1.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
2.
Districts of Mandatory Palestine
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The districts of Mandatory Palestine formed the first level of administrative division and existed through the whole era of Mandatory Palestine, namely from 1920 to 1948. The number and territorial extent of them varied over time, as did their subdivision into sub-districts, in Arabic, a district was known as a minṭaqah, while in Hebrew it was known as a mahoz. Each district had an administration headed by a District Governor, a role renamed as District Commissioner in 1925, until June 1920, Palestine was under a formal military regime called O. E. T. A. Initially the country was divided into 13 administrative districts, reduced to 10 in 1919, the division was revised after the adoption of a civilian administration in the middle of 1920. In September 1920, the districts were Jerusalem, Galilee, Phoenicia, Samaria, Jaffa, Gaza, in July 1922, administrations of the districts of Phoenicia and Galilee were combined, as were the districts of Jerusalem and Jaffa, and the districts of Gaza and Beersheba. Some reassignment of sub-districts also occurred, at the time of the October,1922, census of Palestine, there were four districts divided into 18 sub-districts. In 1938, the Beersheba and Gaza sub-districts were separated from the Southern District, then in 1939, the Administrative Division Proclamation reshaped the country into six districts. The name of the Galilee and Acre District was changed to Galilee District in December, although not published until June, it stated that the change shall be deemed to have come into force on the 1st January,1945
3.
Tiberias Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine
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The Tiberias Subdistrict was one of the subdistricts of Mandatory Palestine. It was situated around the city of Tiberias, in 1945 it was part of Galilee District. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the subdistrict disintegrated, safad Subdistrict Acre Subdistrict Beisan Subdistrict Nazareth Subdistrict Syria
4.
Palestine grid
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The Palestine grid was the geographic coordinate system used in Mandatory Palestine. The system was chosen by the Survey Department of the Government of Palestine in 1922, the projection used was the Cassini-Soldner projection. The central meridian was chosen as that passing through a marker on the hill of Mar Elias Monastery south of Jerusalem, the false origin of the grid was placed 100 km to the south and west of the Ali el-Muntar hill that overlooks Gaza city. The unit length for the grid was the kilometre, the British units were not even considered, at the time the grid was established, there was no intention of mapping the lower reaches of the Negev Desert, but this did not remain true. The fact that those regions would have negative north-south coordinate then became a source of confusion. For some military purposes,1000 was added to the coordinates of all locations. During World War II, a Military Palestine Grid was used that was similar to the Palestine Grid, the difference between the two projections was only a few meters. It was replaced by the Israeli Transverse Mercator grid in 1994, the Palestine grid is still commonly used to specify locations in the historical and archaeological literature. The basic way of specifying a location on the Palestine grid is to write the east-west coordinate followed by the north-south coordinate using 3 digits each, for example, the Dome of the Rock is at 172132. This specifies the location within one kilometer, if more precision is required, extra digits can be added to each coordinate, for example,17241317 gives the Dome of the Rock to within 100 meters. Many authors separate the two coordinates with punctuation for readability purposes, for example 172-132 or 172/132
5.
Amnun
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Amnun is a workers moshav in the Upper Galilee in northern Israel. It belongs to the Mevoot HaHermon Regional Council and HaOved HaTzioni and it is located in the Korazim region, north of Kfar Nahum and the Sea of Galilee and east of Safed. In 2015 it had a population of 289, the moshav was founded by the Jewish Agency in 1983 for evacuees of former Israeli settlements in Sinai after the signing of the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty and residents of neighboring moshavim. The name is based on the Tilapia fish, called Amnun in Hebrew, which lives in the nearby Kinneret lake
6.
Korazim
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Korazim is a communal settlement in northern Israel. Located on the Korazim plateau to the north of the Sea of Galilee, in 2015 it had a population of 357. The village was founded in 1983 as a moshav, but after it merged with Maof it became a communal settlement and it is found just north of the Sea of Galilee. It is named after ancient Chorazin, mentioned in the New Testament, now the site of an archaeological park
7.
Palestinians
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Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the worlds Palestinian population continues to reside in historic Palestine, the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, the history of a distinct Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. Palestinian was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs in a limited way until World War I, Modern Palestinian identity now encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before the international community. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the Syrians of Palestine or Palestinian-Syrians, an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine, the Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian Peleset/Purusati has been conjectured to refer to the Sea Peoples, among Semitic languages, Akkadian Palaštu is used of Philistia and its 4 city states. Biblical Hebrews cognate word Plištim, is usually translated Philistines, the Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. The Arabic newspaper Falasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, the first Zionist bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, was founded at the Second Zionist Congress and incorporated in London in 1899. The JCT was intended to be the instrument of the Zionist Organization. On 27 February 1902, a subsidiary of this Trust called the Anglo-Palestine Company was established in London with the assistance of Zalman David Levontin and this Company was to become the future Bank Leumi. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms Palestine and Palestinian by, for example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis, Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to the Jews who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The Charter also states that Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is a territorial unit. The although the timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement
8.
Arabs
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Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
9.
Operation Matateh
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Operation Matateh was a Haganah offensive launched ten days before the end of the British Mandate in Palestine. It was a sub-section of Operation Yiftach, with the objectivies of capturing the flatlands between Lake Tiberias and Lake Hula and clear the area of Bedouin encampments and it was carried out by Palmach units under the command of Yigal Allon. The 1942 edition of Steimatzkys Palestine Guide describes Hula district as follows, all round are Bedouin encampments with mat tents. The Bedouin gather reeds that grow in the marshes and weave them into mats and these are sold in the markets, and form an important source of their income. You can see the people weaving beside their tents and they also breed buffalies which can be seen basking in the swamps near the springs. This part of the country is rich in type of cattle. In a report to Haganah General Staff, dated 22 April 1948, Allon recommended, the area was home to five Bedouin clans, al-Qudayriyya, Arab as Samakiya, Arab as Suyyad, Arab al-Shamalina and the al-Zanghariyya. These had for months harassed Jewish traffic on the Tiberias - Rosh-Pina road, the attack was launched on 4 May 1948. The assault on Zanghariya was preceded by mortaring and the Arabs fled eastward into Syria, the following day Palmach sappers methodically blew up more than 50 houses in the area. A cable to the British Foreign Office, dated 4 May, according to Yigal Allon, Operation Broom had a tremendous psychological impact on the population of Safed and of the Hula Valley to the north. Population figures based on year-end 1944 figures from the Village Statistics 1945 - Palestine Index Gazetteer, list of Arab towns and villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestinian exodus
10.
