1.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
2.
Center for Constitutional Rights
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The Center for Constitutional Rights is a progressive non-profit legal advocacy organization based in New York City, New York, in the United States. It was founded in 1966 by Arthur Kinoy, William Kunstler and others particularly to activists in implementation of civil rights legislation. CCR has focused on civil liberties and human rights litigation, since winning the landmark case in the United States Supreme Court of Rasul v. Its founders were Morton Stavis, Arthur Kinoy, Ben Smith and William Kunstler. The Center identified as a movement support organization, that is, cases were chosen to raise public awareness of an issue, generate media attention, and/or energize activists being harassed by local law enforcement in the South. The current organization was formed from the merger of the original Center for Constitutional Rights and it was the first time in history that the Court had ruled against the president on behalf of alleged enemy fighters in wartime. And it was the first of four Supreme Court decisions between 2004 and 2008 that rejected President Bush’s assertion of unchecked power in the “war on terror. S. In 2005 the organization was recognized with the Domestic Human Rights Award by Global Exchange, Rasul v. Bush,215 F. Supp. 2d 55, CCR represented Guantanamo detainees seeking fair trials and an end to their indefinite imprisonment without charge, the Supreme Court case established precedent for U. S. courts’ jurisdiction over the Guantanamo Bay prison camp, affirming detainees’ right to habeas corpus review, including legal representation. This right was later putatively revoked when President Bush signed the Military Commissions Act into law, Al Odah v. United States,127 S. Ct.3067, the latest in a series of habeas corpus petitions on behalf of people imprisoned at the Guantanamo Bay detention center. The case challenges the Military Commissions system’s suitability as a habeas corpus substitute and he has never been charged, and has been found by the Canadian government not to be involved with terrorism. He and CCR seek an acknowledgment of the U. S. s alleged involvement, CCR v. Bush, This lawsuit challenges the constitutionality of the NSA’s surveillance of people within the United States without warrant or prior court approval. Daniels v. City of New York,291 AD 2d 260 / Floyd v. City of New York,739 F. Supp. 2d 376, This case forced the New York City Police Department to end their practice of stopping and frisking people solely on the basis of their race or national origin, the case also highlighted the practices of the NYPD Street Crimes Unit, leading to its disbandment. The case’s settlement created an internal system of officers engaged in stop and frisks. In addition, the settlement required the NYPD to begin “know your rights” public education programs, CCR is working to compel the NYPD to comply with the terms of the settlement. Estate of Ali Hussamalde Albazzaz v. Blackwater Worldwide, This is a suit filed on behalf of the family of an Iraqi man killed by Blackwater personnel. CCR is charging Blackwater Worldwide with war crimes, CCR has filed a habeas corpus submission on his behalf. Mamani v. Sanchez de Lozada / Mamani v. Sanchez Berzain,636 F. Supp, matar v. Dichter,500 F. Supp
3.
Guantanamo Bay detention camp
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The Guantanamo Bay detention camp is a United States military prison located within Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, also referred to as Guantánamo or GTMO, which fronts on Guantánamo Bay in Cuba. Since the inmates have been detained indefinitely without trial and several inmates were severely tortured, the camp was established by the President George W. Bushs administration in 2002 during the War on Terror. During his term, his administration succeeded in reducing the number of inmates from about 245 to 41, in practice, the site has long been used for indefinite detention without trial. The facility is operated by the Joint Task Force Guantanamo of the United States government in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Detention areas consisted of Camp Delta including Camp Echo, Camp Iguana, and Camp X-Ray, which is now closed. The Bush administration asserted that detainees were not entitled to any of the protections of the Geneva Conventions. Following this, on 7 July 2006, the Department of Defense issued a memo stating that detainees would, in the future. Current and former detainees have reported abuse and torture, which the Bush administration denied, in a 2005 Amnesty International report, the facility was called the Gulag of our times. In 2006, the United Nations called unsuccessfully for the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to be closed, on 22 January 2009, President Obama issued a request to suspend proceedings at Guantanamo military commission for 120 days and to shut down the detention facility that year. President Obama issued a Presidential memorandum dated 15 December 2009, ordering Thomson Correctional Center, Thomson, in February 2011, U. S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates said that Guantanamo Bay was unlikely to be closed, due to opposition in the Congress. Congress particularly opposed moving prisoners to facilities in the United States for detention or trial, in April 2011, Wikileaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. On 4 November 2015, President Barack Obama stated that he was preparing to unveil a plan to close the facility, the plan would propose one or more prisons from a working list that includes facilities in Kansas, Colorado and South Carolina. Two others that were on the list, in California and Washington state, do not appear to have made the preliminary cut, by January 19,2017, however, the detention center remained open, with 41 detainees remaining. Camp Delta is a 612-unit detention center finished in April 2002 and it includes detention camps 1 through to 6, as well as Camp Echo, where pre-commissions are held. Camp X-Ray was a detention facility, which was closed in April 2002. Its prisoners were transferred to Camp Delta, in 2008, the Associated Press reported Camp 7, a separate facility on the naval base that is considered the highest security jail on the base, and its location is classified. It is used to house high-security detainees formerly held by the CIA, in January 2010, Scott Horton published an article in Harpers Magazine describing Camp No, a black site about a mile outside the main camp perimeter, which included an interrogation center. His description was based on accounts by four guards who had served at Guantanamo and they said prisoners were taken one at a time to the camp, where they were believed to be interrogated. He believes that the three detainees that DoD announced as having committed suicide were questioned under torture the night of their deaths
4.
