the Quran, sunrise, before sunset, and after sunset. In contrast, the Mustalī maintain five prayers and their style is closely related to that of the Twelvers. The Druze believe that the meaning of prayer is sidqu l-lisān speaking Truth and they do sometimes attend prayers, which is the practice of the uninitiated and historically was also done for reasons of taqiyya. The Ismāīlīs donate 10% to 12 and these institutions are run by the Aga Khan Development Network, which is one of the biggest welfare networks in the world. Thus, Ismāīlīs believe that as Muhammad was designated to take zakāt from the believers in the past, the Druze practice hifzu l-Ikhwān Protection of Ones Brothers instead of paying a fee, a culturally complex practice of interdependence. Sawm Fasting, Nizari and Mustalī believe in both a metaphorical and literal meaning of fasting, in particular, Ismāīlīs believe the real and esoteric meaning of fasting is avoiding devilish acts and doing the good deeds. Not eating during the month of Ramadan in conjunction with an implementation of fasting. The Druze emphasise the esoteric meaning, which they call tark ibādat al-awthān deserting idol-worship, hajj Pilgrimage, For Ismāīlīs, visiting the imām or his representative is one of the most aspired pilgrimages. There are two pilgrimages, Hajj-i-Zahiri and Hajj-i-Batini - the first is the visit to Mecca, the second, the Mustalī maintain also the practice of going to Mecca. The Druze interpret this completely metaphorically as fleeing from devils and oppressors, in addition, the Uqqāl Wise Ones, the religious cadre of the Druze, are pacifists. The ordering of the pillars as understood by Druze is as follows, Taslīm Submission denotes love and devotion to God, the prophets, the Imām and the du‘āt missionaries. In Ismā‘īlī doctrine, God is the desire of every soul, and he manifests himself in the forms of prophets and imāms. The Druze never mention ‘Alī, unlike most Ismā‘īlīs, as they believe al-Hakīm supersedes his authority, sidqu l-Lisān speaking Truth, The Druze believe that the meaning of prayer is sidqu l-lisān and do not believe in five daily prayers
6.
Taqiya
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Taqiya is an Islamic term referring to precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution. Another term for this concept, kitmān, has a specific meaning of dissimulation by silence or omission. This practice is emphasized in Shia Islam whereby adherents are permitted to conceal their religion when under threat of persecution or compulsion, however, it is also permitted in Sunni Islam under certain circumstances. Taqiyya was initially practiced under duress by some of Muhammads Companions, later, it became particularly important for Shias due to their experience as a persecuted religious minority. According to Shia doctrine, taqiyya is permissible in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property, Taqiyya has also been politically legitimised, particularly among Twelver Shias, in order to maintain unity among Muslims and fraternity among the Shia clerics. Yarden Mariuma writes, Taqiyya is an Islamic juridical term whose shifting meaning relates to when a Muslim is allowed, under Sharia law, to lie. A concept whose meaning has varied significantly among Islamic sects, scholars, countries, the term taqiyya is derived from the Arabic triliteral root wāw-qāf-yā, denoting fear, or prudence, guarding against. In the sense of prudence, fear it can be used synonymously with the terms tuqa, tuqāt, taqwā and ittiqāʾ and these terms also have other meanings. For example, the term taqwa can mean piety, an alternative term for religious dissimulation is kitmān action of covering, dissimulation. Regarding 3,28, Ibn Kathir writes, meaning, except those believers who in some areas or times fear for their safety from the disbelievers, in this case, such believers are allowed to show friendship to the disbelievers outwardly, but never inwardly. He quotes Muhammads companion, Abu Ad-Darda, who said we smile in the face of people although our hearts curse them. A similar instance of the Quran permitting dissimulation under compulsion is found in Sura 16,106, Sunni and Shia commentators alike observe that verse 16,106 refers to the case of Ammar b. Yasir, who was forced to renounce his beliefs under physical duress, the doctrine of taqiyya was developed at the time of Jafar al-Sadiq, the sixth Imamiya Imam. It served to protect Shias when Al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, conducted a brutal and oppressive campaign against Alids, shiis lived mostly as a minority among a frequently-hostile Sunni majority until the rise of Safavid dynasty. This condition made taqiyya doctrine important to Shias, Taqiyya holds a central place in Twelver Shia Islam. This is sometimes explained by the minority position Shias had under the dominance of Sunni Muslims, requiring them to protect themselves through concealment. In Shia legal literature, there is a range of situations in which taqiyya may be used or even required, for Shia Muslims, taqiyya is to conceal their association with their faith when revealing it would result in danger. Taqiyya is done for reasons of safety, for example, a person may fear that he might be killed or harmed if he does not observe taqiyya
7.
Walayah
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Welayah or Welaya, is a word which empower gives authority/guardianship to a person, community, or country that is under the direction and rule on behalf of another. Wali is someone who has Walayah over somebody else, for example, in fiqh, a father is wali of his children. Two verbal noun are derived from the Arabic root of the word w-l-y ولي, Walayah and Wilayah which means to be near to something, to be a friend of someone, the term welayah also has similarity with AWLIA. The term Wali derives from Quran. It occurs also in a number of aḥādīṯ qodsīya or Hadith Qudsi, such as “whoever harms a friend of Mine, I declare war against him and others. There are several kinds of Walayah, Wila of love or nearness which implies that the household of the prophet are his near relatives, Awliya Allah means the friends of Allah or the beloved of Allah. Wila of socio-political leadership Spiritual Wila which concerns changing the potentials to the action and making the people to get to the divine nearness, the Wali has a kind of creative power over the world and the men. Corbin states that Walayah is the foundation of the prophecy and the mission of the messenger, and it concerns to the esoteric dimension of the prophetic reality. Abu al-Hasan Sharif Isfahani, a student of Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, by many hadith argues that the walayah is the inner, mulla Sadra states that the genealogical descendents of Muhammad and his spiritual heirs are Awliya. Dakake describes Walayah as an inheritance, esoteric knowledge, that Imams inherit from the prophets. Which expresses the spiritual and political authority of ahl al-Bayt, tabatabaei regards that Walayah is the esoteric dimension of the Imamah and it is not just guiding the man, but it is conveying the man to the Truth. By verse 42,23 and hadith of Ghadir, the called the Muslims to love his pure. Al-Tabari, Az-Zamakhshari and Fakhrud-Din ar-Razi state that verse 5,55 is revealed about Ali, the verse implies that Allah and His prophet is the Wali and the holders of the authority of the Muslims and the believers must accept their Wila. This bond of love further causes that the Muslims follow their speeches, deeds, in Quran, the term walayah is used in conjunction with nusrah and it is not only used in relation to God but also is used for those who have perfect devotion to God. Some traditions state that the verse 7,172 deals with the pact that God has taken for His Lordship and the Walayah to the prophet. In the Quran, the term showes a link between faithfulness to God and devotion to the members of the community, tabatabaei claims that wherever Quran ascribes the guardianship for the prophet, it means authority and devotion. Whosoever dies in enmity to the family of Muhammad, dies an nbeliever, whosoever dies in enmity of the family of Muhammad, will not smell the scent of Paradise. A hadith al-Baqir narrates that Islam is built upon five, prayer, alms-giving, fasting, pilgrimageand walayah, and not one of them was proclaimed, the way walayah was proclaimed. Hasan ibn Ali narrates that after professing tawhid and the mission of the prophets, jafar al-Sadiq told that Imam separates the people of the Heaven from the Hell, without any judgement, because their love for the Imam is their Heaven or Hell respectively
8.
