1.
Alkalinity
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Alkalinity is the name given to the quantitative capacity of an aqueous solution to neutralize an acid. Measuring alkalinity is important in determining a streams ability to neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater and it is one of the best measures of the sensitivity of the stream to acid inputs. There can be changes in the alkalinity of streams and rivers in response to human disturbances. Alkalinity is related to the pH of a solution, but measures a different property, roughly, the alkalinity of a solution is a measure of how strong the bases are in a solution, whereas the pH measures the amount of chemical bases. A good example is a solution, which can have many available bases despite having only a moderate pH level. Alkalinity roughly refers to the amount of bases in a solution that can be converted to uncharged species by a strong acid. The cited author, James Drever, provides an equation expressed in terms of molar equivalents, which means the number of moles of each ion type multiplied by the charge of the ion. For example,1 mole of HCO31− in solution represents 1 molar equivalent, the total charge of a solution always equals zero. On the left-hand side of the equation is the sum of conservative cations minus the sum of conservative anions, balancing this on the right side is the sum of the anions that could be neutralized by added H+ ions minus H+ ions already present, as indicated by the pH. This right side term is called total alkalinity and it is, quoting Drever, formally defined as the equivalent sum of the bases that are titratable with strong acid. The listing of ions shown on the right in Drever was mHCO3− + 2mCO32− + mB4− + mH34− + mHS− + morganic anions + mOH− - mH+, total alkalinity is measured by adding a strong acid until all the anions listed above are converted to uncharged species. The total alkalinity is not affected by temperature, pressure, or pH, though the values of individual constituents are, Drever further notes that in most natural waters, all ions except HCO3− and CO3−2 have low concentrations. Thus carbonate alkalinity, which is equal to mHCO3− + 2mCO3−2 is also equal to the total alkalinity. Alkalinity or AT measures the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the point of carbonate or bicarbonate. The alkalinity is equal to the sum of the bases in solution. Other common natural components that can contribute to alkalinity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate, silicate, dissolved ammonia, the bases of some organic acids. Solutions produced in a laboratory may contain a virtually limitless number of bases that contribute to alkalinity, Alkalinity is usually given in the unit mEq/L. Commercially, as in the pool industry, alkalinity might also be given in parts per million of equivalent calcium carbonate
2.
Alkaline battery
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Alkaline batteries are a type of primary battery dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide. Another type of batteries are secondary rechargeable alkaline battery, which allows reuse of specially designed cells. Compared with zinc-carbon batteries of the Leclanché or zinc chloride types, alkaline batteries have an energy density and longer shelf-life. The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes, Alkaline batteries account for 80% of manufactured batteries in the US and over 10 billion individual units produced worldwide. In Japan alkaline batteries account for 46% of all battery sales. In Switzerland alkaline batteries account for 68%, in the UK 60%, Alkaline batteries are used in many household items such as MP3 players, CD players, digital cameras, pagers, toys, lights, and radios, to name a few. Batteries with alkaline electrolyte were first developed by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, on October 9,1957, Urry, Karl Kordesch, and P. A. Marsal filed US patent for the alkaline battery and it was granted in 1960 and was assigned to the Union Carbide Corporation. When introduced in the late 1960s, alkaline batteries contained a small amount of mercury amalgam to control side reactions at the zinc anode. With mercury content reduced by law and improvements in the purity and consistency of materials, in an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is zinc and the positive electrode is manganese dioxide. The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide is not part of the reaction, only the zinc, the alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide remains, as there are equal amounts of OH− consumed and produced. An alkaline cell can provide three and five times capacity. The capacity of a battery is strongly dependent on the load. An AA-sized alkaline battery might have a capacity of 3000 mAh at low drain, but at a load of 1 ampere, which is common for digital cameras. The voltage of the battery declines steadily during use, so the usable capacity depends on the cut-off voltage of the application. Unlike Leclanche cells, the alkaline cell delivers about as much capacity on intermittent or continuous light loads, on a heavy load, capacity is reduced on continuous discharge compared with intermittent discharge, but the reduction is less than for Leclanche cells. The nominal voltage of an alkaline cell as established by manufacturer standards is 1.5 V
3.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
4.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
5.