Boumediene v. Bush
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The case was consolidated with habeas petition Al Odah v. United States. It challenged the legality of Boumedienes detention at the United States Naval Station military base in Guantanamo Bay, oral arguments on the combined cases were heard by the Supreme Court on December 5,2007. S. Invoking Marbury v. Madison, the Court concluded, The Nation’s basic charter cannot be contracted away like this, the Constitution grants Congress and the President the power to acquire, dispose of, and govern territory, not the power to decide when and where its terms apply. To hold that the branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court. Along with Rasul v. Bush, Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, and Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the United States launched a Global War on Terror. In November 2001, President Bush asserted authority to try captives from the War before military commissions instead of through the court system. Many captives from the war were held at Camp X-Ray, which was opened at the United States Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba in January 2002, while the United States has an indefinite lease on Guantanamo Bay, Cuba still maintained de jure sovereignty over the area. Beginning in 2002, family and friends of approximately 200 captives initiated habeas corpus submissions to challenge the detentions and these submissions eventually worked their way through the courts, and on June 28,2004, the United States Supreme Court issued its decision in Rasul v. Bush. As a result, the Department of Defense created the Combatant Status Review Tribunals, at the end of 2005, the United States Congress passed the Detainee Treatment Act, which explicitly states that all captives held by the United States are protected against torture. The Act restricted the submission of additional habeas corpus submissions to the courts, the Act attempted to mandate that all outstanding habeas corpus submissions on behalf of the captives should be quashed. In April 2007, the Court declined to review the Circuit Courts decision, within a few months, it reversed this decision, on June 29,2007, it granted a writ of certiorari to Boumediene and his co-defendants. Twenty-two amicus briefs were filed in support of the petitioners, Boumediene and Al Odah, and four were filed in support of the respondents, oral arguments were held on December 5,2007, and the Supreme Court announced its decision on June 12,2008. The court found that the petitioners had met their burden of establishing that Detainee Treatment Act of 2005 failed to provide a substitute for habeas corpus. Kennedys majority opinion begins with an over-twenty page review of the history of habeas corpus in England from its roots in the due process clause of Magna Carta of 1215 to the 19th century. The Court also concluded that the detainees are not required to exhaust review procedures in the court of appeals before pursuing habeas corpus actions in the district court. The majority distinguished between de jure and de facto sovereignty, finding that the United States had in effect de facto sovereignty over Guantanamo, in the majority ruling, Justice Kennedy called section 7 not adequate. He explained, to hold that the branches may switch the constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this court. The decision struck down section 7 of the MCA, but left intact the remainder of the MCA, Justice Souters concurrence was joined by Justices Ginsburg and Breyer
5.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
6.