Tiberias
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Tiberias is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Established around 20 CE, it was named in honour of the 2nd Emperor of the Roman Empire Tiberius, in 2015 it had a population of 42,610. In the 2nd–10th centuries, Tiberias was the largest Jewish city in the Galilee and the political and religious hub of the Jews of Israel. Its immediate neighbour to the south, Hammat Tiberias, which is now part of modern Tiberias, has known for its hot springs, believed to cure skin and other ailments. Herod Antipas made it the capital of his realm in the Galilee, the city was built in immediate proximity to a spa which had developed around 17 natural mineral hot springs, Hammat Tiberias. Tiberias was at first a pagan city, but later became populated mainly by Jews, with its growing spiritual. The Jewish oral tradition holds that Tiberias was built on the site of the ancient Israelite village of Rakkath or Rakkat, in Talmudic times, the Jews still referred to it by this name. Conversely, in The Antiquities of the Jews, the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus calls the village with hot springs Emmaus, todays Hammat Tiberias and this name also appears in The Wars of the Jews. Antipas settled many non-Jews there from rural Galilee and other parts of his domains in order to populate his new capital, and built a palace on the acropolis. The prestige of Tiberias was so great that the Sea of Galilee soon came to be named the Sea of Tiberias, however, the Jewish population continued to call it Yam Ha-Kineret, its traditional name. The city was governed by a city council of 600 with a committee of 10 until 44 CE when a Roman procurator was set over the city after the death of Herod Agrippa I. Tiberias is mentioned in John 6,23 as the location from which boats had sailed to the side of the Sea of Galilee. The crowd seeking Jesus after the feeding of the 5000 used these boats to travel back to Capernaum on the north-western part of the sea. Under the Roman Empire, the city was known by its Greek name Τιβεριάς, in 61 CE Herod Agrippa II annexed the city to his kingdom whose capital was Caesarea Philippi. It became a city after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE, with Judea subdued. It was to be its final meeting place before its disbanding in the early Byzantine period, when Johanan bar Nappaha settled in Tiberias, the city became the focus of Jewish religious scholarship in the land. The Jerusalem Talmud would follow being compiled by Rabbi Jochanan between 230–270 CE, Tiberias 13 synagogues served the spiritual needs of a growing Jewish population. In the 6th century Tiberias was still the seat of Jewish religious learning, in 628, the Byzantine army returned to Tiberias upon the surrender of Jewish rebels and the end of the Persian occupation after they were defeated in the battle of Nineveh
11.
Edward Robinson (scholar)
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Edward Robinson was an American biblical scholar. He studied in the United States and Germany, a center of biblical scholarship and he translated scriptural works from classical languages, as well as German translations. His Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament became an authority in the United States. Robinson was born in Southington, Connecticut, and raised on a farm and his father was a minister in the Congregational Church of the town for four decades. The younger Robinson taught at schools in East Haven and Farmington in 1810-11 to earn money for college and he attended Hamilton College, in Clinton, New York, where his maternal uncle, Seth Norton, was a professor. In 1821 he went to Andover, Massachusetts, where he published his translation of books i-ix, xviii, there he aided Moses Stuart in the preparation of the second edition of the latters Hebrew Grammar. He translated into English Wahls Clavis Philologica Novi Testamenti, Robinson went to Europe to study ancient languages, largely in Halle and Berlin. While in Halle, in 1828 he married the German writer Therese Albertine Luise, after the couple returned to the United States, Robinson was appointed professor extraordinary of sacred literature at Andover Theological Seminary. Robinson founded the Biblical Repository, which he edited for four years and he also established the Bibliotheca Sacra, into which was merged the Biblical Repository. He spent three years in Boston working on a lexicon of scriptural Greek, illness caused him to move to New York City. He was appointed as professor of literature at Union Theological Seminary. In 1836 Robinson published both a translation of Wilhelm Gesenius Hebrew Lexicon and a Greek New Testament Lexicon, Robinson traveled to Palestine in 1838 in the company of Rev. He published Biblical Researches in Palestine in 1841, for which he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1842 and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1847. Robinson, together with Smith, made scores of identifications of ancient places referred to the Bible and his work established his enduring reputation as a Founder of Biblical archeology, and influenced much of future archaeological field work. Examples of his finds in Jerusalem include the Siloam tunnel and Robinsons Arch in the Old City, the two men returned to Ottoman Palestine in 1852 for further investigations. In 1856 the enlarged edition of Biblical Researches was published simultaneously in English and this work superseded his translation of Wahls work, becoming a standard authority in the United States. It was several times reprinted in Great Britain, physical Geography of the Holy Land. This is a supplement to his Biblical Researches, and was edited by Mrs. Robinson after his death, revised editions of the Greek and English Harmonies, edited by Matthew B
12.
Bedouin
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The term contrasts against Hathar which refers to the city or town dwellers in the Arabic language. Bedouin means Badiyah dwellers in the Arabic language, as Badyah means literally the visible land, the Bedouins identify themselves as Arabs or by the names of their tribes. City dwellers in Arabia who descended from known tribes refer to themselves as Bedouins to recognize their origin to Arabia. Bedouin territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to the sands of the Middle East. They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans and share a culture of herding camels. The Bedouin form a part of, but are not synonymous with, Bedouins have been referred to by various names throughout history, including Qedarites in the Old Testament and Arabaa by the Assyrians. They are referred to as the Araab in the Koran, traditions like camel riding and camping in the deserts are also popular leisure activities for urbanised Bedouins who live within close proximity to deserts or other wilderness areas. The term Bedouin derives from a form of the Arabic word badu. The Arabic term badu literally translates in Arabic as Badiyah dwellers, the word bādiyah means visible land such as plain or desert. The term Bedouin therefore means those in bādiyah or those in the desert, in English usage, however, the form Bedouin is commonly used for the singular term, the plural being Bedouins, as indicated by the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition. The term Bedouin also uses the root word as the Arabic noun for the beginning, بداية. The Arabs believe the Bedouins to be the predecessors to the settled Arabs, disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this frame, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility. The individual family unit typically consisted of three or four adults and any number of children, when resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were linked by patriarchal lineage, but were just as likely linked by marriage, acquaintance, or no clearly defined relation. The next scale of interaction within groups was the ibn ʿamm or descent group, whilst the phrase descent group suggests purely a lineage-based arrangement, in reality these groups were fluid and adapted their genealogies to take in new members. The largest scale of tribal interactions is the tribe as a whole, the tribe often claims descent from one common ancestor—as mentioned above. The tribal level is the level that mediated between the Bedouin and the governments and organizations. Distinct structure of the Bedouin society leads to lasting rivalries between different clans
13.