Ionic compound
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In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations. These can be simple ions such as the sodium and chloride in sodium chloride, or polyatomic species such as the ammonium, Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions are classified as acids, and those containing basic ions hydroxide or oxide are classified as bases. Ionic compounds without these ions are known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard, as solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they become highly conductive, because the ions are mobilized. The word ion is the Greek ἰόν, ion, going and this term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. In 1913 the crystal structure of sodium chloride was determined by William Henry Bragg, many other inorganic compounds were also found to have similar structural features. Principal contributors to the development of a treatment of ionic crystal structures were Max Born, Fritz Haber, Alfred Landé, Erwin Madelung, Paul Peter Ewald. Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, Ionic compounds can be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation, precipitation, or freezing. Reactive metals such as the alkali metals can react directly with the highly electronegative halogen gases to form an ionic product and they can also be synthesized as the product of a high temperature reaction between solids. If the ionic compound is soluble in a solvent, it can be obtained as a compound by evaporating the solvent from this electrolyte solution. This process occurs widely in nature, and is the means of formation of the evaporite minerals, insoluble ionic compounds can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain counterions of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated ionic compound, if the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an acid–base reaction or a neutralization reaction to form water. Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a solution they will remain soluble as spectator ions. Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their freezing point and this is sometimes used for the solid-state synthesis of complex ionic compounds from solid reactants, which are first melted together. In other cases the solid reactants do not need to be melted, other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct stoichiometric ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species. There is also an additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions
6.
Salt (chemistry)
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In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral and these component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride, or organic, such as acetate, and can be monatomic, such as fluoride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate. There are several varieties of salts, salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are alkali salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic, zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, usually, non-dissolved salts at standard conditions for temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions. Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions. Salts can appear to be clear and transparent, opaque, and even metallic, in many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the boundaries, larger crystals tend to be transparent. The color of the salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework. Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e. g. salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami or savory. Salts of strong acids and strong bases are non-volatile and odorless and that slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents, the exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, for example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and lead sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, for example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, solid salts do not conduct electricity. Moreover, solutions of salts also conduct electricity, the name of a salt starts with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation or by the name of the anion. g
7.
Alkali metal
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The alkali metals are a group in the periodic table consisting of the chemical elements lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and francium. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of trends in properties in the periodic table. The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and they can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen. Because of their reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air. Caesium, the alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium, which is likely to be the member of the group. Most alkali metals have different applications. One of the applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks are the most accurate. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp, table salt, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration. Hence, all the metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation. They all crystallise in the cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its radioactivity, thus. What little is known about francium shows that it is close in behaviour to caesium. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the element has never been observed. The alkali metals are more similar to other than the elements in any other group are to each other
8.
Alkaline earth metal
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The alkaline earth metals are six chemical elements in column 2 of the Periodic table. They are beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, the elements have very similar properties, they are all shiny, silvery-white, somewhat reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure. All the discovered alkaline earth metals occur in nature, experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of element 120, the next potential member of the group, but they have all met with failure. The chemistry of radium is not well-established due to its radioactivity, thus, the alkaline earth metals are all silver-colored and soft, and have relatively low densities, melting points, and boiling points. In chemical terms, all of the alkaline metals react with the halogens to form the earth metal halides. All the alkaline earth metals except beryllium also react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and, thus, the heavier alkaline earth metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones. The second ionization energy of all of the metals is also somewhat low. Beryllium is an exception, It does not react with water or steam, all compounds that include beryllium have a covalent bond. Even the compound beryllium fluoride, which is the most ionic beryllium compound, has a low melting point and a low electrical conductivity when melted. The alkaline earth metals all react with the halogens to form ionic halides, such as calcium chloride, calcium, strontium, and barium react with water to produce hydrogen gas and their respective hydroxides, and also undergo transmetalation reactions to exchange ligands. The table below is a summary of the key physical and atomic properties of the alkaline earth metals, calcium-48 is the lightest nuclide to undergo double beta decay. The natural radioisotope of calcium, calcium-48, makes up about 0. 1874% of natural calcium, barium-130 makes up approximately 0. 1062% of natural barium, and, thus, barium is weakly radioactive, as well. The alkaline earth metals are named after their oxides, the alkaline earths, whose old-fashioned names were beryllia, magnesia, lime, strontia and these oxides are basic when combined with water. Earth is an old term applied by early chemists to nonmetallic substances that are insoluble in water, the realization that these earths were not elements but compounds is attributed to the chemist Antoine Lavoisier. In his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie of 1789 he called them salt-forming earth elements, later, he suggested that the alkaline earths might be metal oxides, but admitted that this was mere conjecture. The calcium compounds calcite and lime have been known and used since prehistoric times, the same is true for the beryllium compounds beryl and emerald. The other compounds of the alkaline earth metals were discovered starting in the early 15th century, the magnesium compound magnesium sulfate was first discovered in 1618 by a farmer at Epsom in England. Strontium carbonate was discovered in minerals in the Scottish village of Strontian in 1790, the last element is the least abundant, radioactive radium, which was extracted from uraninite in 1898
9.
