1.
Predicate (grammar)
–
There are two competing notions of the predicate in theories of grammar. The competition between two concepts has generated confusion concerning the use of the term predicate in theories of grammar. This article considers both of these notions, the second notion was derived from work in predicate calculus and is prominent in modern theories of syntax and grammar. In this approach, the predicate of a sentence mostly corresponds to the verb and any auxiliaries that accompany the main verb. The predicate in traditional grammar is inspired by propositional logic of antiquity, a predicate is seen as a property that a subject has or is characterized by. A predicate is therefore an expression that can be true of something, thus, the expression is moving is true of anything that is moving. It is also the understanding of predicates in English-language dictionaries, the predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence. The predicate must contain a verb, and the verb requires or permits other elements to complete the predicate and these elements are objects, predicatives, and adjuncts, She dances. – verb-only predicate Ben reads the book, – verb-plus-direct-object predicate Bens mother, Felicity, gave me a present. – verb-plus-indirect-object-plus-direct-object predicate She listened to the radio, – verb-plus-prepositional-object predicate They elected him president. – verb-plus-object-plus-predicative-noun predicate She met him in the park, – verb-plus-object-plus-adjunct predicate She is in the park. – verb-plus-predicative-prepositional-phrase predicate The predicate provides information about the subject, such as what the subject is, what the subject is doing, the relation between a subject and its predicate is sometimes called a nexus. A predicative nominal is a phrase, such as in George III is the king of England. The subject and predicative nominal must be connected by a linking verb, a predicative adjective is an adjective, such as in Ivano is attractive, attractive being the predicative adjective. The subject and predicative adjective must also be connected by a copula and this traditional understanding of predicates has a concrete reflex in all phrase structure theories of syntax. These theories divide the generic declarative sentence into a phrase and verb phrase. The subject NP is shown in green, and the predicate VP in blue, most modern theories of syntax and grammar take their inspiration for the theory of predicates from predicate calculus as associated with Gottlob Frege. This understanding sees predicates as relations or functions over arguments, the predicate serves either to assign a property to a single argument or to relate two or more arguments to each other
2.
Substantive adjective
–
A nominalized adjective is an adjective that has undergone nominalization, and is thus used as a noun. For example, in the rich and the poor, the rich and poor function as nouns denoting people who are rich. The most common appearance of the adjective in English is when an adjective is used to indicate a collective group. This happens in the case where a phrase such as the poor people becomes the poor, the adjective poor is nominalized, and the noun people disappears. Other adjectives commonly used in this way include rich, wealthy, homeless, disabled, blind, deaf, etc. as well as certain demonyms such as English, Welsh, Irish, French, Dutch. Another case is when an adjective is used to denote an object with the property, as in you take the long route. Here the short stands for the short route, a much more common alternative in the modern language is the structure using the prop-word one, the short one. However, the use of the adjective alone is fairly common in the case of such as biggest, ordinal numbers such as first, second, etc. and other related words such as next. Many adjectives, though, have undergone conversion so that they can be used regularly as countable nouns, examples include Catholic, Protestant, red, green, etc. Nominal uses of adjectives have been found to have become common as the language developed from Old English through Middle English to Modern English. The following table shows the frequency of uses in different stages of the language. The decline in the use of adjectives as nouns may be attributed to the loss of adjectival inflection throughout Middle English, in the diagrams shown below the determiner is the, and its complement is either the noun phrase poor people, or the nominalized adjective poor. As the frequency of nominalized adjective use decreased, the frequency of structures using the prop-word one increased, in most other languages there is no comparable prop-word, and nominalized adjectives have remained more common. For more information on the use of adjectives in Old English, adjectives in German change their form for various features, such as case and gender, agreeing with the noun they modify. Den Alten is similar but is in the accusative case, the nominalized adjective is derived from the adjective alt, surfacing as it does by taking the appropriate inflection. Similar to English, adjectival nouns are used as a plural definite like in, contrastively, Swedish does not require one or ones when dealing with count nouns (e. g. The old cat is slower than the new, through the use of inflection Swedish is able to evade the need for a visible noun when describing a noun, this phenomenon is also seen when inflecting adjectival nouns. A noun phrase with both the noun and the adjective, a noun phrase with only the adjectival noun
3.