Capernaum
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Capernaum was a fishing village established during the time of the Hasmoneans, located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. It had a population of about 1,500, Archaeological excavations have revealed two ancient synagogues built one over the other. A house turned into a church by the Byzantines is said to be the home of Saint Peter, the village was inhabited continuously from the 2nd century BCE to the 11th century CE, when it was abandoned sometime before the Crusader conquest. This includes the re-establishment of the village during the Early Islamic period soon after the 749 earthquake, kfar Nahum, the original name of the small town, means Nahums village in Hebrew, but apparently there is no connection with the prophet named Nahum. In Arabic, it is called Talhum, and it is assumed that this refers to the ruin of Hum. The town is cited in all four gospels where it was reported to have been near the hometown of the apostles Simon Peter, Andrew, James and John, one Sabbath, Jesus taught in the synagogue in Capernaum and healed a man who was possessed by an unclean spirit. This story is notable for being the one common between the gospels of Mark and Luke, but not contained in the gospel of Matthew. Afterwards, he healed Simon Peters mother-in-law of a fever, according to Luke 7, 1–10 and Matthew 8,5, it is also the place where Jesus healed the servant of a Roman centurion who had asked for his help. Capernaum is also the location of the healing of the paralytic lowered through the roof to reach Jesus reported in Mark 2, 1–12, and Luke 5, 17–26. In Matthew 9,1 the town is referred to only as his own city, most traditional biblical commentators assume that his own city means Capernaum because of the details which are common to the three synoptic gospels. Although the writers of the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary suggest that alternatively it could refer to Nazareth, according to the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus selected this town as the center of his public ministry in Galilee after he left the small mountainous hamlet of Nazareth. He also formally cursed the city, saying you will be thrown down to Hades. because of their lack of faith in him as the Messiah. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that the town was established in the 2nd century BC during the Hasmonean period, the site had no defensive wall and extended along the shore of the nearby lake. The cemetery zone is found 200 meters north of the synagogue and it extended 3 kilometers to Tabgha, an area which appears to have been used for agricultural purposes, judging by the many oil and grain mills which were discovered in the excavation. Fishing was also a source of income, the remains of another harbor were found to the west of that built by the Franciscans, josephus referred to Capernaum as a fertile spring. He stayed the night there after bruising his wrist in a riding accident, during the first Jewish revolt of 66–70 Capernaum was spared as it didnt have to be occupied by force by the Romans. In 1838, American explorer Edward Robinson discovered the ruins of ancient Capernaum, the Franciscans raised a fence to protect the ruins from frequent vandalism, and planted palms and eucalyptus trees brought from Australia to create a small oasis for pilgrims. They also built a small harbor and these labors were directed by Franciscan Virgilio Corbo
14.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
15.
Village Statistics, 1945
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The data were calculated as of April 1,1945, and was later published and also served the UNSCOP committee that operated in 1947. Scan of the document at the National Library of Israel. Village Statistics of 1945, A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine
16.
Yigal Allon
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Yigal Allon was an Israeli politician, a commander of the Palmach, and a general in the IDF. He served as one of the leaders of Ahdut HaAvoda party and the Israeli Labor party and he was a Knesset member and government minister from the third Knesset to the ninth inclusive. Yigal Peikowitz was born in Kfar Tavor and his father immigrated to Palestine in 1890. After graduating from Kadoorie Agricultural High School in 1937, Allon became one of the founders of Kibbutz Ginosar and their eldest daughter Nurit, was on the Autism spectrum. In 1950-1952, he studied philosophy and history at St Antonys College, Allon died of heart failure in Afula on 29 February 1980. He was buried on the shore of Sea of Galilee in the cemetery of Kibbutz Ginosar in the Northern District, the funeral was attended by tens of thousands of mourners, with condolences extended by many world leaders, including Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. Allon joined Haganah in 1931 and went on to commanded a field unit, during this period he participated in several operations of the Special Night Squads, under the command of Orde Charles Wingate and H. E. N. Bredin. In 1941 he became one of the members of the Palmach. In 1941 and 1942, he was a scout with the British forces who fought in Syria, in 1945, he became Commander in Chief of the Palmach. On 22 June 1948, at the climax of David Ben-Gurions confrontation with the Irgun over the distribution of weapons from the Altalena, Allon commanded the troops ordered to shell the vessel. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Allon led several of the operations on all three fronts, including Yiftach in the Galilee, Danny in the Centre, Yoav. His last major roles as commander were in October and December 1948, Operation Yoav towards the Hebron Hills. As Operational Commander of the Southern Command he was responsible for security along the borders with Egypt, on 4 June 1949 he declared a 8 kilometres wide closed military zone along the border. On 18 October 1949, while he was in a visit in Paris. Most of his Staff Officers resigned in protest and he retired from active service in 1950. In January 1948, Allon helped form the left-wing Mapam party, in December 1948, Mapam co-leader Meir Yaari criticized Allons use of tens of thousands of Palestinian refugees to achieve strategic goals. After ending his career, Allon embarked on a public political career. He became a prominent leader in Ahdut HaAvoda, which had split from Mapam in 1954, and was first elected to the Knesset in 1955, Allon served as the Minister of Labour from 1961–68
17.
Basalt
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Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
18.
Claude Reignier Conder
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Claude Reignier Conder was an English soldier, explorer and antiquarian. He was a great-great-grandson of Louis-François Roubiliac, Conder was educated at University College London and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He became a lieutenant in the Corps of Royal Engineers in 1870 and he retired with the rank of colonel in 1904. Conder joined the expedition to Egypt in 1882, under Sir Garnet Wolseley and he was appointed a deputy assistant adjutant and quartermaster-general on the staff of the intelligence department. In Egypt his perfect knowledge of Arabic and of Eastern people proved most useful and he was present at the action of Kassassin, the Battle of Tel el-Kebir, and the advance to Cairo, but then, seized with typhoid fever, he was invalided home. For his services he received the war medal with clasp for Tel el-Kebir, the Khedives bronze star, the work of surveying the country of Palestine commenced again only in late February 1877, without Conder. Conder was first proposed as a candidate for the Jack the Ripper murders by the author Tom Slemen. H, Kitchener, The Survey of Western Palestine, memoirs of the topography, orography, hydrography, and archaeology. London, Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, vol 1 The full text, archive. org, Can download PDF. Conder, Claude Reignier and H. H. Kitchener, The Survey of Western Palestine, memoirs of the topography, orography, hydrography, London, Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Vol 2 The full text, archive. org, Can download PDF, Conder, Claude Reignier and H. H. Kitchener, The Survey of Western Palestine, memoirs of the topography, orography, hydrography, and archaeology. London, Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, vol 3 The full text, archive. org, Can download PDF. Measuring Jerusalem, the Palestine Exploration Fund and British interests in the Holy Land, la fortaleza de Herodes y el último bastión de los Zelotes
19.
Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
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His term as Commander-in-Chief of the Army in India saw him quarrel with another eminent proconsul, the Viceroy Lord Curzon, who eventually resigned. Kitchener then returned to Egypt as British Agent and Consul-General, in 1914, at the start of the First World War, Kitchener became Secretary of State for War, a Cabinet Minister. Kitchener died on 5 June 1916 when HMS Hampshire sank west of the Orkney Islands and he was making his way to Russia in order to attend negotiations when the ship struck a German mine. He was one of more than 600 killed on board the ship, Kitchener was born in Ballylongford near Listowel, County Kerry, in Ireland, son of army officer Henry Horatio Kitchener and Frances Anne Chevallier. His father had recently bought land in Ireland under a scheme to encourage the purchase of land after selling his commission. They then moved to Switzerland where the young Kitchener was educated at Montreux, then at the Royal Military Academy, pro-French and eager to see action, he joined a French field ambulance unit in the Franco-Prussian War. His father took him back to England after he caught pneumonia after ascending in a balloon to see the French Army of the Loire in action. Commissioned into the Royal Engineers on 4 January 1871, his service in France had violated British neutrality, and he was reprimanded by the Duke of Cambridge, the commander-in-chief. He served in Palestine, Egypt, and Cyprus as a surveyor, learned Arabic, Sir Walter Kitchener, had also entered the army, and was Governor of Bermuda from 1908 to 1912. In 1874, at age 24, Kitchener was assigned by the Palestine Exploration Fund to a mapping-survey of the Holy Land, replacing Charles Tyrwhitt-Drake, who had died of malaria. Conder and Kitchener’s expedition became known as the Survey of Western Palestine because it was confined to the area west of the Jordan River. The survey collected data on the topography and toponymy of the area, as well as local flora, the results of the survey were published in an eight-volume series, with Kitchener’s contribution in the first three tomes. This survey has had an effect on the Middle East for several reasons, The ordnance survey serves as the basis for the grid system used in the modern maps of Israel. The collection of data compiled by Conder and Kitchener are still consulted by archaeologists, the survey itself effectively delineated and defined the political borders of the southern Levant. For instance, the border between Israel and Lebanon is established at the point in upper Galilee where Conder and Kitchener’s survey stopped. In 1878 having completed the survey of Western Palestine, Kitchener was sent to Cyprus to undertake a survey of newly acquired British protectorate. Then in 1879 he became vice-consul in Anatolia, in 1883 Kitchener became a Freemason. On 4 January 1883 Kitchener was promoted to captain, given the Turkish rank bimbashi, Egypt had recently become a British puppet state, its army led by British officers, although still nominally under the sovereignty of the Khedive and his nominal overlord the Sultan of Turkey
20.
Palestine Exploration Fund
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The Palestine Exploration Fund is a British society based in London. It was founded in 1865 and is the oldest known organization in the world created specifically for the study of the Levant region, today now known as Palestine. Consequently, it had a relationship with Corps of Royal Engineers. The beginnings of the Palestine Exploration Fund are rooted in a society founded by British Consul James Finn. Many photographs of Palestine have survived from this period, on 22 June 1865, a group of Biblical archaeologists and clergymen financed the fund, with initial funding of £300. The most notable of the founders were Arthur P. Stanley, the Dean of Westminster, and George Grove and its founders established the fund for the purpose of investigating the Archaeology, Geography, manners, customs and culture, Geology and Natural History of the Holy Land. It is interesting to note that the General Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund recognized a connection with the earlier Society. The preliminary meeting of the Society of the Palestine Exploration Fund took place in the Jerusalem Chamber of Westminster Abbey, William Thomson, the Archbishop of York, read out the original prospectus at the first organisational meeting, ur object is strictly an inductive inquiry. No country should be of so much interest to us as that in which the documents of our Faith were written, at the same time no country more urgently requires illustration. Even to a traveller in the Holy Land the Bible becomes, in its form, and therefore to some extent in its substance. Much would be gained by. bringing to light the remains of so many races and generations which must lie concealed under the accumulation of rubbish and ruins on which those villages stand. The PEF conducted many early excavations of biblical and post biblical sites around the Levant, as well as studies involving natural history, anthropology, history, in 1867, Charles Warren led PEFs biggest expedition. Warren and his team improved the topography of Jerusalem and discovered the ancient water systems that lay beneath the city of Jerusalem, the water system was later named Warrens Shaft, after Charles Warren, due to the discovery. Scattered over the world, a people without a country and it was one of the earliest usages by a prominent politician of a phrase which was to become widely used by advocates of Jewish settlement in Palestine. In 1878, the Treasurers statement listed over 130 local associations in the United Kingdom, there were also branches in Canada and Australia as well as Gaza City and Jerusalem. Expenditure in 1877 amounted to £2,959 14s 11d, regarding the latter, great emphasis was placed upon the nomenclature Holy Land, so the notion of religion could never have been far away. Also stress was laid upon the fact that The Society numbers among its supporters Christians, originally the survey was led by a Captain Stewart but he was forced home due to ill health. He was replaced by Major Wilson with Lieutenant Conder, following the death of Tyrwhitt Drake from malaria Lieutenant Kitchener joined the group
21.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
22.