Chemical element
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A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei. There are 118 elements that have identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, iron is the most abundant element making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earths crust. Chemical elements constitute all of the matter of the universe. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are rarer than those that follow. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis, the high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. The term element is used for atoms with a number of protons as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element. A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure, when different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals, among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon, and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form. While about 32 of the elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, the history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal, alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more, almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope, Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected, the very heaviest elements undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized
10.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
11.
PH
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In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
12.
Adjective
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In linguistics, an adjective is a describing word, the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified. Adjectives are one of the English parts of speech, although historically they were classed together with the nouns, certain words that were traditionally considered to be adjectives, including the, this, my, etc. are today usually classed separately, as determiners. Adjective comes from Latin adjectīvum additional, a calque of Ancient Greek, in the grammatical tradition of Latin and Greek, because adjectives were inflected for gender, number, and case like nouns, they were considered a subtype of noun. The words that are typically called nouns were then called substantive nouns. The terms noun substantive and noun adjective were formerly used in English, in English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb. For example, I saw three kids, and I saw three kids happy enough to jump up and down with glee. Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify, for example, happy is an adjective in they are happy. Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns, One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, I read two books to them, he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy, happy is a nominal adjective, short for happy one or happy book. Another way this can happen is in phrases like out with the old, in with the new, where the old means, that which is old or all that is old, and similarly with the new. In such cases, the adjective functions either as a noun or as a plural count noun, as in The meek shall inherit the Earth. Adjectives feature as a part of speech in most languages, in some languages, the words that serve the semantic function of adjectives may be categorized together with some other class, such as nouns or verbs. Such an analysis is possible for the grammar of Standard Chinese, different languages do not always use adjectives in exactly the same situations. For example, where English uses to be hungry, Dutch and French use honger hebben, similarly, where Hebrew uses the adjective זקוק zaqūq, English uses the verb to need. In languages which have adjectives as a class, they are usually an open class. However, Bantu languages are known for having only a small closed class of adjectives. Many languages, including English, distinguish between adjectives, which qualify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs, which mainly modify verbs, adjectives, not all languages have exactly this distinction and many languages, including English, have words that can function as both. For example, in English fast is an adjective in a fast car, in Dutch and German, adjectives and adverbs are usually identical in form and many grammarians do not make the distinction, but patterns of inflection can suggest a difference, Eine kluge neue Idee
13.
Synonym
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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy, the word comes from Ancient Greek sýn and ónoma. An example of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence, words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses. For example, if one talks about a time or an extended time, long. Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason, feline is more formal than cat, long and extended are only synonyms in one usage, synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In the figurative sense, two words are said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. a widespread impression that. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy, as when, for example, thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym. The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and it has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation and schema. Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the part of speech. Such like, he expired means the same as he died, in English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While Englands new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English, thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, the purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words, these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being a word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings, for example, hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle, homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations
14.
Calcination
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Authorities differ on the meaning of calcination. The IUPAC defines it as heating to temperatures in air or oxygen. A calciner is a cylinder that rotates inside a heated furnace. The product of calcination is usually referred to in general as calcine, calcination is carried out in furnaces or reactors of various designs including shaft furnaces, rotary kilns, multiple hearth furnaces, and fluidized bed reactors. Calcination reactions usually take place at or above the decomposition temperature or the transition temperature. This temperature is defined as the temperature at which the standard Gibbs free energy for a particular calcination reaction is equal to zero. For example, in limestone calcination, a process, the chemical reaction is CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 The standard Gibbs free energy of reaction is approximated as ΔG°r =177,100 −158 T. The standard free energy of reaction is 0 in this case when the temperature, T, is equal to 1121 K, see also calcination equilibrium of calcium carbonate In some cases, calcination of a metal results in oxidation of the metal. Jean Rey noted that lead and tin when calcinated gained weight, in alchemy, calcination was believed to be one of the 12 vital processes required for the transformation of a substance. Alchemists distinguished two kinds of calcination, actual and potential, actual calcination is that brought about by actual fire, from wood, coals, or other fuel, raised to a certain temperature
15.