English grammar
–
English grammar is the way in which meanings are encoded into wordings in the English language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, There are historical, social, cultural and regional variations of English. Divergences from the described here occur in some dialects of English. There are differences in grammar between the forms of British, American, and Australian English, although these are minor compared with the differences in vocabulary. Eight word classes or parts of speech are commonly distinguished in English, nouns, determiners, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Interjections are another class, but these are not described here as they do not form part of the clause. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs form open classes – word classes that readily accept new members, such as the noun celebutante, the others are considered to be closed classes. For example, it is rare for a new pronoun to enter the language, English words are not generally marked for word class. It is not usually possible to tell from the form of a word which class it belongs to except, to some extent, on the other hand, some words belong to more than one word class. For example, run can serve as either a verb or a noun, lexemes may be inflected to express different grammatical categories. The lexeme run has the forms runs, ran, runny, runner, words in one class can sometimes be derived from those in another. This has the potential to rise to new words. The noun aerobics has recently given rise to the adjective aerobicized, a phrase typically serves the same function as a word from some particular word class. For example, my good friend Peter is a phrase that can be used in a sentence as if it were a noun. Similarly, adjective phrases and adverb phrases function as if they were adjectives or adverbs, Nouns form the largest English word class. There are many common suffixes used to form nouns from other nouns or from other types of words, such as -age, -hood, Nouns are also often created by conversion of verbs or adjectives, as with the words talk and reading. Unlike in many related languages, English nouns do not have grammatical gender, Nouns are sometimes classified semantically as proper nouns and common nouns or as concrete nouns and abstract nouns. A grammatical distinction is made between count nouns such as clock and city, and non-count nouns such as milk and decor
4.
Grammatical case
–
Case is a special grammatical category whose value reflects the grammatical function performed by a noun, pronoun, adjective, participle or numeral in a phrase, clause, or sentence. In some languages, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, determiners, participles, prepositions, numerals, articles and their modifiers take different inflected forms depending on what case they are in. Distinctions can be seen with the pronouns, forms such as I, he and we are used in the role of subject, whereas forms such as me, him. A language may have a number of different cases, commonly encountered cases include nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. A role that one of these languages marks by case will often be marked in English using a preposition, as a language evolves, cases can merge, a phenomenon formally called syncretism. More formally, case has been defined as a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads, cases should be distinguished from thematic roles such as agent and patient. They are often related, and in languages such as Latin several thematic roles have an associated case. Languages having cases often exhibit free word order, because thematic roles are not required to be marked by position in the sentence. The English word case used in this sense comes from the Latin casus, the Latin word is a calque of the Greek πτῶσις, ptôsis, lit. falling, fall. The sense is that all cases are considered to have fallen away from the nominative. This picture is reflected in the word declension, from Latin declinere, to lean. The equivalent to case in several other European languages also derives from casus, including cas in French, caso in Spanish, the Finnish equivalent is sija, which can also mean position or support. Although not very prominent in modern English, cases featured much more saliently in Old English and other ancient Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit. Among modern languages, cases still feature prominently in most of the Balto-Slavic languages, with most having six to eight cases, as well as Icelandic, German and Modern Greek, in German, cases are mostly marked on articles and adjectives, and less so on nouns. Case is based fundamentally on changes to the noun to indicate the role in the sentence. This is not how English works, where word order and prepositions are used to achieve this, Modern English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system of Indo-European in favor of analytic constructions. The personal pronouns of Modern English retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class, for other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by word order, by prepositions, and by the genitive clitic -s. The oblique case, used for the direct or indirect object of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, the genitive case, used for a grammatical possessor
5.
Grammatical conjugation
–
In linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection. Agglutinative and polysynthetic languages tend to have the most complex conjugations albeit some fusional languages such as Archi can also have extremely complex conjugation, typically the principal parts are the root and/or several modifications of it. All the different forms of the same verb constitute a lexeme, the term conjugation is applied only to the inflection of verbs, and not of other parts of speech. Conjugation is also the name for a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language. For example, Latin is said to have four conjugations of verbs and this means that any regular Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts. A verb that does not follow all of the conjugation patterns of the language is said to be an irregular verb. The system of all conjugated variants of a verb or class of verbs is called a verb paradigm. Indo-European languages usually inflect verbs for several categories in complex paradigms, although some. This is usually the most irregular verb, the similarities in corresponding verb forms may be noticed. Some of the conjugations may be disused, like the English thou-form, or have meanings, like the English you-form. 1 Archaic, poetical, used only with the pronoun thou,3 In the bokmål written standard. 4 In the nynorsk written standard, vera and vere are both alternate forms. 6 eínai is only used as a noun,8 In the Tosk and Geg dialects, respectively. 9 Existential, هست has another meaning, usage of is considered to be rural, now. See, Indo-European copula Verbal agreement or concord is a construct in which properties of the subject and/or objects of a verb are indicated by the verb form. Verbs are then said to agree with their subjects, many English verbs exhibit subject agreement of the following sort, whereas I go, you go, we go, they go are all grammatical in standard English, she go is not. Instead, a form of the verb to go has to be used to produce she goes. On the other hand I goes, you goes etc. are not grammatical in standard English
6.