Military Commissions Act of 2006
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The United States Military Commissions Act of 2006, also known as HR-6166, was an Act of Congress signed by President George W. Bush on October 17,2006. The Acts stated purpose was to trial by military commission for violations of the law of war. It was drafted following the Supreme Courts decision on Hamdan v and it prohibited detainees who had been classified as enemy combatants or were awaiting hearings on their status from using habeas corpus to petition federal courts in challenges to their detention. All pending habeas corpus cases at the district court were stayed. In Boumediene v. Bush, the US Supreme Court held that section 7 of the MCA was unconstitutional because of its restrictions of detainee rights and it determined that detainees had the right to petition federal courts for habeas corpus challenges. Construction of Provisions— The procedures for military commissions set forth in this chapter are based upon the procedures for trial by general court-martial under chapter 47 of this title. Chapter 47 of this title does not, by its terms, the judicial construction and application of that chapter are not binding on military commissions established under this chapter. Sections 831, and, relating to compulsory self-incrimination, Section 832, relating to pretrial investigation. Other provisions of chapter 47 of this title shall apply to trial by military commission under this chapter only to the extent provided by this chapter, persons subject to military commissions Any alien unlawful enemy combatant is subject to trial by military commission under this chapter. Lawful Enemy Combatants— Military commissions under this chapter shall not have jurisdiction over lawful enemy combatants, lawful enemy combatants who violate the law of war are subject to chapter 47 of this title. Courts-martial established under that chapter shall have jurisdiction to try a lawful enemy combatant for any offense made punishable under this chapter, the term competent tribunal is not defined in the Act itself. It is also a used in Article five of the third Geneva Convention. However, the rights guaranteed by the third Geneva Convention to lawful combatants are expressly denied to unlawful military combatants for the purposes of this Act by Section 948b, Any alien unlawful enemy combatant is subject to trial by military commission under chapter 47A — Military Commissions. The definition of unlawful and lawful enemy combatant is given in Chapter 47A—Military commission, Subchapter I--General provisions, the Act changes pre-existing law to forbid explicitly the invocation of the Geneva Conventions when executing the writ of habeas corpus or in other civil actions. This provision applies to all cases pending at the time the Act is enacted, if the government chooses to bring a prosecution against the detainee, a military commission is convened for this purpose. The following rules are some of those established for trying alien unlawful enemy combatants, ‘‘ NOTICE TO ACCUSED—Upon the swearing of the charges and specifications in accordance with subsection, the accused shall be informed of the charges against him as soon as practicable. A civilian defense attorney may not be used unless the attorney has been determined to be eligible for access to classified information that is classified at the level Secret or higher. No person may, without his consent, be tried by a commission under this chapter a second time for the same offense
7.
Habeas corpus
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Habeas corpus is a recourse in law whereby a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment before a court, usually through a prison official. The writ of habeas corpus is known as the great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement, if the custodian is acting beyond his or her authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on his or her behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a remedy for those unlawfully detained. For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the amparo de libertad, though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, in some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of war or state of emergency. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject, the most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, the official who is the respondent must prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person and this differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. From Latin habeas, 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of habere, to have, to hold, in reference to more than one person, habeas corpora. Literally, the means you may have the body. The complete phrase habeas corpus ad subjiciendum means you may have the person for the purpose of subjecting him/her to. These are the words of writs in 14th century Anglo-French documents requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge. The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of prosecuting him before the court. Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to answer to new proceedings before the court, Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of testifying. Habeas Corpus originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England, in the 17th century the foundations for habeas corpus were wrongly thought to have originated in Magna Carta. William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, however, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, a previous law had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus
8.
Colleen Kollar-Kotelly
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Colleen Kollar-Kotelly is a judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia and was presiding judge of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court. Kollar-Kotelly, the daughter of Konstantine and Irene Kollar, attended schools in Mexico, Ecuador. She attended Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School in Washington, D. C and she earned her B. A. degree in English from Catholic University of America and her J. D. from Catholic University of Americas Columbus School of Law in 1968. From 1968-69, Kollar-Kotelly served as a law clerk to the Hon. Catherine B, kelly, District of Columbia Court of Appeals. On October 3,1984, Kollar-Kotelly was nominated as a judge of the D. C. Superior Court by President Ronald Reagan, she took her oath of office on October 21 and she served as Deputy Presiding Judge, Criminal Division from 1997 to 1997. In August 2001, Kollar-Kotelly was assigned the United States v. Microsoft anti-trust case, Kollar-Kotelly denied a last-minute appeal by Saddam Husseins legal team, stating that the United States has no right to interfere with the judicial processes of another nations courts. The National Security Archive at George Washington University alleged that the Bush order severely slowed or prevented the release of presidential papers. This was seen as a victory for the Bush Administration in terms of maintaining a tight grip on the flow of information about the executive branch. On September 20,2008, Kollar-Kotelly issued an injunction ordering Vice President of the United States Dick Cheney. The change of rule which she blocked had been enacted by the United States Department of the Interior after being supported by 51 members of Congress and passing an extended public comments period. Kollar-Kotelly presided over the Espionage Act case against Dr. Stephen Jin-Woo Kim after he told a reporter that North Korea would test its nuclear program, the case was controversial because it was one of a string of unprecedented uses of the Espionage Act against officials for speaking with journalists. Colleen Kollar-Kotelly at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
9.