Potash
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Potash /ˈpɒtæʃ/ is any of various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water-soluble form. The name derives from pot ash, which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a pot, the word potassium is derived from potash. Potash is produced worldwide at amounts exceeding 30 million tonnes per year, various types of fertilizer-potash thus constitute the single largest global industrial use of the element potassium. Potassium was first derived by electrolysis of caustic potash, in 1807, Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, the most common being potassium chloride. The term potash comes from the Middle Dutch word potaschen, approximately 10% by weight of common wood ash can be recovered as pot ash. Later, potash became the term applied to naturally occurring potassium salts. Potash ores are rich in potassium chloride and sodium chloride and are typically obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. Other methods include dissolution mining and evaporation methods from brines, in the evaporation method hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. Amine reagents are added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl, air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for plant nutrition. Potash deposits can be all over the world. At present deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, Potash has been used in bleaching textiles, making glass, and making soap, since about AD500. Potash was principally obtained by leaching the ashes of land and sea plants, beginning in the 14th century potash was mined in Ethiopia. One of the worlds largest deposits,140 to 150 million tons, is located in the Tigrays Dallol area, Potash was one of the most important industrial chemicals in Canada. It was refined from the ashes of broadleaved trees and produced primarily in the areas of Europe, Russia. The first U. S. patent of any kind was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus, Pearl ash was a purer quality made by the ignition of cream of tartar. Potash pits were used in England to produce potash that was used in making soap for the preparation of wool for yarn production
16.
Calcium hydroxide
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Calcium hydroxide, traditionally called slaked lime, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca2. It is a crystal or white powder and is obtained when calcium oxide is mixed. It has many names including hydrated lime, caustic lime, builders lime, slack lime, cal, Calcium hydroxide is used in many applications, including food preparation. Limewater is the name for a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide is insoluble in water, with a solubility product Ksp of 5.5 × 10−6.4. Calcium hydroxide solutions can cause chemical burns, at high pH value, its solubility drastically decreases. This behavior is relevant to cement pastes, Ca2 → CaO + H2O Calcium hydroxide adopts a polymeric structure, as do all metal hydroxides. The structure is identical to that of Mg2, i. e. the cadmium iodide motif, strong hydrogen bonds exist between the layers. Calcium hydroxide is produced commercially by treating lime with water, CaO + H2O → Ca2 In the laboratory it can be prepared by mixing solutions of calcium chloride. The mineral form, portlandite, is rare but can be found in some volcanic, plutonic. It has also known to arise in burning coal dumps. CaOH has been detected in the atmosphere of S-type stars, one significant application of calcium hydroxide is as a flocculant, in water and sewage treatment. It forms a fluffy charged solid that aids in the removal of particles from water. This application is enabled by the low cost and low toxicity of calcium hydroxide and this conversion is part of the causticizing step in the Kraft process for making pulp. In Spanish, calcium hydroxide is called cal, corn cooked with cal becomes hominy, which significantly increases the bioavailability of niacin, and it is also considered tastier and easier to digest. In chewing coca leaves, calcium hydroxide is usually chewed alongside to keep the alkaloid stimulants chemically available for absorption by the body, similarly, Native Americans traditionally chewed tobacco leaves with calcium hydroxide derived from burnt mollusk shells to enhance the effects. It has also used by some indigenous American tribes as an ingredient in yopo. Calcium hydroxide is added to a bundle of areca nut
17.
Potassium hydroxide
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Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide, this solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its corrosive nature, an estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. Approximately 100 times more NaOH than KOH is produced annually, KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. Potassium hydroxide can be found in form by reacting sodium hydroxide with impure potassium. It is usually sold as translucent pellets, which will become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic, consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of water. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic, concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily, potassium hydroxide solutions with concentrations of approximately 0.5 to 2. 0% are irritating when coming into contact with the skin, while concentrations higher than 2% are corrosive. At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure, the OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the OH− group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å. At room temperature, the OH− groups are ordered and the environment about the K+ centers is distorted, with K+—OH− distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH·H 2O, the dihydrate KOH·2 H 2O, approximately 121 g of KOH will dissolve in 100 mL of water at room temperature compared with 100 g of NaOH in the same volume. Lower molecular weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents, because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines, like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. Because of its stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area. KOH is highly basic, forming strongly alkaline solutions in water and other polar solvents and these solutions are capable of deprotonating many acids, even weak ones. In analytical chemistry, titrations using solutions of KOH are used to assay acids, KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of OH−, a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. In perhaps its most well-known reaction, aqueous KOH saponifies esters, KOH + RCO2R → RCO2K + ROH When R is a long chain and this reaction is manifested by the greasy feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol. Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups, the reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols
18.