Grammatical person
–
Grammatical person, in linguistics, is the grammatical distinction between deictic references to participant in an event, typically the distinction is between the speaker, the addressee, and others. Put in simple colloquial English, first person is literally I, Second person is literally you, third person is everything else, grammatical person typically defines a languages set of personal pronouns. It also frequently affects verbs, sometimes nouns, and possessive relationships, in Indo-European languages, first-, second-, and third-person pronouns are typically also marked for singular and plural forms, and sometimes dual form as well. Some languages, especially European ones, distinguish degrees of formality and informality, some other languages use different classifying systems, especially in the plural pronouns. Many Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Javanese and Balinese, are known for their complex systems of honorifics, Japanese. In many languages, the verb takes a form dependent on the person of the subject, in many languages, such as French, the verb in any given tense takes a different suffix for any of the various combinations of person and number of the subject. The grammars of some languages divide the space into more than three persons. The extra categories may be termed fourth person, fifth person, such terms are not absolute but can refer depending on context to any of several phenomena. Some Algonquian languages and Salishan languages divide the category of third person into two parts, proximate for a more topical third person, and obviative for a less topical third person, the obviative is sometimes called the fourth person. The term fourth person is sometimes used for the category of indefinite or generic referents. When the grammar treats them differently from ordinary third-person forms, the so-called zero person in Finnish and related languages, in addition to passive voice may serve to leave the subject-referent open. Zero person subjects are sometimes translated as one, but the problem with that is that English language constructions involving one, e. g. I, The Meaning of the First Person Term
7.
Periphrasis
–
In linguistics, periphrasis is a device by which grammatical meaning is expressed by one or more free morphemes, instead of by inflectional affixes or derivation. Periphrastic forms are analytic, whereas the absence of periphrasis is a characteristic of synthesis, while periphrasis concerns all categories of syntax, it is most visible with verb catenae. The verb catenae of English are highly periphrastic, the distinction between inflected and periphrastic forms is usually illustrated across distinct languages. However, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives in English provide an illustration of the phenomenon. The words more and most contribute functional meaning only, just like the inflectional affixes -er, the distinction is also evident across full verbs and the corresponding light verb constructions, The light verb constructions are periphrastic because the light verbs have little semantic content. The main semantic content of light verb constructions lies with the noun phrase. Distinctions of this sort abound across languages, the following table provides some examples across Latin and English, Periphrasis is a characteristic of analytic languages, which tend to avoid inflection. Even strongly inflected synthetic languages sometimes make use of periphrasis to fill out a paradigm that is missing certain forms. A comparison of some Latin forms of the verb dūcere lead with their English translations illustrates further that English uses periphrasis in many instances where Latin uses inflection, English often needs two or three verbs to express the same meaning that Latin expresses with a single verb. The correspondence in meaning across inflected forms and their periphrastic equivalents within the language or across different languages leads to a basic question. Individual words are always constituents, but their periphrastic equivalents are often NOT constituents, given this mismatch in syntactic form, one can pose the following questions, how should the form-meaning correspondence across periphrastic and non-periphrastic forms be understood. How does it come to pass that a specific meaning bearing unit can be a constituent in one case but in another case, an answer to this question that has recently come to light is expressed in terms of the catena unit, as implied above. The periphrastic word combinations are catenae even when they are not constituents, the form-meaning correspondence is therefore consistent. A given inflected one-word catena corresponds to a periphrastic multiple-word catena, the role of catenae for the theory of periphrasis is illustrated with the trees that follow. The first example is across French and English, future tense/time in French is often constructed with an inflected form, whereas English typically employs a periphrastic form, e. g. The next example is across German and English, German often expresses a benefitor with a dative case pronoun. For English to express the meaning, it usually employs the periphrastic two-word prepositional phrase with for. The following trees illustrate the periphrasis of light verb constructions, Each time, Each of these predicates is a periphrastic form insofar at least one function word is present
8.