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
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Abū ʿAlī Manṣūr, better known by his regnal title al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh, was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam. Histories of al-Hakim can prove controversial, as views of his life. Born in 985 CE, Abu Ali Mansur was the first Fatimid ruler to have born in Egypt. Al-Ḥākim had blue eyes flecked with reddish gold, Al-Ḥākim was born on Thursday,3 Rābi‘u l-Awwal in 985. His father, Caliph Abū Mansūr al-‘Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts, one was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Azīziyyah or al-‘Azīzah. She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Azīz, different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily. Al-‘Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that al-‘Azīzah was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. The sage wrote the entire Quran in the surface of a bowl. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude and her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison. Druze sources claim that al-Ḥākims mother was the daughter of ‘Abdu l-Lāh, one of al-Mu‘īzz li Dīn al-Lāhs sons, historians such as Delia Cortese are critical of this claim, t is more likely that this woman was in fact a wife of al-Hakim, rather than his mother. In 996, al-Ḥākims father Caliph al-‘Azīz began a trip to visit Syria, the Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from stone with pains in the bowels, when he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son, Al-Ḥākim later recalled the event, I found him with nothing on his body but rags and bandages. I kissed him, and he pressed me to his bosom, exclaiming, How I grieve for thee, beloved of my heart and he then said, Go, my master, and play, for I am well. I obeyed and began to amuse myself with such as are usual with boys. Barjawan then hastened to me, and seeing me on the top of a tree, exclaimed, Come down, my boy, may God protect you. When I descended he placed on my head the turban adorned with jewels, kissed the ground before me and he then led me out in that attire and showed me to all the people, who kissed the ground before me and saluted me with the title of Khalif. On the following day, he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo, behind the camel bearing his fathers body and they arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘īzz
9.
Nabi Shu'ayb
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The identity of Shuayb with the Jethro, however, is a Muslim and Druze tradition rather than historical fact. Prophet shuayb is the 14th prophet, Nabi Shuayb was an object of traditional veneration by Druze and Sunni Muslims through Palestine. The shrine figured down to Israeli-Arab war of 1948 as a place where both Sunni Muslims and Druze took vows and made ziyarat, after the 1948 war, Israel placed the maqam or shrine under exclusive Druze care. A central figure in the Druze religion, the tomb of Nabi Shuaib, has been a site of pilgrimage for the Druze for centuries. Shrines dedicated to Nabi Shuaib are common throughout the Greater Syria region, in the final years of the British Mandate in Palestine, a dispute had raged over the shrine between Sunni and Druze communities. Sole custodianship of the tomb was transferred to the Druze community by the Israeli authorities, in Islamic and Druze tradition, it is believed that towards the end of his life, Shuayb took refuge in a cave outside Hittin, where he eventually died of old age. His followers buried him at the site and placed a tombstone at his grave, the tradition holds that when Saladins dream was realized, the Druze built a shrine for Shuayb at the site. Nabi Shuayb has been expanded and renovated over time, the older section of the existing structure was built in the 1880s, under the direction of Sheikh Muhanna Tarif, the shaykh al-aql of Julis. Sheikh Muhanna summoned an assembly of leaders in the community to discuss. When Palestine came under British Mandate rule, a dispute broke out between the Druze and the Higher Islamic Council over who exercised custodianship over the site of Nabi Shuayb. Under the leadership of Sheikh Amin Tarif, the shrine was then renovated, the Israeli government also paved the road leading to Nabi Shuayb and provided electricity and water infrastructure services there. The first mention of the dates back to the 12th century CE. According to Druze tradition, the imprint of Shuaibs left foot can be seen on the grave, pilgrims visiting the site pour oil into the imprint, and then rub the oil over their body in order to be blessed with good fortune. The Druze customarily had no fixed date for their annual pilgrimage, during the festivities, mass celebrations are held at Nabi Shuaib, and Druze religious leaders gather there for ritual purposes and to discuss religious questions. Prior to Israels establishment, Druze from Syria and Lebanon also used to participate in the festival, Israeli Druze Amin Tarif Ziyarat al-Nabi Shuayb
10.
Epistles of Wisdom
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The full Druze canon or Druze scripture includes the Old Testament, the Quran and philosophical works by Plato and those influenced by Socrates among works from other religions and philosophers. The Druze claim that an understanding of these is necessary, the Epistles of Wisdom are also referred to as the Kitab al-Hikma and Al-Hikma al-Sharifa. The Epistles of Wisdom were revealed in the Arabic language and contain one hundred and they are organised into six books first compiled by one of the greatest Druze sages Abd-Allah Al-Tanukhi in 1479 AD. According to oral traditions there were originally twenty-four books, eighteen are reasonably assumed to have been lost, hidden or destroyed. Epistle number six is dated earliest and was written in July 1017 AD by Hamza ibn-Ali ibn-Ahmad, Epistles 109 and 110 are dated latest, written by Al-Muqtana Bahauddin in 1042 AD. Epistles 36 to 40 are attributed to Ismail al-Tamimi ibn Muhammad, the first epistle opens with the goodbye message from Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the original teacher of the Druze. He details his efforts to assist his peoples welfare and peace, a Syrian physician gave one of the first Druze manuscripts to Louis XIV in 1700, which is now kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale. Local disturbances such as the invasion of Ibrahim Pasha between 1831 and 1838, along with the 1860 Lebanon conflict caused some of these texts to fall into the hands of academics, other original manuscripts are held in the Robert Garrett collection at Princeton University. Sami Makarem has published sections of the works in English with commentary from a Druze compendium held in the Shaykh Nasib Makarem collection in Aytat, Lebanon. The first French translation was published in 1838 by linguist and orientalist Antoine Isaac, most of the Epistles are written in a post-classical language, often showing similarities to Arab Christian authors. These display a form of Arabic Neoplatonism blended with Ismailism and adopted Christian elements of great interest for the philosophy
11.
Jabal al-Druze
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Jabal al-Druze, officially Jabal al-Arab, is an elevated volcanic region in the As-Suwayda Governorate of southern Syria. Most of the inhabitants of this region are Arab Druze, and there are also small Muslim, safaitic inscriptions were first found in this area. The State of Jabal Druze was an area in the French Mandate for Syria. In the past, the name Jabal al-Druze was used for a different area, the Jabal al-Druze volcanic field, the southernmost in Syria, lies in the Haurun-Druze Plateau in SW Syria near the border with Jordan. The most prominent feature of this field is 1800m-high Jabal al-Druze. The alkaline volcanic field consists of a group of 118 basaltic volcanoes active from the lower-Pleistocene to the Holocene, the large SW Plateau depression is filled by basaltic lava flows from volcanoes aligned in a NW-SE direction. This volcanic field lies within the part of the massive alkaline Harrat Ash Shamah volcanic field that extends from southern Syria to Saudi Arabia. Druze in Syria Jabal al-Druze List of volcanoes in Syria Jabal ad Druze
12.