Soap
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In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
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Saponification
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Saponification is a process that produces soap, usually from fats and lye. Vegetable oils and animal fats are the materials that are saponified. These greasy materials, triesters called triglycerides, are derived from diverse fatty acids. Triglycerides can be converted to soap in either a one- or a two-step process, in the traditional one-step process, the triglyceride is treated with a strong base, which accelerates cleavage of the ester bond and releases the fatty acid salt and glycerol. This process is the industrial method for producing glycerol. If necessary, soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with saturated sodium chloride, the saponification value is the amount of base required to saponify a fat sample. This process is common where the amount of fatty tissue is high. The mechanism by which esters are cleaved by base involves a series of equilibria, the hydroxide anion adds to the carbonyl group of the ester. Saponification to the salt of myristic acid takes place with NaOH in water. The acid itself can be obtained by adding hydrochloric acid. Triglycerides are also saponified in a process that begins with steam hydrolysis of the triglyceride. This process gives the acid, not its salt, as well as glycerol. Subsequently, the fatty acid is neutralized with alkali to give the soap, the advantage of the two-step process is that the fatty acids can be purified, which leads to soaps of improved quality. Steam hydrolysis proceeds via a similar to the base-catalyzed route. The process is slower, hence steam is required, depending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties. Sodium hydroxide gives hard soap, hard soaps can also be used in water containing Mg, Cl, by contrast, when potassium hydroxide is used, a soft soap is formed. The fatty acid source also affects the melting point. As in the triglycerides they are formed from, the salts of these acids have weaker inter-molecular forces, lithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and several other carboxylic acids are important constituents of lubricating greases
20.
Potassium
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Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K and atomic number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, in the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. Potassium in nature only in ionic salts. It is found dissolved in sea water, and is part of many minerals, naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body, Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different elements combine with the same anions to make similar salts was suspected in 1702. Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production. Potassium ions are necessary for the function of all living cells, fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. Potassium is the second least dense metal after lithium and it is a soft solid with a low melting point, and can be easily cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but it begins to tarnish toward gray immediately on exposure to air, in a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a lilac color with a peak emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers. Neutral potassium atoms have 19 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas argon. This process requires so little energy that potassium is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen, in contrast, the second ionization energy is very high, because removal of two electrons breaks the stable noble gas electronic configuration. Potassium therefore does not readily form compounds with the state of +2 or higher. Potassium is an active metal that reacts violently with oxygen in water. With oxygen it forms potassium peroxide, and with water potassium forms potassium hydroxide, the reaction of potassium with water is dangerous because of its violent exothermic character and the production of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen reacts again with atmospheric oxygen, producing water, which reacts with the remaining potassium and this reaction requires only traces of water, because of this, potassium and the liquid sodium-potassium — NaK — are potent desiccants that can be used to dry solvents prior to distillation. Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, reactions with other elements are only in an inert atmosphere such as argon gas using air-free techniques
21.
Solution
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes
22.
Phenolphthalein
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Phenolphthalein is a chemical compound with the formula C20H14O4 and is often written as HIn or phph in shorthand notation. Phenolphthalein is often used as an indicator in acid–base titrations, for this application, it turns colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic solutions. Phenolphthalein is slightly soluble in water and usually is dissolved in alcohols for use in experiments and it is a weak acid, which can lose H+ ions in solution. The phenolphthalein molecule is colorless, and the ion is pink. When a base is added to the phenolphthalein, the molecule ⇌ ions equilibrium shifts to the right and this is predicted by Le Chateliers principle. Phenolphthaleins common use is as an indicator in acid-base titrations and it also serves as a component of universal indicator, together with methyl red, bromothymol blue, and thymol blue. Phenolphthalein adopts four different states in aqueous solution, Under very strongly acidic conditions, it exists in protonated form, between strongly acidic and slightly basic conditions, the lactone form is colorless. The singly deprotonated phenolate form gives the familiar pink color, in strongly basic solutions, phenolphthaleins pink color undergoes a rather slow fading reaction and becomes completely colorless above 13.0 pH. The rather slow fading reaction that produces the colorless InOH3− ion is used in classes for the study of reaction kinetics. Phenolphthaleins pH sensitivity is exploited in other applications, Concrete has naturally high pH due to the calcium hydroxide formed when Portland cement reacts with water, as the concrete reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, pH decreases to 8. 5-9. When a 1% phenolphthalein solution is applied to concrete, it turns bright pink. However, if it remains colorless, it shows that the concrete has undergone carbonation, in a similar application, spackling used to repair holes in drywall contains phenolphthalein. When applied, the basic spackling material retains a pink coloration, when the spackling has cured by reaction with carbon dioxide. Phenolphthalein is used in toys, for example as a component of disappearing inks, in the ink, it is mixed with sodium hydroxide, which reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. The pattern will disappear again because of the reaction with carbon dioxide. Thymolphthalein is used for the purpose and in the same way. Phenolphthalein has been used for over a century as a laxative, thymolphthalein is a related laxative made from thymol. Despite concerns regarding its carcinogenicity, the use of phenolphthalein as a laxative is unlikely to cause ovarian cancer, phenolphthalein has been found to inhibit human cellular calcium influx via store-operated calcium entry