Adverb
–
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty and this function is called the adverbial function, and may be realised by single words or by multi-word expressions. Adverbs are traditionally regarded as one of the parts of speech, the term implies that the principal function of adverbs is to act as modifiers of verbs or verb phrases. An adverb used in this way may provide information about the manner, place, time, frequency, certainty, the major exception is the function of modifier of nouns, which is performed instead by adjectives. When the function of an adverb is performed by an expression consisting of more than one word, it is called a phrase or adverbial clause. In English, adverbs of manner are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. Other languages often have similar methods for deriving adverbs from adjectives, many other adverbs, however, are not related to adjectives in this way, they may be derived from other words or phrases, or may be single morphemes. Examples of such adverbs in English include here, there, together, yesterday, aboard, very, almost, where the meaning permits, adverbs may undergo comparison, taking comparative and superlative forms. In English this is usually done by adding more and most before the adverb, although there are a few adverbs that take inflected forms, such as well, for which better and best are used. For more information about the formation and use of adverbs in English, for other languages, see § In specific languages below, and the articles on individual languages and their grammars. Adverbs are considered a part of speech in traditional English grammar, however, modern grammarians recognize that words traditionally grouped together as adverbs serve a number of different functions. Some describe adverbs a catch-all category that includes all words that do not belong to one of the parts of speech. A logical approach to dividing words into classes relies on recognizing which words can be used in a certain context, for example, the only type of word that can be inserted in the following template to form a grammatical sentence is a noun, The _____ is red. When this approach is taken, it is seen that adverbs fall into a number of different categories, for example, some adverbs can be used to modify an entire sentence, whereas others cannot. Even when a sentential adverb has other functions, the meaning is not the same. Words like very afford another example and we can say Perry is very fast, but not Perry very won the race. These words can modify adjectives but not verbs, on the other hand, there are words like here and there that cannot modify adjectives. We can say The sock looks good there but not It is a there beautiful sock, however, this distinction can be useful, especially when considering adverbs like naturally that have different meanings in their different functions
9.
English articles
–
Articles in the English language are the definite article the and the indefinite articles a and an. The most common determiners are the articles the and a, which specify the presence or absence of definiteness of the noun, other possible determiners include words like this, my, each and many – see English determiners. There are also cases where no determiner is required, as in the sentence John likes fast cars, or the sentence Bob likes cool trains. The definite article the is used when the referent of the phrase is assumed to be unique or known from the context. For example, in the sentence The boy with glasses was looking at the moon, it is assumed that in the context the reference can only be to one boy, the indefinite article a or an is used only with singular, countable nouns. It indicates that the referent of the phrase is one unspecified member of a class. For example, the sentence An ugly man was smoking a pipe does not refer to any specifically known ugly man or pipe, no article is used with plural or uncountable nouns when the referent is indefinite. However, in situations, the determiner some is often added. Additionally, articles are not normally used, in phrases that contain other determiners, although one can combine articles with certain other determiners, as in the many issues. With pronouns, although again certain combinations are possible, preceding noun phrases consisting of a clause or infinitive phrase. If it is required to be concise, e. g. in headlines, signs, labels, for example, rather than The mayor was attacked, a newspaper headline might say just Mayor attacked. For more information on usage, see the sections Definite article § Notes. For more cases where no article is used, see Zero article in English, in most cases, the article is the first word of its noun phrase, preceding all other adjectives and modifiers. The little old red bag held a big surprise. There are a few exceptions, however, Certain determiners, such as all, the determiner such and exclamative what precede the indefinite article. When adjectives are qualified by quite, the word quite often precedes the indefinite article, see also English determiners § Combinations of determiners and Determiners and adjectives. The only definite article in English is the word the, denoting person or thing already mentioned, under discussion, implied, the is the most commonly used word in the English language, accounting for 7% of all words. The can be used with both singular and plural nouns, with nouns of any gender, and with nouns that start with any letter and this is different from many other languages which have different articles for different genders and/or numbers
10.
Clause
–
In grammar, a clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition. A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase, a simple sentence usually consists of a single finite clause with a finite verb that is independent. More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses, main clauses are those that can stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses are those that would be awkward or incomplete if they were alone, a primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between main clauses and subordinate clauses. A main clause can stand alone, i. e. it can constitute a complete sentence by itself. A subordinate clause, in contrast, is reliant on the appearance of a clause, it depends on the main clause and is therefore a dependent clause. A second major distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses, a finite clause contains a structurally central finite verb, whereas the structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a non-finite verb. Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the study of syntax. The discussion here focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered further below. Clauses can be classified according to a trait that is a prominent characteristic of their syntactic form. The position of the verb is one major trait used for classification. These two criteria overlap to an extent, which means that no single aspect of syntactic form is always decisive in determining how the clause functions. Standard SV-clauses are the norm in English and they are usually declarative, they express information in a neutral manner, e. g. The pig has not yet been fed, - Declarative clause, standard SV order Ive been hungry for two hours. - Declarative clause, standard SV order. that Ive been hungry for two hours and they can be viewed as basic, other clause types being derived from them. Standard SV-clauses can also be interrogative or exclamative, however, given the appropriate intonation contour and/or the appearance of a question word, the pig has not yet been fed. - Rising intonation on fed makes the clause a yes/no-question, the pig has not yet been fed. - Spoken forcefully, this clause is exclamative, youve been hungry for how long
11.