Institute for Palestine Studies
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The Institute for Palestine Studies is the oldest independent nonprofit public service research institute in the Arab world. It was established and incorporated in Beirut, Lebanon, in 1963 and has served as a model for other such institutes in the region. It is the institute in the world solely concerned with analyzing and documenting Palestinian affairs. IPSs Library in Beirut is the largest in the Arab world specializing in Palestinian affairs, the Arab–Israeli conflict and it is led by a Board of Trustees comprising some forty scholars, businessmen, and public figures representing almost all Arab countries. The Institute currently maintains offices in Beirut, Paris, Washington and it is independent of government, party, or political organization. IPS activities are financed by income from its endowment, contributions and gifts from donors, the project is online and users can access the legislation as well as the Congressional record from which it is drawn through the Congressional Monitor Database. Tips on using the database as well as a guide to the U. S. legislative process are provided. The Institutes library is located at the Institutess headquarters in Beirut and it is also interested in studying and promoting knowledge of Hebrew. The Institute publishes three quarterly journals in English and Arabic and these are independently edited and published from Washington, Paris, Jerusalem, and Beirut respectively. The journals are, The Journal of Palestine Studies, which was established in 1971 and it is published and distributed by the University of California Press on behalf of the institute. The current editor is Rashid Khalidi of Columbia University, the French quarterly, Revue détudes palestiniennes, which began publication in 1982, was independently edited and produced by The Institute for Palestine Studies – Paris. The Revue was printed and distributed by Editions de Minuit, the Arabic language quarterly, Majallat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyah, was founded in 1990. It is edited in London and Beirut and is reprinted in Ramallah in the West Bank for distribution in the Palestinian Territories. Elias Khoury, renowned Lebanese author is the Editor of the Majallat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyah, the Jerusalem Quarterly was conceived in 1998 as the Jerusalem Quarterly File, and is published by the Institute of Jerusalem Studies, an affiliate of the Institute for Palestine Studies. Jerusalem Quarterly publishes historical features and contemporary analysis of aspects of city life, the journal is available quarterly online, and in print copy through paid subscription. It has also published over 600 books and it has published many first-person Palestinian accounts of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The Institute is led by a Board of Trustees composed of Arab scholars, businessmen, a volunteer executive committee, elected by the Board, manage the regular activities. The trustees come from most Arab countries, including Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, education in the Palestinian territories List of Palestinian universities Official website Journal of Palestine Studies
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
Benny Morris
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Benny Morris is an Israeli historian. He is a professor of history in the Middle East Studies department of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in the city of Beersheba, Israel. He is a key member of the group of Israeli historians known as the New Historians, Morriss work on the Arab–Israeli conflict and especially the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has won praise and criticism from both sides of the political divide. He is accused by academics in Israel of only using Israeli and never Arab sources. Regarding himself as a Zionist, he writes, I embarked upon the research not out of commitment or political interest. I simply wanted to know what happened, Morris was born on 8 December 1948 in kibbutz Ein HaHoresh, the son of Jewish immigrants from the United Kingdom. He was born to Yaakov Morris, an Israeli diplomat, historian, and poet and Sadie Morris, according to The New Yorker, Benny Morris grew up in the heart of a left-wing pioneering atmosphere. His parents moved to Jerusalem when Morris was a year old, in the wake of his fathers diplomatic duties, the family spent four years in New York when Morris was nine, and another two years there when he was 15. Morris served in infantry, including in the paratroops, during 1967-1969 and he was wounded in 1969 by an Egyptian shell at the Suez Canal, and was released from the army four months later. He completed his studies in history at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. During the 2015–2016 academic year, Morris served as the Goldman Visiting Israeli Professor in Georgetown Universitys Department of Government and he lives in moshav Srigim and is married with three children. After graduation from the University of Cambridge he returned to Jerusalem, in 1982, he covered the Lebanon War, and also served as a reservist, taking part in the siege of Beirut in a mortar unit. In 1986, he did duty in the West Bank. In 1988, when his unit was called up for reserve duty in Nablus, he refused to serve. Mainstream Israeli historiography at the time explained the 1948 Palestinian exodus from their towns and villages as having been driven by fear, Morris found evidence that there had been expulsions in some cases. And there is a connection between the two, critics allege that Morriss first book is biased. Morris believes they failed to read his book with moral detachment, assuming that when he described Israeli actions as cruel or as atrocities, in fact, he supports Israeli actions during 1948 such as the uprooting of 700,000 Palestinians. In a 2004 interview in Haaretz with Ari Shavit he stated, therefore it was necessary to uproot them
25.
Edward Henry Palmer
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Edward Henry Palmer — known as E. H. Palmer — was an English orientalist and explorer, Palmer was born in Green Street, Cambridge the son of a private schoolmaster. He was orphaned at an age and brought up by an aunt. He was educated at The Perse School, and as a schoolboy showed the characteristic bent of his mind by picking up the Romani language, from school he was sent to London as a clerk in the city. Palmer disliked this life, and varied it by learning French and Italian, in 1859 he returned to Cambridge, almost dying of tuberculosis. He matriculated at St Johns College in November 1863, and in 1867 was elected a fellow on account of his attainments as an orientalist, especially in Persian and Hindustani. During his residence at St Johns he catalogued the Persian, Arabic and Turkish manuscripts in the university library, in 1867 he published a treatise on Oriental mysticism, based on the Maksad-i-Aksa of Aziz ibn Mohammad Nafasi. They completed this journey on foot and without escort, making friends among the Bedouin, to whom Palmer was known as Abdallah Effendi. After a visit to the Lebanon and to Damascus, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Richard Burton, then consul there, he returned to England in 1870 by way of Constantinople, at Vienna he met Arminius Vambéry. In the close of the year 1871 he became Lord Almoners Professor of Arabic at Cambridge University, married and his salary was small, and his affairs were further complicated by the long illness of his wife, who died in 1878. In 1881, two years after his marriage, he left Cambridge, and joined the staff of the Standard to write on non-political subjects. He was called to the English bar in 1874, early in 1882 Palmer was asked by the government to go to the East and assist the Egyptian expedition by his influence over the Arabs of the El-Tih desert. He was instructed, apparently, to prevent the Arab sheikhs from joining the Egyptian rebels and he went to Gaza without an escort, made his way safely through the desert to Suez, an exploit of singular boldness, and was highly successful in his negotiations with the Bedouin. On this journey he and his companions were led into an ambush and their remains, recovered after the war by the efforts of Sir Charles Warren, now lie in St Pauls Cathedral. Palmers highest qualities appeared in his travels, especially in the adventures of his last journeys. His brilliant scholarship is displayed rather in the works he wrote in Persian and other Eastern languages than in his English books and his scholarship was wholly Eastern in character, and lacked the critical qualities of the modern school of Oriental learning in Europe. All his works show a great range and very versatile talent. He also did service in editing the Name Lists of the Palestine Exploration
26.
Eli Smith
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Eli Smith was an American Protestant Missionary and scholar, born at Northford, Conn. He graduated from Yale in 1821 and from Andover Theological Seminary in 1826 and he worked in Malta until 1829, then in company with H. G. O. Dwight traveled through Armenia and Georgia to Persia. They published their observations, Missionary Researches in Armenia in 1833 in two volumes, eli Smith settled in Beirut in 1833. Along with Edward Robinson, he made two trips to the Holy Land in 1838 and 1852, acting as an interpreter for Robinson in his quest to identify and he is known for bringing the first printing press with Arabic type to Syria. He went on to pursue the task which he considered to be his lifes work, although he died before completing the task, the work was completed by C. V. Van Dyck of the Syrian Mission and published in 1860 to 1865. His wife was Hetty Butler Smith, also a missionary and his daughter Mary Elizabeth Smith, was educated at the Female Seminaries in Hartford, Connecticut and Ipswich, Massachusetts and taught at the Female Seminary at Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati. She was listed In the Womens Whos Who of America by John William Leonard 1914-1915, passport for Explorer of Jerusalem, Rev
27.