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Corrosive substance
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A corrosive substance is one that will destroy and damage other substances with which it comes into contact. It may attack a variety of materials, including metals and various organic compounds. The word corrosive is derived from the Latin verb corrodere, which means to gnaw, sometimes the word caustic is used as a synonym but caustic generally refers only to strong bases, particularly alkalis, and not to acids, oxidizers, or other non-alkaline corrosives. A low concentration of a substance is usually an irritant. Corrosion of non-living surfaces such as metals is a distinct process, for example, a water/air electrochemical cell corrodes iron to rust. In the Globally Harmonized System, both rapid corrosion of metals and chemical corrosion of skin qualify for the corrosive symbol. Corrosives are different from poisons in that corrosives are immediately dangerous to the tissues they contact, colloquially, corrosives may be called poisons but the concepts are technically distinct. However, there is nothing which precludes a corrosive from being a poison, common corrosives are either strong acids, strong bases, or concentrated solutions of certain weak acids or weak bases. They can exist as any state of matter, including liquids, solids, gases and their action on living tissue is mainly based on acid-base reactions of amide hydrolysis, ester hydrolysis and protein denaturation. Proteins are destroyed via amide hydrolysis while lipids are decomposed by ester hydrolysis and these reactions lead to chemical burns and are the mechanism of the destruction posed by corrosives. Some corrosives possess other properties which may extend their corrosive effects on living tissue. For example, sulfuric acid at a concentration is also a strong dehydrating agent, capable of dehydrating carbohydrates. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns, some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage, zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting as a Lewis acid. In addition, some chemicals, mostly acids such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, are volatile. Inhalation can damage the respiratory tract, corrosive substances are most hazardous to eyesight. A drop of a corrosive may cause blindness within 2–10 seconds through opacification or direct destruction of the cornea, ingestion of corrosives can induce severe consequences, including serious damage of the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to vomiting, severe stomach aches, and death. Common corrosive chemicals are classified into, Acids Strong acids – the most common are acid, nitric acid
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Solubility
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Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure. The solubility of a substance is a different property from the rate of solution. Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas, the extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds, a common threshold to describe something as insoluble is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent. Under certain conditions, the solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution. Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its form or particle size. A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when seed crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs, phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point. Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve a substance, for example, zinc dissolves in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction. The zinc ions are soluble in the acid, the smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization. Crucially solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, geochemistry, inorganic, physical, organic, in all cases it will depend on the physical conditions and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned. By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a range of organic substances. This is a factor in acidity/alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work. According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass per volume. Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution, the solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate. The term solubility is used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis
25.
Barium carbonate
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Barium carbonate, also known as witherite, is a chemical compound used in rat poison, bricks, ceramic glazes and cement. Witherite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and it transforms into an hexagonal phase at 1084 K that changes into a cubic phase at 1254 K. The mineral is named after William Withering, who in 1784 recognized it to be distinct from barytes. It occurs in veins of ore at Hexham in Northumberland, Alston in Cumbria, Anglezarke, near Chorley in Lancashire. Witherite is readily altered to barium sulfate by the action of water containing calcium sulfate in solution and it is the chief source of barium salts and is mined in considerable amounts in Northumberland. It is used for the preparation of rat poison, in the manufacture of glass and porcelain and it is also used for controlling the chromate to sulfate ratio in chromium electroplating baths. Barium carbonate is made commercially from barium sulfide either by treatment with sodium carbonate at 60 to 70 °C or by passing carbon dioxide at 40 to 90 °C. In the soda ash process, solid or dissolved sodium carbonate is added to barium sulfide solution, barium carbonate is widely used in the ceramics industry as an ingredient in glazes. It acts as a flux, a matting and crystallizing agent and its use is somewhat controversial since some claim that it can leach from glazes into food and drink. To provide a means of use, BaO is often used in fritted form. In the brick, tile, earthenware and pottery industries barium carbonate is added to clays to precipitate soluble salts that cause efflorescence
26.