English clause syntax
–
This article describes the syntax of clauses in the English language, that is, the ways of combining and ordering constituents such as verbs and noun phrases to form a clause. Clauses can be classified as independent and dependent, a typical sentence consists of one independent clause, possibly augmented by one or more dependent clauses. An independent clause is a simple sentence, sentences can be classified according to the purpose or function of the sentence into declarative, interrogative, exclamatory sentence or imperative. In interrogative main clauses, unless the subject is or contains the interrogative word, However such inversion is only possible with an auxiliary or copular verb, if no such verb would otherwise be present, do-support is used. In most imperative clauses the subject is absent, Eat your dinner, However imperative clauses may include the subject for emphasis, You eat your dinner. The form of the verb is the form of the verb, such as eat, write. Modal verbs do not have imperative forms, Negation uses do-support, even if the verb is be, see § Negation below. The imperative here refers to forms, constructions for other persons may be formed periphrastically, e. g. Lets go. A dependent clause may be finite, or non-finite, particular types of dependent clause include relative clauses, content clauses and adverbial clauses. In certain instances, clauses use a verb conjugated in the subjunctive mood, Clauses can be nested within each other, sometimes up to several levels. A non-finite clause is one in which the verb is in a non-finite form, namely an infinitive, past participle, or -ing form, for how these forms are made. The internal syntax of a clause is generally similar to that of a finite clause. The following types exist, bare infinitive clause, such as go to the party in the let her go to the party. To-infinitive clause, such as to go to the party, although there is no subject in such a clause, the performer of the action can be expressed with a preceding prepositional phrase using for, It would be a good idea for her to go to the party. The possibility of placing adjuncts between the to and the verb in such constructions has been the subject of dispute among prescriptive grammarians, past participial clause, such as made a cake and seen to it. This is used in forming perfect constructions, as in he has made a cake, Present participial clause, such as being in good health. This has the form as the above, but serves as a noun rather than an adjective or adverb. The pre-appending of a subject in this case is criticized by some prescriptive grammarians – see Fused participle, in certain uses, a non-finite clause contains a missing item – this may be an object or complement of the verb, or the complement of a preposition within the clause
12.
Argument (linguistics)
–
In linguistics, an argument is an expression that helps complete the meaning of a predicate, the latter referring in this context to a main verb and its auxiliaries. In this regard, the complement is a related concept. Most predicates take one, two, or three arguments, a predicate and its arguments form a predicate-argument structure. The discussion of predicates and arguments is associated most with verbs and noun phrases, although other syntactic categories can also be construed as predicates, arguments must be distinguished from adjuncts. While a predicate needs its arguments to complete its meaning, the adjuncts that appear with a predicate are optional, most theories of syntax and semantics acknowledge arguments and adjuncts, although the terminology varies, and the distinction is generally believed to exist in all languages. Dependency grammars sometimes call arguments actants, following Tesnière, the area of grammar that explores the nature of predicates, their arguments, and adjuncts is called valency theory. Predicates have a valence, they determine the number and type of arguments that can or must appear in their environment, the valence of predicates is also investigated in terms of subcategorization. The basic analysis of the syntax and semantics of clauses relies heavily on the distinction between arguments and adjuncts, the clause predicate, which is often a content verb, demands certain arguments. That is, the arguments are necessary in order to complete the meaning of the verb, the adjuncts that appear, in contrast, are not necessary in this sense. The subject phrase and object phrase are the two most frequently occurring arguments of verbal predicates, the old man helped the young man. Each of these sentences contains two arguments, the first noun being the argument, and the second the object argument. Jill, for example, is the argument of the predicate likes. When additional information is added to our three example sentences, one is dealing with adjuncts, e. g. Jill really likes Jack, Jill likes Jack most of the time. Jill likes Jack when the sun shines, Jill likes Jack because hes friendly. The added phrases are adjuncts, they provide information that is not necessary to complete the meaning of the predicate likes. One key difference between arguments and adjuncts is that the appearance of an argument is often obligatory, whereas adjuncts appear optionally. While typical verb arguments are subject or object nouns or noun phrases as in the examples above, the PPs in bold in the following sentences are arguments, Sam put the pen on the chair. Larry does not put up with that, Bill is getting on my case
13.