Eid al-Adha
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Eid al-Adha, also called the Sacrifice Feast, is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, as an act of submission to Gods command, before he sacrificed his son God intervened by sending his angel Jibrail, who then put a sheep in his sons place. In the Islamic lunar calendar, Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, in the international calendar, the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr, the word Eid appears once in Al-Maida, the fifth sura of the Quran, with the meaning solemn festival. Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two followed by a sermon. Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj, the performing the Hajj, from Mount Arafat. Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as days of remembrance and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar. Another Arabic word for sacrifice is Qurbani The Semitic root Q-R-B means to be close to someone/something, other words from the root include qarov, close, the senses of root meaning to offer suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering. The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu act of offering, Eid al-Kabir, an Arabic term meaning the Greater Eid, is used in Yemen, Syria, and North Africa. The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el-Kebir, translations of Big Eid or Greater Eid are used in Pashto, Kashmiri, Urdu and Hindi, Tamil and Malayalam. Albanian, however, uses Bajram i vogël or the Lesser Eid as a reference to Eid al-Adha. This term is borrowed into other Indian languages, such as Tamil Bakr Īd Peru Nāl. Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj, such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian (Hari Raya Haji Hajj celebration day, Lebaran Haji, Lebaran Kaji. When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines, when it became a legal holiday in 2009, it became officially known as Eid al-Adha. Some also reference it with local names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog. Eid al-Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world, in Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego. According to Islamic tradition, the valley of Mecca was a dry, rocky, God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar, his Arabian wife, and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan. As Abraham was preparing for his journey back to Canaan, Hagar asked him
13.
Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb
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Ziyarat al-Nabi Shuayb is a Druze festival called Ziyarat celebrated between 25 and 28 April which is officially recognized in Israel as a public holiday. The Druze generally only celebrate one holiday, Eid al-Adha, the Druze community in Israel under the leadership of Sheikh Amin Tarif, however, has endowed this period with a special status, deeming it the Ziyarat a festive day by law. Workers are allowed to take a break from work without infringing their workers rights, religious leaders or sheikhs from Mount Carmel, the Galilee and the Golan Heights take the opportunity to discuss religious issues. Since 1968, Druze from the Golan Heights can freely visit the shrine, lebanese Druze rarely visited the shrine, but in 1982 a group from Lebanon, during the Israeli occupation of the south, answered the call of Sheikh Amin Tarif to visit. Following the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994, Jordanian Druze are permitted to visit the shrine throughout the year, Israeli Druze Nabi Shuayb Amin Tarif Ziyarat
14.
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
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It soon spread to the south of the country where the rebellion changed its character, with Druze turning against the Maronite Christians. Around 20,000 Christians were killed by the Druze and 380 Christian villages and 560 churches destroyed, the Druze and Muslims also suffered heavy losses. On 3 September 1840, Bashir Shihab III, a distant cousin of the once-powerful Emir Bashir Shihab II, was appointed emir of Mount Lebanon by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I. Geographically, the Mount Lebanon Emirate corresponded with the part of present-day Lebanon. In practice, the terms Lebanon and Mount Lebanon tend to be used interchangeably by historians until the establishment of the Mandate. Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering under Ibrahim Pashas rule resurfaced under the new emir, hence, the sultan deposed Bashir III, on 13 January 1842, and appointed Umar Pasha as governor of Mount Lebanon. This appointment, however, created more problems than it solved, representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. This arrangement came to be known as the Double Qaimaqamate, both officials were to be responsible to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut. The Beirut-Damascus highway was the line between the two districts. This partition of Lebanon was nurtured by outside powers, and animosities between the religious sects increased and these tensions led to conflict between Christians and Druzes as early as May 1845. Consequently, the European powers requested that the Ottoman sultan establish order in Lebanon, composed of members of the various religious communities, these councils were intended to assist the deputy governor. This system failed to keep order when the peasants of Keserwan, overburdened by heavy taxes, in 1858 Tanyus Shahin, a Maronite Christian peasant leader, demanded that the feudal class abolish its privileges. The demand refused, the peasants began to prepare for a revolt, in January 1859, an armed uprising headed by Shahin flared up. The uprising targeted the Maronite Khazen muqatajis of Keserwan, pillaging their land, having driven the Maronite feudal lords out of Keserwan and seizing their land and property, the insurgent peasants set up their own rule. The Keserwan uprising, as it known, had a revolutionary effect on other regions in Lebanon. The disturbances spread to Latakia and to central Lebanon, Maronite peasants, actively supported by their clergy, began to prepare for an armed uprising against their Druze masters. In August 1859, a brawl occurred between Druze and Maronite locals in the Metn area of the Double Qaimaqamates Christian sector, the dispute enabled Maronite Bishop Tobia Aoun to mobilize his Beirut-based central committee to intervene in the matter. The Druze lords began making war preparations, allegedly in coordination with the local Ottoman authorities, in March, the father of a Catholic monastery in Aammiq was killed and the monastery looted, and shortly afterward, a Druze man from Ainab allegedly killed a Christian man from Abadiyeh
15.
Hauran Druze Rebellion
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The Hauran Druze Rebellion was a violent Druze uprising against Ottoman authority in the Syrian province, which erupted in 1909. The Hauran is a plateau, located in southwestern Syria. With the advent of the Ottoman Turks and the conquest of Syria by Sultan Selim I in 1516, Druze villages spread and prospered in that region, which under Maan leadership so flourished that it acquired the generic term of Jabal Bayt-Maan or Jabal al-Druze. A year of truce attempts followed, but failed to achieve any stability in the area, Sami Pasha al-Farouqi arrived in Damascus in August 1910, leading an Ottoman expeditionary force of some 35 battalions. Though the Druze recognized their inferiority against such a force, several clashes followed, Zuqan al-Atrash led a fierce battle against the Ottomans near al-Kafr, where he faced the forces of Sami Pasha al-Farouqi. After engaging Ottoman troops in two villages the Druze resistance collapsed, Sami Pasha used military force and trickery and succeeded in occupying the whole Jabal el-Druze. The rebellion ended with massive casualties among the Druze inhabitants of the Hauran, the number of killed is put at 2,000 with a similar number of wounded and hundreds of imprisoned, taken into custody in Damascus and Acre. This led to significant depopulation of areas within the region. Zuqan, the leader of the revolt, was captured and later executed in 1911, following the collapse of the Druze revolt, al-Farouqi launched a campaign to disarm the Druze population - some 10,000 rifles were collected. Al-Farouqi also performed a census of the Hauran area, ordering 200,000 cards from Istanbul for the purpose, taxes were collected and arrears in cattle extracted when taxation was not available. Furthermore, one thousand Druze were conscripted into the Ottoman army, during the First World War, the Ottomans left Jabal al-Druze in peace as they feared rebellion. Sultan al-Atrash, son of Zuqan al-Atrash, was able to get in touch with Pan-Arab movements. When Arab forces reached Aqaba, he sent a men to join the revolt. He joined them himself with another 300 men, when they reached Bosra and his forces were the first to enter Damascus and raise the Arab flag on the government house on September 29,1918. Sultan al-Atrash was in relations with the Hashemite Emir Faisal. Sultan was awarded the title of Emir and the rank of a General in the Syrian army, in 1920, al-Atrash family was supporting the short-living Arab Kingdom of Syria, which was re-occupied by France after the Battle of Maysalun on July 24,1920. 1860 Druze–Maronite conflict Adana massacre Franco-Syrian War
16.