Combatant Status Review Tribunal
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These non-public hearings were conducted as a formal review of all the information related to a detainee to determine whether each person meets the criteria to be designated as an enemy combatant. The first CSRT hearings began in July 2004, redacted transcripts of hearings for high value detainees were posted to the Department of Defense website. As of October 30,2007, fourteen CSRT transcripts were available on the DoD website, the Supreme Court of the United States found these tribunals to be unconstitutional in Boumediene v. Bush. The CSRTs are not bound by the rules of evidence that would apply in court, the government is required to present all of its relevant evidence, including evidence that tends to negate the detainees designation, to the tribunal. Unclassified summaries of relevant evidence may be provided to the detainee, the detainees personal representative may view classified information and comment on it to the tribunal to aid in its determination but does not act as an advocate for the detainee. The rules do not give a timetable for informing detainees in the event that the tribunal has decided to retain their enemy combatant designations, Article 5 creates a particularized limited process, intended to sort individuals when any doubt exists as to their status. The sole question for determination is whether the captive meets the definition of POW in Article 4 of the Prisoner of War Convention. Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. Rumsfeld, a plurality of the Supreme Court suggested the Department of Defense empanel tribunals similar to the AR190 to make factual status determinations. The exact location of the current CSRT hearings is unknown, but prior CSRT hearings were held in trailers in Guantanamo Bay, a dramatization of the conduct of CSRTs, based on CSRT transcripts, is presented in the film The Response. The identity of the officers at CSRTs hearings is classified. In the CSRT transcripts released on the DoD website, that information has been removed from the transcripts, the ranks of those present, however, and their service branch remain in the documents. For example, at Guleed Hassan Ahmeds CSRT in April 2007, other services present include the U. S. Marine Corps and the U. S. Army, the only other rank mentioned in the transcript was Gunnery Sergeant. In other CSRTs, the ranks, services, and persons present varied, at certain CSRTs, a non-military language analyst was present. The CSRT Recorder had several tasks, first, he or she was charged with keeping a record of the CSRT process by recording the CSRT process. Second, the Recorder swore in all the CSRT participants by administering an oath, third, the Recorder was also charged with presenting classified and unclassified material during the CSRTs. Fourth, the Recorder was often asked to explain or clarrify facts or information during the CSRT, in Guleed Hassan Ahmeds CSRT transcript one finds the following exchange, PRESIDENT, Tribunal has completed its review of the unclassified evidence provided. We do have one question for the Recorder, is Somalia, Ethiopia, and/or Kenya a coalition partner. RECORDER, Somalia is not, Ethiopia is, and Kenya is, Detainees had the option of attending their CSRTs, but attendance was not mandated
10.
Richard J. Leon
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Richard J. Leon is a Senior United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Leon was born in South Natick, Massachusetts in 1949 and he received his Artium Baccalaureus degree from the College of the Holy Cross in 1971. He received his Juris Doctor from Suffolk University Law School in 1974, richard played varsity lacrosse at Holy Cross, where he was the starting crease attackman. Leon served as a law clerk to the justices of the Massachusetts Superior Court from 1974 to 1975, Leon received his Master of Laws from Harvard Law School in 1981. Leon was an assistant professor of law at St. Johns University School of Law from 1979 to 1983, Leon was a member of the Presidents Commission on White House Fellowships from 1990 to 1993. Leon was appointed chief minority counsel on the October Surprise Task Force of the House Foreign Affairs Committee from 1992 to 1993 and he served as special counsel to the House Financial Services Committee in 1994. He is currently a professor at The George Washington University Law School. Leon was nominated to the United States District Court for the District of Columbia by George W. Bush on September 10,2001, confirmed by the Senate on February 14,2002, he received commission five days later. He assumed senior status on December 31,2016, Leon was responsible for adjudicating the habeas corpus petitions of several dozen captives held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. Boumediene v. Bush, which was considered by the Supreme Court, was first heard by Leon. By August 28,2008, Leon had 24 cases assigned to him, I dont understand, I really dont, how the Supreme Court made the decision it made and left that question open. I dont understand how the Congress could let it go this long without resolving, on November 20, Judge Leon ordered five detainees released from Guantanamo Bay Naval Base due to insufficient evidence. In January 2010, Judge Leon preliminarily enjoined the Food and Drug Administration from blocking the importation of electronic cigarettes, on November 7,2011, Judge Leon issued a preliminary injunction against the U. S. Food and Drug Administration for ordering graphic images on cigarette packs. On February 29,2012, Judge Leons final ruling held that the graphic images & statements violated the right to free speech. On January 2,2013, Judge Leon ruled that a memo linking the Palestinian Authority to a bombing that killed two American teenagers and one Israeli teen be returned to the PA or destroyed. The memo had been turned over to attorneys for the families of the victims in a lawsuit over the killings. In a motion for a stay of Judge Leons order, lawyers for the plaintiffs said if they return or destroy the memo and he struck down the District requirement that an applicant show good reason before a concealed carry permit would be issued. C. No court has recognized a special need sufficient to justify continuous
11.