Adjunct (grammar)
–
In linguistics, an adjunct is an optional, or structurally dispensable, part of a sentence, clause, or phrase that, if removed or discarded, will not otherwise affect the remainder of the sentence. Example, In the sentence John helped Bill in Central Park, an adjunct is not an argument, and an argument is not an adjunct. The argument–adjunct distinction is central in most theories of syntax and semantics, the terminology used to denote arguments and adjuncts can vary depending on the theory at hand. Some dependency grammars, for instance, employ the term circonstant, the area of grammar that explores the nature of predicates, their arguments, and adjuncts is called valency theory. Predicates have valency, they determine the number and type of arguments that can or must appear in their environment, the valency of predicates is also investigated in terms of subcategorization. Take the sentence John helped Bill in Central Park on Sunday as an example, in Central Park is the first adjunct. on Sunday is the second adjunct. An adverbial adjunct is an element that often establishes the circumstances in which the action or state expressed by the verb takes place. The following sentence uses adjuncts of time and place, Yesterday, notice that this example is ambiguous between whether the adjunct in the garden modifies the verb saw or the noun phrase the dog. The definition can be extended to include adjuncts that modify nouns or other parts of speech, an adjunct can be a single word, a phrase, or an entire clause. Single word She will leave tomorrow, phrase She will leave in the morning. Clause She will leave after she has had breakfast, most discussions of adjuncts focus on adverbial adjuncts, that is, on adjuncts that modify verbs, verb phrases, or entire clauses like the adjuncts in the three examples just given. Adjuncts can appear in other domains, however, that is, an adnominal adjunct is one that modifies a noun, for a list of possible types of these, see Components of noun phrases. Adjuncts that modify adjectives and adverbs are occasionally called adadjectival and adadverbial, the discussion before the game – before the game is an adnominal adjunct. Very happy – very is an adadjectival adjunct, too loudly – too is an adadverbial adjunct. Each of the adjuncts in the examples throughout this article is a constituent, adjuncts can be categorized in terms of the functional meaning that they contribute to the phrase, clause, or sentence in which they appear. The ladder collapsed because it was old, Concessive – Concessive adjuncts establish contrary circumstances. Lorna went out although it was raining, Conditional – Conditional adjuncts establish the condition in which an action occurs or state holds. I would go to Paris, if I had the money, Consecutive – Consecutive adjuncts establish an effect or result
14.
Diminutives in Australian English
–
Diminutive forms of words are commonly used in every-day Australian English. While many dialects of English make use of diminutives, Australian English uses them more extensively than any other, diminutives may be seen as slang, but many forms are used widely across the whole of society. Some forms have also spread outside Australia to other English speaking countries, there are over 5,000 identified diminutives in use in Australian English. In Australian English, diminutives are usually formed by taking the first part of a word, alternatively in some cases no ending may be added. While the form of a diminutive is arbitrary, their use follows strict rules, for example, an ambulance paramedic is called an ambo, and is never pronounced ambie or amba. The use of the -ie ending, for example in bikie, some diminutives are almost always used in preference to the original form, while some are rarely used. Others might be restricted to certain groups or locations. The use of diminutives also evolves over time with new words coming into use, some diminutives have become so common that the original form has fallen out of common usage. For example, Salvos has begun to replace the name Salvation Army to such an extent that some Australians do not recognise the Salvation Army name, deli has become so universal that delicatessen is rarely used. Some words, such as ute, from utility vehicle, a car with a back, have become universal. There is common usage of the forms of peoples names, Hargrave → Hargie, Wilkinson → Wilko, John → Jonno, David → Davo, Hogan → Hoges, James → Jimmy → Jim → Jimbo. This is usually a display of affection and acceptance rather than belittlement, organizations and businesses will often embrace the diminutives given to them by Australians, using them in their own advertising and even registering it as a trademark. McDonalds Australia, for example, has registered the name Maccas and uses that, some diminutives are rarely used, but widely recognised. For example, chalkie means teacher, however most Australians simply call a teacher a teacher, pub and hotel names in particular are often shortened. For example, pubs called the Esplanade Hotel, such as the Esplanade Hotel in St. Kilda and this list contains noteworthy and commonly understood diminutives from Australian English. Those marked ‡ are also common in British English. Barbie, a barbecue, which may refer to either the cooking apparatus itself or the event of cooking food on a barbecue, barra, a barramundi Beauty, Beaut or Bewdy, beautiful. Used in a wider sense than the beauty, e. g. fantastic or excellent
15.