Jabal Druze State
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Jabal al-Druze was an autonomous state in the French Mandate of Syria from 1921 to 1936, designed to function as a government for the local Druze population under French oversight. On March 4,1922, it was proclaimed as the State of Souaida, after the capital As-Suwayda, the name comes from the Jabal al-Druze mountain. The Druze state was formed on May 1,1921, in former Ottoman territory, Jabal al-Druze was home to about 50,000 Druze. It was the first, and remains the only, autonomous entity to be populated and governed by Druze, the 1925 Syrian Revolution began in Jabal al-Druze under the leadership of Sultan al-Atrash, and quickly spread to Damascus and other non-Druze areas outside the Jabal al-Druze region. As a result of nationalist pressure, under the Franco-Syrian Treaty of 1936, Jabal al-Druze ceased to exist as an autonomous entity and was incorporated into Syria. org
17.
Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
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The Jaysh al-Muwahhideen or Jaysh Abu Ibrahim is a Druze militant group in Syria. Their name means Army of Monotheists or Army of Unitarians, the group mainly operates in the Suwayda, Deraa, Damascus and other regions where the Druze are concentrated and announced their formation in the beginning of 2013. The leadership describes the group as Unitarian Druze engaging in defensive jihad, the group was set up in response to attacks on Druze civilians. The group commemorates anti-colonial figures such as Sultan al-Atrash, who was a prominent Arab Druze chieftain, list of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War Druze in Syria Jabal Druze State Druze IDF Sword Battalion
18.
Druze in Syria
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Druze in Syria refers to adherents of the Druze faith, an ethnoreligious esoteric group originating from the Near East who self identify as unitarians. The Syrian Druze people are believed to constitute an estimated 3.2 percent of the population, other sources claim that the Syrian Druze community numbers 450,000. The Druze faith is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion that does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam, fasting during the month of Ramadan, thus, they are not regarded by Muslims as Islamic. The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn. The Druze follow a style of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, nor into. When Druze live among people of religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are and this system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging. The Druze community in Syria played an important role in the formation of the state of Syria. In Syria, most Druze live in the Jebel al-Druze, a rugged and mountainous region in the southwest of the country, other notable communities live in the Harim Mountains, the Damascus suburb of Jaramana, and on the southeast slopes of Mount Hermon. The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its small population would suggest. Under the military leadership of Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, the Druze provided much of the force behind the Syrian Revolution of 1925–27. At independence the Druze, made confident by their successes, expected that Damascus would reward them for their sacrifices on the battlefield. They demanded to keep their autonomous administration and many political privileges accorded them by the French, when a local paper in 1945 reported that President Shukri al-Quwatli had called the Druzes a dangerous minority, Sultan Pasha al-Atrash flew into a rage and demanded a public retraction. If it were not forthcoming, he announced, the Druzes would indeed become dangerous, quwwatli could not dismiss Sultan Pashas threat. The military balance of power in Syria was tilted in favor of the Druzes, one advisor to the Syrian Defense Department warned in 1946 that the Syrian army was useless, and that the Druzes could take Damascus and capture the present leaders in a breeze. During the four years of Adib Shishaklis rule in Syria, the Druze community was subjected to a attack by the Syrian government. Shishakli believed that among his opponents in Syria, the Druzes were the most potentially dangerous. He frequently proclaimed, My enemies are like a serpent, the head is the Jebel al-Druze, the stomach Homs, if I crush the head the serpent will die
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Druze in Lebanon
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Druze in Lebanon refers to adherents of the Druze faith, an ethnoreligious esoteric group originating from the Near East who self identify as unitarians. The Lebanese Druze people are believed to constitute about 5% of the population of Lebanon. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or believers in one God, are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east, under the Lebanese political division the Druze community is designated as one of the five Lebanese Muslim communities. Lebanons constitution was intended to guarantee representation for each of the nations ethno-religious groups. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the Chief of the General Staff must be a Druze. The Druze faith is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion that follows the Five Pillars of Islam, however, certain Muslim groups regard them as Rawafid or Deserters of true Islamic faith. However, other sources claim that the Druze faith does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam, fasting during the month of Ramadan, thus, they are not regarded by Muslims as Islamic and are seen as Rawafid or Deserters of true Islamic faith. The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn. The Druze follow a style of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, or into. When Druze live among people of religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are and this system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War, the Druze were in favor of Pan-Arabism, jumblatts post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, the BBC describes Jumblatt as the smartest leader of Lebanons most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty. The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan, in May 10,2008 as part of the 2008 Conflict, clashes occurred between Hezbollah forces and Druze militias in their mountain resulting is casualties on both sides. The clashes started in Aytat, near Kayfoun and soon expanded to many spots in Mount Lebanon including Baysur, Shuweifat. Most of the fighting was concentrated on Hill 888, after negotiations a ceasefire was called in from outside the country before Hezbollah could call in artillery support. Releases from Hezbollah leaders in 2016 stated that bombing the mountain with close-range artillery from the South, Hill 888 remains under Hezbollahs banner today with reports of heavy artillery pieces being moved in that can strike any point within the mountain. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or believers in one God, are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut
20.