Zochrot
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Zochrot is an Israeli non-profit organization founded in 2002. Based in Tel Aviv, its aim is to promote awareness of the Palestinian Nakba, the groups director is Eitan Bronstein. Its slogan is To commemorate, witness, acknowledge, and repair, Zochrot organizes tours of Israeli towns, which include taking displaced Palestinians back to the areas they fled or were expelled from in 1948 and afterwards. The group erects street signs giving the Palestinian history of the street or area they are in, Zochrot sees this as causing disorder in space, raising questions about naming and belonging. A key aim is to Hebrewise the Nakba by creating a space for it in the discourse of Israeli Jews. The word Zochrot uses the plural form of the Hebrew verb to remember. The feminine form was chosen to signal Zochrots approach toward the Nakba, the Magazine of the group bears the name Sedek and was published for the fourth time in spring 2010. This issue contains more than 40 poems by Israeli poets, which were published in the period between 1948 till 1958, the poems reflect theviews of the authors on the displacement of the Palestinians in the years around the foundation of Israel. It provides tours of 18 localities, mostly the sites of Palestinian villages depopulated in 1948, the group did not list its annual income. In 2012, the German Holocaust remembrance foundation EVZ announced that they would no longer support Zochrot due to Zochrots support for the Palestinian right of return. 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle Nakba Day Day to mark the departure and expulsion of Jews from the Arab lands and Iran Website of Zochrot, in Hebrew, Arabic, and English
28.
1948 Palestinian exodus
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The 1948 Palestinian exodus, also known as the Nakba, occurred when more than 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Palestine war. Between 400 and 600 Palestinian villages were sacked during the war, the term nakba also refers to the period of war itself and events affecting Palestinians from December 1947 to January 1949. The causes are also a subject of disagreement between historians. And an unwillingness to live under Jewish control, later, a series of laws passed by the first Israeli government prevented them from returning to their homes, or claiming their property. They and many of their descendants remain refugees, the expulsion of the Palestinians has since been described by some historians as ethnic cleansing, while others dispute this charge. The events of 1948 are commemorated by Palestinians both in the Palestinian territories and elsewhere on 15 May, a date now known as Nakba Day. The history of the Palestinian exodus is closely tied to the events of the war in Palestine, which lasted from 1947 to 1949, and to the political events preceding it. In the first few months of the war the climate in the Mandate of Palestine became volatile. According to historian Benny Morris, the period was marked by Palestinian Arab attacks and Jewish defensiveness, simha Flapan pointed out that attacks by the Irgun and Lehi resulted in Palestinian Arab retaliation and condemnation. Jewish reprisal operations were directed against villages and neighborhoods from which attacks against Jews were believed to have originated, the retaliations were more damaging than the provoking attack and included killing of armed and unarmed men, destruction of houses and sometimes expulsion of inhabitants. Their attacks on British forces reduced British troops ability and willingness to protect Jewish traffic, General conditions deteriorated, the economic situation became unstable and unemployment grew. Rumours spread that the Husaynis were planning to bring in bands of fellahin to take over the towns, some Palestinian Arab leaders sent their families abroad. Yoav Gelber claims that the Arab Liberation Army embarked on an evacuation of non-combatants from several frontier villages in order to turn them into military strongholds. Arab depopulation occurred most in villages close to Jewish settlements and in neighborhoods in Haifa, Jaffa. The poorer inhabitants of these neighborhoods generally fled to parts of the city. Those who could afford to fled away, expecting to return when the troubles were over. By the end of March 1948 thirty villages were depopulated of their Palestinian Arab population, approximately 100,000 Palestinian Arabs had fled to Arab parts of Palestine, such as Gaza, Beersheba, Haifa, Nazareth, Nablus, Jaffa and Bethlehem. Some had left the country altogether, to Jordan, Lebanon, other sources speak of 30,000 Palestinian Arabs
29.
Arab al-Samniyya
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Arab al-Samniyya, also known as Khirbat al-Suwwana, was a Palestinian village in the Western Galilee that was captured and depopulated by Israel during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. It was located in the Acre District of the British Mandate of Palestine,19.5 km northeast of the city of Acre, in 1945 the, village had a population of 200 Arab and a total land area of 1,872 dunums. The village was situated on a hill near the road linking Ras al-Naqura with Safad. Its houses were made of stone, a dirt path linked it to the coastal highway and thence to Acre. The villagers cultivated grain, figs, and olives, in 1944/45 a total of 174 dunams were allocated to grain crops,22 dunums were irrigated and planted with orchards. The village was captured by Israels 7th and Carmeli Brigades on 31 October 1948 during the Israeli Defense Force offensive Operation Hiram, the village was completely destroyed and only building rubble left behind. The village remained depopulated of its inhabitants, in 1950, the Jewish settlement of Yaara was established on the depopulated land. List of Arab towns and villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestinian exodus Welcome To Arab al-Samniyya Arab al-Samniyya, Zochrot Arab Al-Samniyya at Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center
30.