Interrogative word
–
An interrogative word or question word is a function word used to ask a question, such as what, when, where, who, whom, why, and how. They are sometimes called wh-words, because in English most of them start with wh- and they may be used in both direct questions and in indirect questions. In English and various languages the same forms are also used as relative pronouns in certain relative clauses. A particular type of word is the interrogative particle, which serves to convert a statement into a yes–no question. Examples include est-ce que in French, ли li in Russian, czy in Polish, কি ki in Bengali, 吗 ma in Chinese, mı/mi in Turkish, such particles contrast with other interrogative words, which form what are called wh-questions rather than yes–no questions. For more information about the rules for forming questions in various languages. Ultimately, the English interrogative pronouns, derive from the Proto-Indo-European root kwo- or kwi and these underwent further sound changes and spelling changes, notably wh-cluster reductions, resulting in the initial sound being either /w/ or /h/ and the initial spelling being either wh or h. This was the result of two sound changes – /hw/ > /h/ before /uː/ and /hw/ > /w/ otherwise – and the change from hw to wh in Middle English. In how, the w merged into the lave of the word, as it did in Old Frisian hū, hō, in English, the gradual change of voiceless stops into voiceless fricatives during the development of Germanic languages is responsible for wh- of interrogatives. Although some varieties of American English and various Scottish dialects still preserve the original sound, other interrogative words, such as which, how, where, whence, or whither, derive either from compounds, or other words from the same root. Most English interrogative words can take the suffix -ever, to words such as whatever and wherever. These words have the main meanings, As more emphatic interrogative words, often expressing disbelief or puzzlement in mainly rhetorical questions. To form free relative clauses, as in Ill do whatever you do, Whoever challenges us shall be punished, in this use, the nominal -ever words can be regarded as indefinite pronouns or as relative pronouns. To form adverbial clauses with the meaning no matter where/who/etc, wherever they hide, I will find them. A frequent class of words in several other languages is the interrogative verb, Korean. Weather-nominative be_how-politeness fifth level-interrogative suffix Hows the weather, mongolian, Chi yaa-vch jaahan huuhed bish gej bi bod-jii-ne You do_what-concessive small child not that I think-progressive-nonpast Whatever you do, I think you’re not a small child
16.
English determiners
–
An important role in English grammar is played by determiners – words or phrases that precede a noun or noun pahrase and serve to express its reference in the context. The most common of these are the definite and indefinite articles, the, other determiners in English include demonstratives such as this and that, possessives such as my and the boys, and quantifiers such as all, many and three. In many contexts the presence of some determiner is required in order to form a complete noun phrase, however, in some cases complete noun phrases are formed without any determiner, as in the sentence Apples are fruit. Determiners can also be used in combinations, as in my many friends or all the chairs. also him, her. The terminology used in accounts of English grammar to refer to determiners is very varied, sometimes the term is not used at all, and the words classed here as determiners are classed as adjectives. In other cases, there is a related but distinct form, for example. An alternative term is phrasal determiners, the demonstratives this and that, with respective plural forms these and those. Possessives, including those corresponding to pronouns – my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose – and these can be made more emphatic with the addition of own or very own. Relative determiners, which, also whichever and whatever, indefinite determiners, The indefinite article a or an. The word some, pronounced, used as an equivalent of the article with plural. The strong form of some, pronounced, as in Some people prefer dry wine, for words such as certain and other see below. The word any, often used in negative and interrogative contexts in place of the article-equivalent some and it can also be used to express alternative. Quantifiers, which quantify a noun, Basic words indicating a large or small quantity, much/many, little/few, where two forms are given, the first is used with non-count nouns and the second with count nouns. The basic forms can be modified with adverbs, especially very, too, note that unmodified much is quite rarely used in affirmative statements in colloquial English. Phrases expressing similar meanings to the above, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, words and phrases expressing some unspecified or probably quite small amount, a few/a little, several, a couple of, a bit of, a number of etc. Cardinal numbers, zero, one, two, etc, in some analyses, these may not be treated as determiners. Other phrases expressing precise quantity, a pair of, five litres of, words and phrases expressing multiples or fractions, half, half of, double, twice, three times, twice as much, etc. Those like double and half are used in combination with definite determiners
17.