Joyce Hens Green
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Joyce Hens Green is a Senior United States District Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Green was born in 1928 in New York City and her father was a psychiatrist and her mother was a homemaker. Her parents encouraged her to go to college and to medical school, Judge Green graduated from the University of Maryland, receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1949. She entered the University of Maryland Law School and transferred to the George Washington University Law School and she also received an honorary Doctor of Laws from George Washington University in 1994 and has been named a Distinguished Alumnus of Towson High School. Green was married to the attorney Samuel Green and had three children, Michael, June, and James Harry Green, on March 6,1979, President Carter nominated Green to be a United States District Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. She was confirmed by the Senate on May 10,1979, Judge Green is a member of the American Bar Association, the American Judicature Society, the Federal Bar Association and the National Association of Women Judges. She served as the chair of the National Conference of Trial Judges from 1997–1998 and she has served as an instructor at the Militia Academy in Minsk, Republic of Belarus for the U. S. Information Agency and serves on the board of advisors for the George Washington University Law School, on June 16,2004 Green received an American Inns of Court Professionalism Award. In 1992, Judge Green ruled in favor of the Church of Scientology in the case of on a motion for summary judgment. On September 1,1995 Green Ordered $393 million seized from the Bank of Credit, BCCI had been involved in criminal activity and its assets had been freed in 1992. Green had heard, and ruled on, three challenges to the release of the seized funds, Green ruled against the Federal Election Commission in Federal Election Commission v. The Christian Coalition Civil Action No, 96-1781 Opinion & Order, and Judgment, filed August 2,1999. The FEC had challenged the propriety of the Christian Coalitions distribution of voter guides, following the US Supreme Court ruling in Rasul v. On September 15,2004, Judge Green was appointed the judge for all Guantanamo Bay habeas corpus cases. Military Intelligence, German Authorities Found No Ties to Terrorists, Washington Post, March 27,2005 ^ Mustafa Aid Idirs dossier from his CSRT, pages 26–27 of 53
12.
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld
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Hamdan v. Rumsfeld,548 U. S. Specifically, the ruling says that Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions was violated. Because these statements were not included in the December 21 debate at the time, the plaintiff was Salim Ahmed Hamdan, a citizen of Yemen who worked as a bodyguard and chauffeur for Osama bin Laden. Hamdan had formerly worked in Afghanistan on a project that Bin Laden had developed. Hamdan was captured by militia forces during the invasion of Afghanistan in the fall of 2001, in 2002, he was sent by the US to its new Guantanamo Bay detention camp at its naval base in Cuba. He was assigned a defense counsel, LCDR Charles D and it determined that he was eligible for detention by the United States as an enemy combatant or person of interest. After reviewing Hamdans habeas petition, Judge James Robertson of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ruled in the detainees favor. He found that the United States could not hold a military commission unless it was first shown that the detainee was not a prisoner of war, the Geneva Convention is a treaty between nations and as such it does not confer individual rights and remedies. Even if the Geneva Convention could be enforced in U. S, under the terms of the Geneva Convention, al Qaeda and its members are not covered. Congress authorized such activity by statute, the judicial branch of the United States government cannot enforce the Convention, thus invalidating Hamdans argument that he cannot be tried until after his prisoner-of-war status is determined. On November 7,2005, the Supreme Court issued a writ of certiorari to hear the case. The petition was filed on behalf of Hamdan by Neal Katyal of Georgetown University Law Center and Lt. Commander Charles Swift of the U. S. Navy, the Seattle law firm Perkins Coie provided the additional legal counsel for Hamdan. The case was argued before the court on March 28,2006, Katyal argued on behalf of Hamdan, and Paul Clement, the Solicitor General of the United States, argued on behalf of the government. Chief Justice Roberts recused himself because he had ruled on this case as part of the three judge panel on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Critics called for Justice Antonin Scalia to recuse himself, since he had made allegedly improper comments about the decision of the prior to hearing oral arguments. The Supreme Court announced its decision on June 29,2006, associate Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the opinion for the Court, which commanded a majority only in part. Congress did not include language in the DTA that might have precluded Supreme Court jurisdiction, the governments argument that Schlesinger v. Councilman 420 U. S.738 precludes Supreme Court review was similarly rejected. Councilman applied to a member of the U. S. military who was being tried before a military court-martial, in contrast, Hamdan is not a member of the U. S. military, and would be tried before a military commission, not a court-martial. The opinion then addressed the issues of the case
13.