Chemical engineering
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A chemical engineer designs large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products. A1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term. The History of Science in United States, An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1890, Chemical engineering, describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, chemical engineer, was already in use in Britain. Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of operations, a fundamental concept of the discipline of chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis invented the concept of operations if not substantially developed it. He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School in 1887, three years before Davis lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrongs course failed simply because its graduates, were not especially attractive to employers. Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers, starting from 1888, Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Nortons course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrongs course, both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists, unit operations was introduced into the course by William Hultz Walker in 1905. By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of engineering at MIT and other US universities. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a science of itself, unit operations in a 1922 report, and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered satisfactory chemical engineering courses. Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in 1922. IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline, by the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain, along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering, a second paradigm was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its elements, such as control system
27.
Limewater
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Limewater is the common name for a diluted solution of calcium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide, Ca2, is soluble in water. Pure limewater is clear and colorless, with an earthy smell. The term lime refers to the mineral, and is unrelated to the acidic fruit. Limewater is prepared by stirring calcium hydroxide in water and filtering off the excess undissolved Ca2. When excess calcium hydroxide is added to limewater, a suspension of calcium hydroxide particles results, giving it a milky aspect, milk of lime or a saturated solution of lime has a pH of 12.3. Carbon dioxide passed into limewater gives a milky solution, the above chemical properties are commonly used for testing the presence of carbon dioxide in gaseous samples in school laboratories, and refining of sugar in a process called carbonatation. It is also used as an agent in municipal waste water treatment. In buon fresco painting, limewater is used as the solvent to apply on fresh plaster. Historically, it is known as the paint whitewash, limewater is used in the preparation of maize for corn tortillas and other culinary purposes using a process known as nixtamalization. Limewater is widely used by aquarists as a primary supplement of calcium. Corals of order Scleractinia build their endoskeletons from aragonite, when used for this purpose, limewater is usually referred to as Kalkwasser. It is also used in tanning and making parchment, the lime is used as a dehairing agent based on its alkaline properties
28.
Magnesium hydroxide
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Magnesium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg2. It occurs in nature as the mineral brucite and it is a white solid with low solubility in water (Ksp =5. 61×10−12, Magnesium hydroxide is a common component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia, as well as laxatives. Combining a solution of magnesium salts with basic water induces precipitation of solid Mg2, Mg2+ +2 OH− → Mg2 On a commercial scale. 600 m3 of seawater gives about one ton of Mg2, Magnesia is valuable because it is both a poor electrical conductor and an excellent thermal conductor. When the patient drinks magnesium hydroxide, the suspension enters the stomach, depending on how much was taken, one of two possible outcomes will occur. As an antacid, magnesium hydroxide is dosed at approximately 0. 5–1, as a laxative, magnesium hydroxide is dosed at 2–5 g, and works in a number of ways. First, Mg2+ is poorly absorbed from the tract, so it draws water from the surrounding tissue by osmosis. Not only does this increase in water content soften the feces, furthermore, Mg2+ ions cause the release of cholecystokinin, which results in intraluminal accumulation of water, electrolytes, and increased intestinal motility. Only a small amount of the magnesium from magnesium hydroxide is usually absorbed by the intestine, however, magnesium is mainly excreted by the kidneys so long-term, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from renal failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia. On May 4,1818, an American inventor named John Callen, in 1829, Sir James Murray used a condensed solution of fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to treat the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey, of stomach pain. This was so successful that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and his fluid magnesia product was patented two years after his death in 1873. The term milk of magnesia was first used by Charles Henry Phillips in 1872 for a suspension of magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v and it was sold under the brand name Phillips Milk of Magnesia for medicinal usage. Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO registrations show Milk of Magnesia, in the UK, the non-brand name of Milk of Magnesia and Phillips Milk of Magnesia is Cream of Magnesia. Magnesium hydroxide is marketed for use as chewable tablets, as capsules. These products are sold as antacids to neutralize acid and relieve indigestion. It also is a laxative to alleviate constipation, as a laxative, the osmotic force of the magnesia acts to draw fluids from the body. High doses can lead to diarrhea, and can deplete the supply of potassium. Magnesium hydroxide is also a component of antiperspirant, Magnesium hydroxide is useful against canker sores when used topically
29.