English compound
–
A compound is a word composed of more than one free morpheme. The English language, like others, uses compounds frequently. English compounds may be classified in several ways, such as the classes or the semantic relationship of their components. Most English compound nouns are noun phrases that include a noun modified by adjectives or noun adjuncts, due to the English tendency towards conversion, the two classes are not always easily distinguished. Most English compound nouns that consist of more than two words can be constructed recursively by combining two words at a time, combining science and fiction, and then combining the resulting compound with writer, for example, can construct the compound science fiction writer. As in other Germanic languages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long, however, this is obscured by the fact that the written representation of long compounds always contains spaces. Solid compounds most likely consist of units that often have been established in the language for a long time. Examples are housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, basketball, etc, the hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen. Compounds that contain affixes, such as house-build and single-mind, as well as adjective-adjective compounds and verb-verb compounds, such as blue-green, compounds that contain articles, prepositions or conjunctions, such as rent-a-cop, mother-of-pearl and salt-and-pepper, are also often hyphenated. The open or spaced form consisting of combinations of usually longer words, such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis. In general, the meaning of a noun is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier limits the meaning of the head and this is most obvious in descriptive compounds, in which the modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a kind of board, which is black. In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive, for example, a footstool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for ones foot or feet, in a similar manner, an office manager is the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat against the rain. These relationships, which are expressed by prepositions in English, would be expressed by grammatical case in other languages, however, in another common type of compound, the exocentric or, the semantic head is not explicitly expressed. A redhead, for example, is not a kind of head, similarly, a blockhead is also not a head, but a person with a head that is as hard and unreceptive as a block. And a lionheart is not a type of heart, but a person with a heart like a lion, note in general the way to tell the two apart, Can you paraphrase the meaning of the compound to A person/thing that is a Y, or
18.
Portmanteau
–
In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
19.
English conditional sentences
–
The condition clause is a dependent clause, most commonly headed by the conjunction if, while the consequence is contained in the main clause of the sentence. Different types of conditional sentences require the use of verb forms to express the condition. In English language teaching the most common patterns are referred to as first conditional, second conditional and third conditional, there is also a zero conditional, for more general information about the uses of verb tenses, moods and aspects in English, see Uses of English verb forms. In English conditional sentences, the clause is a dependent clause. Other conjunctions or equivalent expressions may also be used, such as unless, provided, providing, certain condition clauses can also be formulated using inversion without any conjunction, see § Inversion in condition clauses below. The apodosis, expressing the consequence of the condition, is generally the main clause of the sentence. Depending on the type, it may be a statement, question. It may appear before or after the condition clause, If I see him, I will tell him if I see him. If you saw him, would you tell him, would you tell him if you saw him. If you see it, photograph it, photograph it if you see it. As with other dependent clauses in English, it is common for a comma to be used to separate the clauses if the dependent clause comes first, see Comma § Separation of clauses. It is possible for the clause to appear alone in a sentence, without a condition clause. It may also be shortened by verb phrase ellipsis, a conditional sentence could therefore be something like Would you. Zero conditional refers to sentences that express a factual implication. If the alarm goes off, theres a fire somewhere in the building, If you are going to sit an exam tomorrow, go to bed early tonight. If aspirins will cure it, Ill take a couple tonight, when you make a mistake, someone lets you know. The first of these sentences is a zero conditional with both clauses in the present tense. The fourth is an example of the use of will in a condition clause, the use of verb tenses, moods and aspects in the parts of such sentences follows general principles, as described in Uses of English verb forms
20.
Conjunction (grammar)
–
In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjoining construction. The term discourse marker is used for conjunctions joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of parts of speech. In general, a conjunction is a grammatical particle and it may or may not stand between the items in a conjunction. The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the function, e. g. as well as. A simple literary example of a conjunction, the truth of nature, conjunctions may be placed at the beginning of sentences, But some superstition about the practice persists. Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join, or coordinate, in English, the mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the coordinators for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. These are not the only coordinating conjunctions, various others are used, including and nor, but nor, or nor, neither, no more, types of coordinating conjunctions include cumulative conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, alternative conjunctions, and illative conjunctions. He is not only handsome, but also brilliant, not only is he handsome, but also he is brilliant. Neither the basketball team nor the team is doing well. Both the cross team and the swimming team are doing well. You must decide whether you stay or you go, just as many Americans love basketball, so many Canadians love ice hockey. The more you practice dribbling, the better you will be at it, football is as fast as hockey. Football is as much an addiction as it is a sport, no sooner did she learn to ski, than the snow began to thaw. I would rather swim than surf, subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join an independent clause and a dependent clause, and also introduce adverb clauses. Complementizers can be considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses, I wonder whether hell be late. I hope that hell be on time, some subordinating conjunctions, when used to introduce a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings. In many verb-final languages, subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend, in this sense, the subordinate clauses of these languages have much in common with postpositional phrases