Geneva Conventions
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The Geneva Conventions comprise four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment in war. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, as a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino, in 1862, on the horrors of war. The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention, the first codified international treaty that covered the sick, for both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became corecipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. The ten articles of this first treaty were initially adopted on 22 August 1864 by twelve nations, on 20 October 1868 the first, unsuccessful, attempt to expand the 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War an attempt was undertaken to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention, the Articles were signed but never ratified by all parties. Only the Netherlands and the United States ratified the Articles, the Netherlands later withdrew their ratification. The protection of the victims of warfare would later be realized by the third Hague Convention of 1899. In 1906 thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government and it remained into force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on July 27th 1929, one, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864. The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague, the Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea replaced the Hague Convention of 1907. It was the first Geneva Convention on the protection of the victims of warfare and mimicked the structure. The Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War replaced the 1929 Geneva Convention that dealt with prisoners of war. In addition to these three conventions, the conference added a new elaborate Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. It was the first Geneva Convention not to deal with combatants, the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions had already contained some provisions on the protection of civilians and occupied territory. Article 154 specifically provides that the Fourth Geneva Convention is supplementary to these provisions in the Hague Conventions, despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. In light of developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections
14.
Article One of the United States Constitution
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Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a legislature consisting of a House of Representatives. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, Section 1 is a vesting clause that bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III, the former confers executive power upon the President alone, and the latter grants judicial power solely to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government and this separation of powers, by which each department may exercise only its own constitutional powers and no others, is fundamental to the idea of a limited government accountable to the people. The separation of powers principle is particularly noteworthy in regard to the Congress, the Constitution declares that the Congress may exercise only those legislative powers herein granted within Article I. It also, by implied extension, prohibits Congress from delegating its authority to either of the other branches of government. That the power assigned to each branch must remain with that branch, although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has also long asserted the power to investigate and the power to compel cooperation with an investigation. The Supreme Court has affirmed these powers as an implication of Congresss power to legislate, since the power to investigate is an aspect of Congresss power to legislate, it is as broad as Congresss powers to legislate. However, it is limited to inquiries that are in aid of the legislative function. The courts are highly deferential to Congresss exercise of its investigation powers, Congress has the power to investigate that which it could regulate, and the courts have interpreted Congresss regulatory powers broadly since the Great Depression. Section Two provides for the election of the House of Representatives every second year, since Representatives are to be chosen. At the time of its creation, the Constitution did not explicitly give citizens an inherent right to vote, rather, it provided that those qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of a states legislature may vote in Congressional elections. Since the Civil War, several amendments have been enacted that have curbed the states broad powers to set voter qualification standards. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, the Nineteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. The Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits the revocation of voting due to the non-payment of a poll tax. The Twenty-sixth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, in the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. There is no requirement that a Representative reside within the district in which he or she represents, although this is usually the case, there have been occasional exceptions
15.
Fox News
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Fox News, officially known as the Fox News Channel, is an American basic cable and satellite news television channel that is owned by the Fox Entertainment Group subsidiary of 21st Century Fox. As of February 2015, approximately 94,700,000 American households receive the Fox News Channel, the channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York City, New York. The channel was created by Australian-American media mogul Rupert Murdoch, who hired former Republican Party media consultant and it launched on October 7,1996, to 17 million cable subscribers. It grew during the late 1990s and 2000s to become a dominant cable news network in the United States, Rupert Murdoch is the current chairman and acting CEO of Fox News. Fox News Channel has been accused of biased reporting and promoting the Republican Party, critics have cited the channel as detrimental to the integrity of news overall. Fox News Channel employees have responded that news reporting operates independently of its opinion and commentary programming, in July 1985, 20th Century Fox announced that Murdoch had completed his purchase of 50 percent of Fox Filmed Entertainment, the parent company of 20th Century Fox Film Corporation. A year later, 20th Century Fox earned $5.6 million in its third period ended May 31,1986. Prior to founding FNC, Murdoch had gained experience in the 24-hour news business when News Corporations BSkyB subsidiary began Europes first 24-hour news channel in the United Kingdom in 1989, in February 1996, after former U. S. Republican Party political strategist and NBC executive Roger Ailes left cable television channel Americas Talking, Ailes demanded five months of 14-hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before its launch on October 7,1996. At its debut 17 million households were able to watch FNC, however, it was absent from the markets of New York City. Rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20-minute single-topic shows such as Fox on Crime or Fox on Politics, interviews featured facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest. The flagship newscast at the time was The Schneider Report, with Mike Schneiders fast-paced delivery of the news, during the evening, Fox featured opinion shows, The OReilly Report, The Crier Report and Hannity & Colmes. From the beginning, FNC has placed emphasis on visual presentation. Graphics were designed to be colorful and attention-getting, this helped the viewer to grasp the main points of what was being said, Fox News also created the Fox News Alert, which interrupted its regular programming when a breaking news story occurred. To accelerate its adoption by cable providers, Fox News paid systems up to $11 per subscriber to distribute the channel and this contrasted with the normal practice, in which cable operators paid stations carriage fees for programming. Time Warner selected MSNBC as the news channel, not Fox News. Fox News claimed that this violated an agreement, citing its agreement to keep its U. S. City officials threatened to take action affecting Time Warners cable franchises in the city, during the September 11,2001 attacks, Fox News was the first news organization to run a news ticker on the bottom of the screen to keep up with the flow of information that day
16.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
17.