Druze in Israel
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The Israeli Druze are a unique religious and ethnic minority located in Israel. In 2012, there were 130,600 Druze living in the country, even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are not considered Muslims. In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct community at the request of its communal leaders. The Druze are Arabic-speaking citizens of Israel who serve in the Israel Defense Forces, members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service. Before the establishment of the State of Israel, the Druze were not recognized as a community and were discriminated against by the judicial system. They live mainly in the north of the country, while most of Israeli Druze identifies as ethnically Arab, today, tens of thousands of Israeli Druze belong to Druze Zionist movements. The Druze are a monotheistic religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel. The religion incorporates elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism and other philosophies, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn Unitarians, Monotheists. Sheikh Amin Tarif was the preeminent religious leader of the community until his death in 1993, noble Druze men from nearby countries visited Druze villages in Palestine and preached neutrality. This decision was backed by Druze leaders in Jabal Druze, josh Palmon was tasked by the Jewish Agency to manage the relationship with the Druze. He initially led a preventive approach with the Druze, aimed at making sure the Druze will not join the Arab Higher Committee, the contacts between the Druze and the Jewish leadership were made through Labib Hussein Abu Rokan from Isfya and Salah-Hassan Hanifes from Shefa-Amr. Hanifas managed to bring Yarka to cooperate with the Jews, during the war Druze volunteers arrived to Mandatory Palestine in order to help defend the Druze villages there. Wahhab brought around 500 men and arrived to Shefa-Amr in Palestine, Wahhab traveled through the western Galilee region and sent men to the Druze villages of the Carmel. As the Druze volunteers arrived, there were attempts to talk with the volunteers, najib Mansour, the head of Isfiya met with agents of the Hagannah in Haifa to discuss the arrival of Wahhab. Manosur did not agree to the demand the local Druze will forcibly oppose the volunteers, Druze citizens are prominent in the Israel Defense Forces and in politics. The bond between Jewish and Druze soldiers is commonly known by the term a covenant of blood, five Druze lawmakers were elected to serve in the 18th Knesset, a disproportionately large number considering their population. So we are considered a very nationalistic, patriotic community, today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to such Druze Zionist movements. In 1973, Amel Nasser A-Din founded the Zionist Druze Circle and we invalidate and reject everything that the Adalah organization is requesting, he said
21.
Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
22.
Tawhid
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Tawhid is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam. Tawhid is the religions most fundamental concept and holds that God is One, because of the principle of Tawhid the Islamic belief in God is considered Unitarian. Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of faith, the first part of the Shahada is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God. To attribute divinity to an entity, known as shirk, is an unpardonable sin according to the Quran. Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid, There is an uncompromising monotheism at the heart of the Islamic beliefs which is seen, from an Islamic standpoint, as distinguishing Islam from other major religions. The Quran asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world, a unique, independent and indivisible being, who is independent of the entire creation. God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one—God is an absolute, who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil. Islamic intellectual history can be understood as an unfolding of the manner in which successive generations of believers have understood the meaning. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it, Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, Sufism, even to some degree the Islamic understanding of natural sciences, all seek to explain at some level the principle of tawhid. The classical definition of tawhid was limited to declaring or preferring belief in one God, in modern Arabic, the verbs wahhada or yuwahhidu mean to unite or bring together something that which wasnt one, which reflects the struggle of monotheism against polytheism. Attribution of divinity to an entity, shirk, is considered a denial of the truth of God. Associating others with God is known as shirk and is the antithesis of Tawhid and it is usually but not always in the form of idolatry and supplicating to others than Allah, or believing that they hold the same attributes as him in an equal or lesser degree. Shirk is divided into two categories, Greater shirk, open and apparent, Lesser shirk, concealed or hidden, Greater Shirk consists of the above-mentioned deeds. A person commits lesser shirk or hidden polytheism when he claims to believe in God but his thoughts and actions do not reflect his belief. There are also forms of Shirk, they must be avoided as well. Within Islam, shirk is a crime, God may forgive any sin if one dies in that state except for committing shirk. Ali states that God is One means that God is away from likeness and numeration, the first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord. The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and that is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person
23.
Prophets and messengers in Islam
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Belief in Islamic prophets is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith, and specifically mentioned in the Quran. Muslims believe the first prophet was also the first human being, Many of the revelations delivered by the 48 prophets in Judaism and many prophets of Christianity are mentioned as such in the Quran but usually in altered form and with different names. For example, the Jewish Elisha is called Alyasa, Job is Ayyub, Jesus is Isa, the Torah given to Moses is called Tawrat, the Psalms given to David is the Zabur, the Gospel given to Jesus is Injil). Notwithstanding, none of the seven Jewish Prophetesses are mentioned in the Quran as prophets, each came to preach Islam at different times in history and some told of the coming of the final Islamic prophet and messenger of God, who would be named Ahmed commonly known as Muhammad. Each Islamic prophet directed a message to a different group of people, in Arabic and Hebrew, the term nabī means prophet. Forms of this noun occur 75 times in the Quran, the term nubuwwah occurs five times in the Quran. The terms rasūl and mursal denote messenger or apostle and occur more than 300 times, the term for a prophetic message, risālah, appears in the Quran in ten instances. The Syriac form of rasūl Allāh, s̲h̲eliḥeh d-allāhā, occurs frequently in the apocryphal Acts of St. Thomas, the corresponding verb for s̲h̲eliḥeh—s̲h̲alaḥ, occurs in connection with the prophets in the Hebrew Bible. The words prophet and messenger appear several times in the Old Testament, the following table shows these words in different languages, In the Hebrew Bible, the word navi occurs more commonly, and the Hebrew word malakh refers to Angels in Judaism. According to Judaism, Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, with them, the authentic period of Nevuah died, and nowadays only the Bath Kol exists. In the New Testament, however, the word becomes more frequent. Messenger may refer to Jesus, to his Apostles and to John the Baptist, but the last book of the Old Testament, the Book of Malachi, speaks of a messenger that Christian commentators interpret as a reference to the future prophet John the Baptist. In Muslim belief, every Islamic prophet preached Islam, the beliefs of charity, prayer, pilgrimage, worship of God and fasting are believed to have been taught by every prophet who has ever lived. The Quran itself calls Islam the religion of Abraham and refers to Jacob, the Quran speaks of the Islamic prophets as being the greatest human beings of all time. A prophet, in the Muslim sense of the term, is a person whom God specially chose to teach the faith of Islam, before man was created, God had specifically selected those men whom He would use as prophets. This does not, however, mean that every prophet began to prophesy from his birth, some were called to prophesy late in life, in Muhammads case at the age of 40. Others, such as John the Baptist, were called to prophesy while still at a young age, the Quran verse 4,69 lists various virtuous groups of human beings, among whom prophets occupy the highest rank. Verse 4,69 reads, All who obey Allah and the messenger are in the company of those on whom is the Grace of Allah—of the prophets, the sincere, the witnesses, and we have made the evil ones friends to those without faith
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Succession to Muhammad
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The succession to Muhammad raises questions about the leadership of Islam after his death, Muhammads successor, how they should be elected, conditions of legitimacy and the role of successor. Answers to these questions have led to divisions in the Muslim community since the first century of Muslim history, giving rise to the Sunni, Shia. After Muhammads death in AD632, disagreement broke out over who should succeed him as leader of the Muslim community, since none of his sons survived into adulthood, hereditary succession was not an option. Umar, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, others added their support, and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammads companions, who believed that Ali, his cousin, during the First and Second Fitnas the Islamic community divided into a number of groups, each of which had a specific idea about successorship. After the Rashidun caliphate evolved into monarchies and sultanates, Sunnis held power in most areas, Shias emerged in opposition. Sunnis believe that although Muhammad did not appoint a successor, Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph by the Muslim community, Shias believe that Muhammad named his successor, Ali, at Ghadir Khumm, Muslim leadership belonged to the person determined by divine order. The two groups also disagree on Alis attitude towards Abu Bakr and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar and Uthman ibn Affan, Ali believed that he could fulfil his imamate without fighting. Zaydis disagree with the Twelver Shia, after the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Ummayads, Aisha raised, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakrs mother was from Alis family, Qasims daughter, Farwah bint al-Qasim, was married to Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grandson of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, the Zaydis believe that Zayd ibn Ali was betrayed by the people in Kufa, who told him, May God have mercy on you. What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr, Zayd ibn Ali said, I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them. Historical works of later Muslim writers include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him, the earliest surviving written sira is Sirah Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq. Although the original work is lost, portions survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham, many scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, although this accuracy is uncertain. Studies by J. Schacht and Ignác Goldziher have led scholars to distinguish between legal and historical traditions, according to William Montgomery Watt, although legal traditions could have been invented, historical material may have been primarily subject to tendential shaping rather than invented. Hadith compilations are records of the traditions of Muhammad—his biography, perpetuated by community memory for it guidance, the development of hadith is a crucial element of the first three centuries of Islamic history. Early Western scholars mistrusted the later narrations and reports, regarding them as fabrications, the only contemporary source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays by Sulaym ibn Qays. This collection of hadith and historical reports from the first century of the Islamic calendar narrates events relating to the succession in detail, at a small gathering attended in Saqifah a companion of Muhammad, Abu Bakr, was nominated to lead the community
25.