Al-Bassa
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Al-Bassa, also known as Betzet in Hebrew, בצת, was a Palestinian Arab village in the Mandatory Palestines Acre Subdistrict. It was situated close to the Lebanese border,19 kilometers north of the capital, Acre. The village was stormed by Haganah troops in May 1948 and almost completely razed and its residents were either internally displaced or expelled to neighboring countries. Bassa has been identified with the border town Betset listed in the Tosefta and it was called Bezeth during the Roman period, and its Arabic name is al-Basah. In the period of Crusader rule in Palestine, it was known as Le Bace or LeBassa, imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, a chronicler and advisor to Saladin, referred to the village as Ayn al-Bassa. The site shows signs of habitation in prehistory and the Middle Bronze Age and it was a Jewish settlement between 70 and 425 AD. Blown glass pitchers uncovered in a tomb in al-Bassa were dated to circa 396 AD, an ancient Christian burial place and 18 other archaeological sites were located in the village. No Crusader era buildings have found in al-Bassa, and a cross once dated to the Crusader period was later re-dated to the Byzantine era. A-Bassa was the first village listed as part of the domain of the Crusaders during the hudna between the Crusaders based in Acre and the Mamluk sultan al-Mansur in 1283. In 1596, al-Bassa was part of the Ottoman Empire, a village in the nahiya of Tibnin under the liwa of Safad, with a population of 76 Muslim families and 28 Muslim bachelors. It paid taxes on a number of crops, including olives, barley, cotton and fruits, as well as on goats, beehives. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte described al-Bassa as a village of 600 Metawalis, a map by Pierre Jacotin from Napoleons invasion of that year showed the place, named as El Basa. He further noted that The inhabitants of Bussah are almost all members of the Greek Church, a few Musselmans live among them, and a few fellahs of a Bedouin tribe which wanders about in the neighborhood are frequently seen in the street. Bee-keeping, also, is not an unimportant item of industry, the village had about 1,050 residents. The village had an elementary school for boys, a private secondary school. The Franco-British boundary agreement of 1920 described an imprecisely defined boundary between Lebanon and Palestine and it appeared to pass close to the north of al-Bassa, leaving the village on the Palestinian side but cut off from much of its lands. However the French government included al-Bassa in a Lebanese census of 1921, meanwhile, a joint British-French boundary commission was working to determine a precise border, making many adjustments in the process. By February 1922 it had determined a border that confirmed al-Bassa as being in Palestine, the citizenship of the residents was changed to Palestinian in 1926
31.
Al-Birwa
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Al-Birwa, was a Palestinian Arab village, located 10.5 kilometers east of Acre. In 1945, it had population of 1,460, of whom the majority were Muslims and its total land area consisted of 13,542 dunams. The village was depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, al-Birwa was mentioned in the mid-11th century CE by the Persian geographer Nasir Khusraw and was known to the Crusaders as Broet. The village came under Mamluk rule in the late 13th century, and in the early 16th century, it was conquered by the Ottomans, travelers reports from the late 19th century documented that al-Birwa had a mosque, a church, and an elementary school for boys. During British Mandate rule in Palestine, al-Birwa was home to power brokers. Al-Birwa became a center of operations during the 1936–1939 revolt against British rule. By the 1940s, many of the villages agrarian inhabitants lost their lands due to debt, however, the majority of the residents—men and women—continued to engage in farming, selling their olives, grains and other crops in the markets of Acre. Al-Birwa was captured by the Israelis in early June 1948, after which its local militia recaptured the village, al-Birwa was then permanently occupied by the Israelis in late June. Afterward, its inhabitants, including future Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish, the Jewish communities of Yasur and Ahihud were established on al-Birwas lands in 1949 and 1950, respectively. Al-Birwa was mentioned in 1047 CE, during Fatimid rule, when it was visited by the Persian geographer and he describes it as lying between Acre and Damun, and reports having visited what he described as the tombs of Simeon and Esau there. The Crusaders wrested control of Palestine from the Fatimids in 1099 and they referred to al-Birwa as Broet. In 1253, John Aleman, the Crusader lord of Caesarea, sold al-Birwa, along several other villages. Al-Birwa was mentioned as part of the Acre-based Crusaders domain in the 1283 hudna with the Mamluks under Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun, in the late 13th century, the Mamluks defeated and conquered the last Crusader outposts along Palestines northern coastline. Al-Birwa came under Ottoman rule in 1517, along all of Palestine. In 1596, al-Birwa was a village in the Akka Nahiya. The village paid taxes on wheat, barley, fruit, beehives, according to Ottoman tax registers, al-Birwa had 121 residents in 1596. A map from Napoleons invasion of 1799 by French cartographer Pierre Jacotin depicted al-Birwa as Beroweh, in the late 19th century, al-Birwa grew to be a large village, with a well in its southern area. To the north lay beautiful olive-groves and fruitful wheatfields, as they were described by one Western traveller to the region in the mid-19th century, american biblical scholar Edward Robinson visited al-Birwa in 1852 and noted that it was one of 18 villages in Palestine with an operating Christian church
32.
Al-Ghabisiyya
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Al-Ghabisiyya was a Palestinian Arab village in northern Palestine,16 km north-east of Acre in present-day Israel. It was depopulated by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1948-1950 period, a wine press, dating to the Bronze age, has been found at Al-Ghabisiyya. Other remains, suggesting that the place might have had a Roman, one Corinthian capital was observed there in the 19th century. During the Crusader period the site was known as La Gabasie and was one of the fiefs of Casal Imbert and it was described as part of the domain of the Crusaders during the hudna between the Crusaders based in Acre and the Mamluk sultan al-Mansur Qalawun in 1283. According to Hütteroth, Abdulfattah and Petersen, the village corresponds to that of Ghabiyya in the nahiya of Akka, in the Liwa of Safad. This village had a population of 58 households and 2 bachelors and it paid taxes on wheat, barley, fruit trees, cotton, and water buffalo. A map by Pierre Jacotin from Napoleons invasion of 1799 showed the place, the village mosque dates from the time of Ali Pasha al-Khazindar, father of Abdullah Pasha. French explorer Victor Guérin visited the village, which he called El-Rhabsieh, the population grew to 690 in 1945, still all Muslim. Together with the villages of Shaykh Dannun and Shaykh Dawud. The local economy was based on livestock and agriculture, in 1944/45 a total of 6,633 dunums of land in the three villages was used for cereals,1,371 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards, and 58 dunams were built-up land. 300 dunums in Ghabisiyya were planted with olive trees, the village was in the territory allotted to the Arab state under the 1947 UN Partition Plan. Like many Arab villages, it had a pact with nearby Jewish communities. On the other hand, some of the villagers joined in the March 1948 attack on the Jewish convoy to kibbutz Yehiam in which 47 Haganah soldiers were killed, on May 21,1948, the Haganahs Carmeli Brigade captured al-Ghabisiyya during Operation Ben-Ami. The village formally surrendered, but the Carmeli troops entered the village with guns blazing, killing several inhabitants, six villagers who were thought to have taken part in the attack on the Yehiam convoy were apparently then executed. The villagers fled or were expelled to nearby villages, where remained until the complete Jewish conquest of the Galilee in October. At that time, many of the went to Lebanon while others fled to nearby Arab towns. The latter tried repeatedly to settle back in their village, some apparently obtained permission but others went back illegally. On January 24,1950, the Military Governor of the Galilee ordered all the residents of al-Ghabisiyya to leave within 48 hours, no alternative accommodation had been arranged, and the villagers took up temporary residence in abandoned houses of nearby Shaykh Dawud and Sheikh Danun