The Village Voice
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The Village Voice is an American news and culture paper, known for being the countrys first alternative newsweekly. Founded in 1955 by Dan Wolf, Ed Fancher and Norman Mailer, since its founding, The Village Voice has received three Pulitzer Prizes, the National Press Foundation Award and the George Polk Award. Among news sources, The Village Voice is known for its combination of news reporting and arts & culture coverage. The Village Voice has hosted a variety of writers and artists, including writer Ezra Pound, cartoonist Lynda Barry. In addition to daily coverage through its website and a print edition that circulates in New York City. In the 1960s the offices were located at Sheridan Square, then, from the 70s through 1980, at 11th Street and University Place, in 1991 they moved to Cooper Square in the East Village, and in 2013, to the Financial District. John Wilcock wrote a column every week for the papers first ten years, another regular from that period was the cartoonist Kin Platt, who did weekly theatrical caricatures. Other prominent regulars have included Peter Schjeldahl, Ellen Willis, Tom Carson, Wayne Barrett, the Voice has published investigations of New York City politics, as well as reporting on national politics, with arts, culture, music, dance, film, and theater reviews. Writers for the Voice have received three Pulitzer Prizes, in 1981,1986 and 2000, almost since its inception the paper has recognized alternative theater in New York through its Obie Awards. The papers Pazz & Jop music poll, started by Robert Christgau in the early 1970s, is released annually, in 1999, film critic J. Hoberman and film section editor Dennis Lim began a similar Village Voice Film Poll for the year in film. In 2001 the paper sponsored its first music festival, Siren Festival, in 2011, the event moved to the lower tip of Manhattan and re-christened the 4knots Music Festival, a reference to the speed of the East Rivers current. Today, the Voice is known for its support for the civil rights of gays. However, early in its history, the newspaper had a reputation as having an anti-homosexuality slant, while reporting on the Stonewall riots of 1969, the newspaper referred to the riots as The Great Faggot Rebellion. Two reporters, Smith and Truscott, both used the words faggot and dyke in their articles about the riots, the newspaper changed their policy after the GLF petitioned the newspaper to do so. Over time, the Voice has changed its stance, and in 1982, as a testament to the Voices popularity in New York City, the paper is mentioned in the musical Rent during the song La Vie Boheme. The line states To riding your bike midday past the three suits, to fruits, to no absolutes, to Absolut, to choice, to The Village Voice. Seventeen alternative weeklies around the United States are owned by the Voices parent company Village Voice Media, in 2005, the Phoenix alternative weekly chain New Times Media purchased the company and took the Village Voice Media name. After The Village Voice was acquired by New Times Media in 2005, the Voice was then managed by two journalists from Phoenix, Arizona
18.