Imamah (Shia)
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In Shia Islam, the imamah is the doctrine that the figures known as imams are rightfully the central figures of the ummah, the entire Shiite system of doctrine focuses on the imamah. These Imams have the role of providing commentary and interpretation of the Quran as well as guidance to their followers as is the case of the living Imams of the Nizari Ismaili tariqah. According to Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the Imam is a means through which humans receive divine grace, because He brings men closer to obedience, as fulfilling the human being is his wish, it is logical that God appoints Imams to subject man to his wishes. So his existence and his deeds display two forms of grace of God toward man, the word Imām denotes a person who stands or walks in front. For Sunni Islam, the word is used to mean a person who leads the course of prayer in the mosque. It also means the head of a madhhab, all Muslims believe that Muhammad had said, To whomsoever I am Mawla, Ali is his Mawla. This hadith has been narrated in different ways by different sources in no less than 45 hadith books of both Sunni and Shia collections. This hadith has also narrated by the collector of hadiths, al-Tirmidhi,3713, as well as Ibn Maajah,121. The major point of conflict between the Sunni and the Shia is in the interpretation of the word Mawla, for the Shia the word means Lord and Master and has the same elevated significance as when the term had been used to address Muhammad himself during his lifetime. However, for the Sunnis the word means the beloved or the revered and has no other significance at all. Each succession dispute brought forth a different tariqah within Shia Islam, each Shia tariqah followed its own particular Imams dynasty, thus resulting in different numbers of Imams for each particular Shia tariqah. When the dynastic line of the separating successor Imam ended with no heir to succeed him, then either he or his successor was believed to have gone into concealment. The Shia tariqah with a majority of adherents are the Twelvers who are known as the Shia. After that come the Nizari Ismailis commonly known as the Ismailis, the Druze tariqah initially were part of the Fatimid Ismailis and separated from them after the death of the Fatimid Imam and Caliph al Hakim Bi Amrillah. The Shia Sevener tariqah no longer exists, another small tariqah is the Zaidi Shias, also known as the Fivers and who do not believe in The Occultation of their last Imam. Although all these different Shia tariqahs belong to the Shia group in Islam, the Shia Nizari Ismailis by definition have to have a present and living Imam until the end of time. Thus if any living Nizari Ismaili Imam fails to leave behind a successor after him then the Nizari Ismailism’s cardinal principle would be broken and it’s very raison dêtre would come to an end. They refer to the verse 5,3 of Quran which was revealed to the prophet when he appointed Ali as his successor at the day of Ghadir Khumm, regarding 17,71, no age can be without an Imam
26.
Islamic view of angels
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Belief in Angels is one of the six Articles of Faith in Islam. They are considered heavenly beings without their own will unlike humans who perform tasks of God, the imagination of angels in Islam developed from the Quran and was influenced by other religions like Judaism and expanded by tafsir and the hadith literature. Angels take the role of performing different tasks of God. They are said to be created out of light, unlike humans or jinn, they have no biological needs and therefore no lower desires predicted by the natural world. They may be described as creatures of pure emotion and this is narrated in Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, book 56. Besides the personificated interpretation of angels, they are thought of carrying the laws of nature. Angels are not equal in status and consequently, they are delegated different tasks to perform, jibrail is the archangel responsible for revealing the Quran to Muhammad, verse by verse. Jibrail is the angel who communicates with the prophets and also for coming down with the blessings of Allah during the night of Laylat al-Qadr, mikail, who provides nourishments for bodies and souls. Mikail is often depicted as the archangel of mercy who is responsible for bringing rain, Israfil or Israafiyl, is an archangel in Islam who will blow the trumpet at the end of time. According to the hadith, Israfil is the responsible for signaling the coming of Qiyamah by blowing a horn. Azrael/Azraaiyl/Azrail also known as Malak al-maut, is the angel of death and he is responsible for parting the soul from the body of the deads. The angels of the Seven Heavens, hafaza, Kiraman Katibin, two of whom are charged to every human being, one writes down good deeds and another one writes down evil deeds. They are both described as Raqeebun Ateed in the Quran, muaqqibat who keep people from death until its decreed time and who bring down blessings. Jundullah, those who helped Muhammad in the battlefield Those who draw out the souls of the blessed and those angels who drive the clouds. The Angel of the Mountains Munkar and Nakir, who question the dead in their graves, dardail, who travel in the earth searching out assemblies where people remember Gods name. The angels charged with each existent thing, maintaining order and warding off corruption and their number is known only to God. Ridwan, the keeper of the Paradise, azazil is sometimes considered as an angel, who was the keeper of paradise and leader of an angelic army. He is also the instrument of divine anger, otherwise he is held for a Jinni raised to the angelic realm
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Islamic eschatology
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Islamic eschatology is the branch of Islamic scholarship that studies Yawm al-Qiyāmah or Yawm ad-Dīn. This is believed to be the final assessment of humanity by God, consisting of the annihilation of all life, resurrection, the time of the event is not specified, although there are major and minor signs which have been foretold to happen at al-Qiyamah. Many verses of the Quran contain the motif of the impending Last Judgment, surat al-Qiyama has as its main subject the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is also described in the hadith, and commentaries of the such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari. The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the hadith describe the end time with more specificity than the Quran, describing the events of al-Qiyamah through twelve major signs. At the time of judgment, terrible corruption and chaos will rule, the Mahdi will be sent and with the help of Jesus, will battle Masih ad-Dajjal. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values, however, there is no mention of the advent of Mahdi and Isa in one era in any of the hadith. Some Muslim scholars translate the Arabic word Imam as Mahdi to prove the advent of Mahdi, like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches resurrection of the dead, a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, malāḥim, the righteous are rewarded with pleasures of Jannah Paradise, while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam Hell. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, is one of the six articles of faith in Islam. The tribulation associated with it is described in the Quran and hadith, and commentaries of ulama like al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, the Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Hour, and the Last Day. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, relates to one of the six articles in Sunni Islam and seven articles in Shia Islam. There are two sources in Islamic scripture that discuss the Last Judgment, the Quran, which is viewed in Islam as infallible. Hadith are viewed with more flexibility due to the compilation of the traditions in written form. The concept has also discussed in commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir. The Quran describes the Last Judgment with a number of interpretations of its verses, there are specific aspects, The time is known only to God. Those who have been dead will believe that a time has passed between birth and death. God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron and those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife