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Iqrit
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Iqrit, was a Palestinian Christian village, located 25 kilometres northeast of Acre. In 1951, in response to a plea from the Iqrit villagers, however, before that happened, the IDF, despite awareness of the Supreme Court decision, destroyed the previously Christian village on Christmas Day,1951. Descendants to this day maintain an outpost in the village church, all attempts to cultivate its lands are uprooted by the Israeli Lands Administration. Iqrit contains mosaic floors, remains of a press, rock-hewn tombs, cisterns. The village also has many archaeological sites in its vicinity. The Canaanites erected a statue for the god Melqart of Tyre in the village, when the Crusaders occupied Iqrit, they called it Acref. Açref is a name commonly used for the village among surrounding Bedouin tribes. The village area contained numerous archaeological sites, there was a press used for olive or grape production. In 1875, Victor Guérin passed by the village and he was told it was very considerable and inhabited by Maronites and Greeks Orthodox. Like a number of villages in the neighborhood, Iqrit was linked to the coastal highway from Acre to Ras an-Naqura via a secondary road leading to Tarbikha. Of this,458 dunams were plantations and irrigable land,1,088 were used for cereals, at the moment of their eviction in November 1948, there were 491 citizens in Iqrit,432 of them Melkites, inhabiting the entire area of the village. Some of the 59 Muslims of the village rented their homes in Iqrit, only part of the village land was cultivated and the rest was covered with woods of oak, laurel and carob trees. By 1948, the village owned about 600 dunams of private property with groves of fig trees that served all inhabitants of Iqrit and the surroundings. The groves covered the hill of al-Bayad, and the cultivated land was used for crops of lentils, as well as tobacco. There were many threshing floors mainly located between the village lands and the cemetery. The large Melkite church remains standing, while some of the former inhabitants of Iqrit became refugees in Lebanon, most are now internally displaced Palestinians who are also citizens of Israel. Iqrit was captured on October 31,1948 by the Haganahs Oded Brigade during Operation Hiram, Iqrit and Tarbikha surrendered and the villagers stayed in their homes. That situation did not last for long, Iqrit and a number of other villages in the region were affected by a policy known as an Arabless border strip
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Khirbat Jiddin
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The ruined fortress, known as Khirbat Jiddin, was later inhabited by the al-Suwaytat Bedouin tribe. According to a 1945 census, there were 1500 Muslims living in the area, Khirbat Jiddin land totaled 7587 dunums, of which however all but 34 were officially listed as non-cultivable,4238 were owned by Arabs and 3349 dunums owned by Jews. Kibbutz Yehiam was established in the area in 1946, the establishment of the kibbutz is described on its own Wikipedia page. Today the remains of the castle are the part of Yehiam Fortress National Park. The site was inhabited in the Byzantine period, the Crusaders called the place Judin or Judyn. A Crusader castle was built some time after May 1220. The village fell to Sultan Baibars between 1268 and 1271, in 1283, Burchard of Mount Sion described a destroyed castle on the site that had belonged to the Teutonic Order. Marino Sanuto, in 1322, still referred to it as a castle belonging to the Teutonic Knights, the castle was built around two towers with an outer enclosure wall. The fortress as it now exists was built in the century by Zahir al-Umar. The vaulted hall on the level of the castle was the basement of a palatial residence that included a small mosque. The halls roof rested on a series of pillars on the hillside. The walls featured well shafts and gun-slits, the mosque was a small square building originally roofed with four cross-vaults resting on a central pillar. The bathhouse was a small building supplied water from the wells below. An Italian monk, Mariti, who visited Geddin in the 1760s, jezzar Pasha destroyed the fortress around 1775. A map by Pierre Jacotin from Napoleons invasion of 1799 showed the place, the staircases which lead to them have been deprived of part of their steps to make access more difficult. Underneath are magazines and cellars, the vaults of which rest on several ranges of arcades, cisterns hollowed in the rock are found beneath a paved court. Below and near the castle a second inclosure, flanked by towers, contains within it the remains of numerous demolished houses. When Kitchener inspected the place in 1877, he found it unoccupied, though there are several chambers
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Al-Kabri
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Al-Kabri, was a Palestinian Arab town in the Galilee located 12.5 kilometers northeast of Acre. It was captured by the Jewish Forces 21 May 1948, a week after the State of Israel was declared, in 1945, it had a population of 1,520 and a total area cultivated of 20,617 dunams. It is near the site of Tel Kabri, in the 13th century, al-Kabri was known as Le Quiebre and belonged to the fief of Casal Imbert. In 1253, King Henry granted the estate of Casal Imbert, including Le Quiebre. Shortly after, in 1256, John of Ibelin leased az-Zeeb and all its dependent villages, including Le Quiebre, to the Teutonic Order for ten years. In 1261, az-Zeeb, together with Le Fierge and Le Quiebre, were sold to the Teutonic Order, in return for an annual sum for as long as Acre was in Crusader hands. Al-Kabri was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, and by 1596 it was part of nahiya of Akka, taxes were paid on wheat, barley, summer crops, cotton, occasional revenues, beehives and/or goats. In Pierre Jacotin´s map from 1799 the village was called Kabli, the place was well known for its springs, including Ayn Mafshuh, Ayn Fawwar, Ayn al-Asal, and Ayn Kabri. The number of springs made al-Kabri the main supplier of water in the District of Acre, ancient aquifers supplied water from the springs to Acre, and two additional canals were built by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar in 1800, and Sulayman Pasha al-Adil in 1814. In 1875, the French explorer Victor Guérin visited the village, Many of the houses are built of good materials, which seem ancient. They are constructed of finely cut, mixed with simple rubble, perfectly jointed by means of little stones so placed as to fill up spaces. The site of an ancient church, now destroyed, is still, to a certain extent. Many columns have been removed from it, and numbers of cut stones of medium size, above the village, the ruins of houses prove that the place was once much more populous than now. At twenty-five minutes walk from El Kabry is a spring called Neba Fawara, formerly received in a basin, of which the foundations only are now visible, it runs away in a considerable stream, which waters several gardens. Enormous fig-trees show the extraordinary fruitfulness of the soil, a little farther I pass along arcades entirely covered with high bushes, which form part of the aqueduct of El Kabry. The ground rises here, so that the supported by these arcades is at the level of the ground, then it disappears altogether, reappearing again. El Kabry is in an advantageous position, thanks to its precious springs. The name of Kabry shows that it was once called Gobara, reconstructed by Jezzar Pasha at the end of the last century, this aqueduct has succeeded one much older, of which traces yet remain