Guantanamo captive 217
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A total of 133 Saudi citizens have been held in the United States Guantanamo Bay detention camps at its naval base in Cuba since January 2002. Most had been swept up in Afghanistan following the US invasion in the fall of 2001, and they were classified by the US government as enemy combatants. In addition, a United States citizen, Yaser Esam Hamdi, who was born in Louisiana but moved as a child with his parents to Saudi Arabia, as an American citizen, he was transferred to a military prison brig on the mainland of the United States. His challenge to his detention, without being informed of charges or brought to trial, was a case that reached the United States Supreme Court, after this decision, the government made a deal with Hamdi. After he agreed to renounce his US citizenship and observe travel restrictions and he has returned to his family. Nearly 100 were returned to Saudi Arabia from June 2006 through 2007, as of today, eleven Saudi citizens are still held at the detention camp. In January 2002, the United States completed the first phase of construction of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp at its base in Cuba. It was designed to hold enemy combatants captured in its war on terror - most taken during action in Afghanistan beginning in the fall of 2001, in total, the US has held 133 Saudi Arabian citizens at Guantanamo. The United States has held a total of 778 detainees in the Guantanamo Bay detention camps at its base in Cuba since the camps opened on January 11,2002. The camp population peaked in 2004 at approximately 660, as of January 2017,45 detainees remain at Guantanamo. Three Saudis, Yasser Talal Al Zahrani, Mani Shaman Turki al-Habardi Al-Utaybi and Abdul Rahman al-Amri, all were announced by the United States Department of Defense as suicides. Journalists and the Center for Policy and Research in its 2009 report have noted glaring inconsistencies in the NCIS report of 2008. Based on an account by four guards at Guantanamo, Scott Horton suggested in 2010 that the men died as a result of torture. Al-Amri died on May 30,2007 as an apparent suicide, as a result of these deaths, the Saudi government strongly pressured the United States to repatriate its citizens. It developed a program for former detainees and has worked with them on religious re-education. From June 2006 and December 2007, a total of 93 Saudi citizens were returned to the country, as of today, eleven Saudi citizens are still held at the detention camp. A July 26,2007 article from Asharq Alawsat described the Care Rehabilitation Center repatriated detainees are held in until they are finally released, according to the article the detainees received special meals, had access to satellite TV, and were able to get day passes. British Prime Minister Gordon Brown visited the facility on November 2,2008, the Saudi Arabian government has published four Saudi lists of most wanted suspected terrorists
19.
Guantanamo captive 229
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Mohammed Fenaitel Mohamed Al Daihani is a citizen of Kuwait who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in Cuba. Al Daihanis Guantanamo Internment Serial Number was 229, joint Task Force Guantanamo counter-terrorism analysts reports that Al Daihani was born on November 4,1965, in Kuwait City, Kuwait. Al Dehani was repatriated without charges on November 2,2005, a Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for his tribunal. The memo listed the following, On March 3,2006, in order to comply with a court order, detainees whose Combatant Status Review Tribunal labeled them enemy combatants were scheduled for annual Administrative Review Board hearings. These hearings were designed to assess the threat a detainee might pose if released or transferred, a Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for Mohammed Fenaitel Mohamed Al Daihanis Administrative Review Board, on 22 April 2005. The memo listed factors for and against his continued detention and it was Frum who coined the term Axis of evil for use in a speech he wrote for Bush. Al Daihanis transcript was one of the nine Frum briefly summarized and his comment on Al Daihani was, Frum came to the conclusion that all nine of the men whose transcript he summarized had obviously lied. He did not, however, state how he came to the conclusion they lied, the decision, striking down the Military Commissions Act, was handed down on June 12,2008. On May 12,2007, the Kuwait Times reported that the USA concluded negotiations regarding the repatriation of the remaining Kuwaiti captives
20.
Mohammed Funaitel Al Dihani
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Mohammed Fenaitel Mohamed Al Daihani is a citizen of Kuwait who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in Cuba. Al Daihanis Guantanamo Internment Serial Number was 229, joint Task Force Guantanamo counter-terrorism analysts reports that Al Daihani was born on November 4,1965, in Kuwait City, Kuwait. Al Dehani was repatriated without charges on November 2,2005, a Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for his tribunal. The memo listed the following, On March 3,2006, in order to comply with a court order, detainees whose Combatant Status Review Tribunal labeled them enemy combatants were scheduled for annual Administrative Review Board hearings. These hearings were designed to assess the threat a detainee might pose if released or transferred, a Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for Mohammed Fenaitel Mohamed Al Daihanis Administrative Review Board, on 22 April 2005. The memo listed factors for and against his continued detention and it was Frum who coined the term Axis of evil for use in a speech he wrote for Bush. Al Daihanis transcript was one of the nine Frum briefly summarized and his comment on Al Daihani was, Frum came to the conclusion that all nine of the men whose transcript he summarized had obviously lied. He did not, however, state how he came to the conclusion they lied, the decision, striking down the Military Commissions Act, was handed down on June 12,2008. On May 12,2007, the Kuwait Times reported that the USA concluded negotiations regarding the repatriation of the remaining Kuwaiti captives