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Mourning of Muharram
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Many of the events associated with the ritual take place in congregation halls known as Hussainia. The event marks the anniversary of the Battle of Karbala when Imam Hussein ibn Ali, family members, accompanying Hussein ibn Ali, were killed or subjected to humiliation. The commemoration of the event during yearly mourning season, from first of Muharram to twentieth of Safar with Ashura comprising the focal date, at present, Muharram observances are carried out in countries with a sizable Shia population. The words Azadari which mean mourning and lamentation, and Majalis-e Aza have been used in connection with the remembrance ceremonies for the martyrdom of Imam Hussain. Expression of grief with thumping of the chest by Shia Muslims is known as Latmya, Latmaya or latmia in Arabic-Persian countries, in India and Pakistan it is called Matam or Matam-Dari/Sina Zannee. Muharram rituals was often called by European observers the Feast of Hasan and Hosayn, the term majalis has both a grammatical meaning and a meaning which relates to Aza-e-Husayn. In its technical sense, a majalis is a meeting, a session or a gathering, according to Shia sources, The mourning of Muharram was started by the family, specially womenfolk, of Muhammad immediately after the death of his grandson and even before entering Damascus. News of Imam Husayn ibn Alis death was spread by Imam Zain-ul-Abideen, who succeeded Imam Husayn as the Shia Imam, via sermons and speeches throughout Iraq, Syria and Hejaz. Due to the History of the Prophets and Kings, when Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin gave the sermon in presence of Yazid, according to popular belief, Shia rituals spread to South Asia starting at the end of the 14th century with the conquests of Tamerlane. Observance has since spread to such as India, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, Syria, Nigeria, Tanzania, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh, Yemen, Bahrain, Azerbaijan. The type of mourning of Muharram varies between branches of Shia, Sunni, and different ethnic groups, Shia Muslims around the world every year commemorate the mourning custom of death of Husayn ibn Ali, his family and his follower in months of Muharram and Safar. They entitle him Prince of Martyrs and know his as a spiritual and political savior, still, he has important role in the religious and national consciousness of the people. According to the Shia belief taking part in the ritual will be an help to salvation on day of judgment. Of all the religions of lament which could be adduced for closer consideration that of the Islamic is the most illuminating. The lament itself, as an impassioned pack opening out, to a true e crowd, after a while to protecting the mourner from the weather, the Hussainiya and the Tekyeh were built. The event is observed by many Sunnis, but to a lesser extent, after almost 12 centuries, five types of major rituals were developed around the battle of Karbala. Imam Husayn Shrine is located at the mosqe and burial sites of Husayn ibn Ali, many Shia go on a pilgrimage to the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, one of the holiest places for Shias apart from Mecca and Medina. Up to one million pilgrims visit the city annually to observe the anniversary of Imam Husayn ibn Alis death, Shia Muslims believe that pilgrimmage to Husayn ibn Ali’s shrine like weeping saves them from condemned to hell at the day of judgment and all their guilt is removed
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Shia clergy
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In Shia Islam the guidance of clergymen and keeping such a structure holds a great importance. The clergy structure depends on the branch of Shiism is being referred to, usooli and Akhbari Shia Twelver Muslims believe that the study of Islamic literature is a continual process, and is necessary for identifying all of Gods laws. Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the process of finding Gods laws from the available Islamic literature will facilitate in dealing with any circumstance and they believe that they can interpret the Quran and the Twelver Shia traditions with the same authority as their predecessors. This process of ijtihad has provided a means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective, most Sunni scholars, preachers, and judges traditionally believe that the door of ijtihad, or private judgment, is closed. That is because they have been under the scrutiny and control of Islamic scholars over the years. Thus, traditionally religious rulings have been issued by ulama, in contrast, Shia scholars have traditionally been distanced from, and therefore, outside the direct control of governments. This has afforded these clerical establishments much more flexibility in dealing with religious as well as political matters, usooli Shia considering it obligatory to obey a mujtahid when seeking to determine Islamically correct behavior. They believe the 12th Imam, ordered them to follow the scholars who. guard their soul, protect their religion, the mujtahid they follow or emulate is known as a Marja Taqleedi. As of 2014 there were over 60 recognized Marj in the Shia Muslim world, the term Dāʻī al-Mutlaq literally means the absolute or unrestricted missionary. In Ismāīlī Islām, the term dāʻī has been used to refer to important religious leaders other than the hereditary Imāms, the Daʻwa was a term for the Ismāīlī faith itself from early on. They are also called Dāʻī Syednas, shiite Clerics between Quietism and Resistance, M. Ismail Marcinkowski
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The Four Companions
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Verily you and your Shia will be in Paradise. These companions are later referred to as Real Shia, abdullah ibn Abbas, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Malik al-Ashtar were other such partisans. However, it is only The Four Companions that are believed to have attained the rank of the Real Shi‘a, hadith of the pond of Khumm Sulaym ibn Qays Ahl ul-Baith
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Ashura
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Ashura is the tenth day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar. Mourning for Husayn and his companions by his relatives and supporters began almost immediately after the Battle of Karbala. Popular elegies were written by poets to commemorate the Battle of Karbala during the Umayyad and Abbasid era, in India, Ashura is a public holiday due to the presence of a significant Indian Shia Muslim population. In Sunni Islam, Ashura marks the day that Moses and his followers were saved from Pharaoh by God creating a path in the Red Sea, other commemorations include Noah leaving the Ark and Muhammads arrival in Medina. The root of the word Ashura has the meaning of tenth in Semitic languages, hence the name of the remembrance, literally translated, according to the orientalist A. J. Wensinck, the name is derived from the Hebrew ʿāsōr, with the Aramaic determinative ending. The day is indeed the tenth day of the month, although some Islamic scholars offer up different etymologies, in April 680 Yazid I succeeded his father Muawiyah as the new caliph. Yazid immediately instructed the governor of Medina to compel Husayn and a few prominent figures to pledge their allegiance. Husayn, however, refrained from making such a pledge, believing that Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam and he, therefore, accompanied by his household, his sons, brothers, and the sons of Hasan left Medina to seek asylum in Mecca. On the other hand, the people in Kufa, when informed of Muawiyahs death, sent letters urging Husayn to join them, the mission of Muslim was initially successful and according to reports 18,000 men pledged their allegiance. But the situation changed radically when Yazid appointed Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad as the new governor of Kufa, before news of the adverse turn of events had reached Mecca, Husayn set out for Kufa. On the way, Husayn found that his messenger, Muslim ibn Aqeel, had killed in Kufa. He broke the news to his supporters and informed them that people had deserted him, then he encouraged anyone who so wished to leave freely without guilt. Most of those who had joined him at various stages on the way from Mecca now left him, later, Husayn encountered the army of Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad along the route towards Kufa. Husayn addressed the Kufan army, reminding them that they had invited him to come because they were without an Imam. He told them that he intended to proceed to Kufa with their support, in response, the army urged him to proceed by another route. Thus, he turned to the left and reached Karbala, where the army forced him not to go further, Umar ibn Saad, the head of the Kufan army, sent a messenger to Husayn to inquire about the purpose of his coming to Iraq. Husayn answered again that he had responded to the invitation of the people of Kufa but was ready to leave if they now were opposed to his presence and he also ordered Umar ibn Saad to cut off Husayn and his followers from access to the water of the Euphrates. On the next morning, as ʿOmar b, saʿd arranged the Kufan army in battle order, Al-Hurr ibn Yazid al Tamimi challenged him and approached Ḥusayn
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Arba'een
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Arbaeen, Chehlom or Qırxı, İmamın Qırxı is a Shia Muslim religious observance that occurs forty days after the Day of Ashura. It commemorates the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, Imam Husayn ibn Ali and 72 companions were killed by Yazid Is army in the Battle of Karbala in 61 AH. Writing in forty batches has become a tradition among Islamic scientists, the reason is the famous saying of Muhammad, On the day of judgment, among my people, God will consider whoever memorized forty Hadiths as an erudite man. In this regard, numerous Islamic scholars have gathered precious collections that each consists of forty sayings, Hadiths, quoted from the prophet, according to al-Jizzini, the primary martyr, he, too, has written his book Al-Arbaʿūn ḥadīth to practice this narrative of the prophet. Arbaeen or forty days is also the length of mourning after the death of a family member or loved one in many Muslim traditions. Arbaeen is one of the largest pilgrimage gatherings on Earth, in which up to 38 million people go to the city of Karbala in Iraq, in fact, Jabir considers as the first one who visited the tomb of Imam Hosein. He was accompanied by Atiyya ibn Sad because of his infirmity, Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin had survived the Battle of Karbala and led a secluded life in deep sorrow. He lived under pressure and tight surveillance set by Umayyad Caliphate and it is said that for twenty years whenever water was placed before him, he would weep. One day a servant said to him, ‘O son of Allah’s Messenger, is it not time for your sorrow to come to an end. ’ He replied, ‘Woe upon you. Jacob the prophet had twelve sons, and Allah made one of them disappear and his eyes turned white from constant weeping, his head turned grey out of sorrow, and his back became bent in gloom, though his son was alive in this world. But I watched while my father, my brother, my uncle, how should my sorrow come to an end. ’ Arbaeens performance has been banned in some periods, the last of which was when Saddam Hussein, was president of Iraq. For nearly 30 years under Saddams regime, it was forbidden to mark Arbaeen publicly in Iraq, following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the observance in April 2003 was broadcast worldwide. Arbaeen is consistently among the largest peaceful gatherings in history, the city of Karbala in Iraq is the center of the proceedings which many pilgrims travel miles on foot to reach. The crowds become so massive that they cause a blockade for hundreds of miles, in 2008, approximately nine million religious observers converged on Karbala to commemorate Arba’een. However, in 2009, the number of people visiting Karbala on Arbaeen significantly increased, according to BBC News and Press TV, over ten million people had reached Karbala one or two days before Arbaeen. The number of pilgrims was expected to rise to 18 million during the two days. In 2013, Arbaeen reached 20 million people from 40 countries, a car bomb targeting worshippers returning from Karbala killed at least 20 Shiite pilgrims in January 2013. There were no reports of incidents at 2014s Arbaeen, which was considered a success against ISIL by the governor of Karbala
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Mawlid
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Mawlid is the observance of the birthday of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which is celebrated in Rabi al-awwal, the third month in the Islamic calendar. 12 Rabi al-awwal is the accepted date among most of the Sunni scholars and this seven days period, i. e. 12–17 Rabi al-awwal, is assigned by Islamic Republic of Iran as the unity week. The origin of Mawlid observance dates back to the period of the early four Rashidun Caliphs of Islam, the Ottomans declared it an official holiday in 1588. The term Mawlid is also used in parts of the world, such as Egypt. Mawlid is recognized as a holiday in most of the Muslim-majority countries of the world except Saudi Arabia. Shaykh Faraz Rabbani states that the Mawlid is generally approved of across the four Islamic schools of law, Mawlid is derived from the Arabic root word, meaning to give birth, bear a child, descendant. In contemporary usage, Mawlid refers to the observance of the birthday of Muhammad, the date of Muhammads birth is a matter of contention since the exact date is unknown and is not definitively recorded in the Islamic traditions. The issue of the date of the Mawlid is recorded by Ibn Khallikan as constituting the first proven disagreement concerning the celebration. Among the most recognisable dates, Sunni Muslims believe the date to have been on the twelfth of Rabi al-awwal and this celebration was introduced into the city Sabta by Abu lAbbas al-Azafi as a way of strengthening the Muslim community and to counteract Christian festivals. The early celebrations, included elements of Sufic influence, with sacrifices and torchlight processions along with public sermons. The celebrations occurred during the day, in contrast to modern day observances, emphasis was given to the Ahl al-Bayt with presentation of sermons and recitations of the Quran. This Shia origin is noted by those Sunnis who oppose Mawlid. Among Sunnis, the Mawlid celebration emerged in the 12th century, among Muslim scholars, the legality of Mawlid has been the subject of intense debate and has been described as perhaps one of the most polemical discussions in Islamic law. Traditionally, most Sunni and nearly all of the Shia scholars have approved of the celebration of Mawlid, while Wahhabi and Ahmadiyya scholars oppose the celebration. The Damascene Shafii scholar Abu Shama also supports the celebration of the Mawlid as does the Maliki scholar Ibn al-Hajj who spoke positively of the observance of the Mawlid in his book al-Madhkal. Likewise, the Shafii Egyptian scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami was a supporter of the Mawlid. This was supported and commented on by the Egyptian scholar and former head of Al-Azhar University Ibrahim al-Bajuri, another Hanafi Mufti Ali al-Qari too supported the celebration of the Mawlid and wrote a text on the subject as did the Moroccan Maliki scholar Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar al-Kattānī. Ibn al-Jazari, a Syrian Shafii scholar considers the celebration of the Mawlid to be a means of gaining Paradise, in the Muslim world, the majority of Sunni Islamic scholars are in favor of the Mawlid