Alkali soil
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Alkali, or alkaline, soils are clay soils with high pH, a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the presence of sodium carbonate. They derive their name from the metal group of elements, to which sodium belongs. Sometimes these soils are also referred to as sodic soils, alkaline soils are basic, but not all basic soils are alkaline. The causes of soil alkalinity can be natural or man-made, The natural cause is the presence of soil minerals producing sodium carbonate, coal-fired boilers / power plants, when using coal or lignite rich in limestone, produce ash containing calcium oxide. CaO readily dissolves in water to form slaked lime–Ca2–and carried by water to rivers / irrigation water. Lime softening process precipitates Ca and Mg ions / removes hardness in the water, Sodium carbonates further reacts with the remaining Ca and Mg in the water to remove / precipitate the total hardness. Also water-soluble sodium salts present in the ash enhance the content in water. The global coal consumption is 7700 million tons in the year 2011, thus river water is made devoid of Ca and Mg ions and enhanced Na by coal-fired boilers. Many sodium salts are used in industrial and domestic applications such as Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate, Sodium sulphate, Sodium hydroxide, Sodium hypochlorite and these salts are mainly produced from Sodium chloride. All the sodium in these salts enter into the river / ground water during their production process or consumption enhancing water sodicity, the total global consumption of sodium chloride is 270 million tons in the year 2010. This is nearly equal to the load in the mighty Amazon River. Man made sodium salts contribution is nearly 7% of total load of all the rivers. Huge capacity cooling towers are installed in oil refineries, petrochemical complexes, fertilizer plants, chemical plants, nuclear & thermal power stations, centralized HVAC systems, the drift / fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6% sodium chloride which would deposit on the vicinity areas. The man-made cause is the application of softened water in irrigation containing relatively high proportion of sodium bicarbonates, alkaline soils are difficult to take into agricultural production. Due to the low capacity, rain water stagnates on the soil easily and, in dry periods, cultivation is hardly possible without copious irrigated water. Agriculture is limited to crops tolerant to surface waterlogging and the productivity is low, notes, Water is partly dissociated into H3O+ and OH– ions
30.
Cabbage
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Cabbage or headed cabbage is a leafy green or purple biennial plant, grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the cabbage, B. oleracea var. oleracea. Cabbage heads generally range from 0.5 to 4 kilograms, smooth-leafed firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed red and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colors seen more rarely. Under conditions of long sunlit days such as are found at high latitudes in summer. Some records are discussed at the end of the history section and it is difficult to trace the exact history of cabbage, but it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC, although savoys were not developed until the 16th century. By the Middle Ages, it had become a prominent part of European cuisine, cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that production of cabbage. Almost half of these crops were grown in China, where Chinese cabbage is the most popular Brassica vegetable, cabbages are prepared in many different ways for eating. They can be pickled, fermented for dishes such as sauerkraut, steamed, stewed, sautéed, braised, cabbage is a good source of vitamin K, vitamin C and dietary fiber. Contaminated cabbage has been linked to cases of illness in humans. Cabbage is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family, several other cruciferous vegetables are considered cultivars of B. oleracea, including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea, the varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for having a head. B. oleracea and its derivatives have hundreds of names throughout the world. Cabbage was originally used to refer to forms of B. oleracea. A related species, Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage and it is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia, Roystonea oleracea, Acrocomia, the original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. The word brassica derives from bresic, a Celtic word for cabbage, many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning head. The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche and this in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce
31.
Soda lake
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A soda lake or alkaline lake is a lake on the strongly alkaline side of neutrality. They are characterized by high concentrations of salts, typically sodium carbonate. In addition, many lakes also contain high concentrations of sodium chloride and other dissolved salts. High pH and salinity often coincide, because of how soda lakes develop, the resulting hypersaline and highly alkalic soda lakes are considered some of the most extreme aquatic environments on Earth. In spite of their apparent inhospitability, soda lakes are often highly productive ecosystems, gross primary production rates above 10 g C m−2 day−1, over 16 times the global average for lakes and streams, have been measured. This makes them the most productive aquatic environments on Earth, an important reason for the high productivity is the virtually unlimited availability of dissolved carbon dioxide. Soda lakes occur naturally throughout the world, typically in arid and semi-arid areas, the pH of most freshwater lakes is on the alkaline side of neutrality and many exhibit similar water chemistries to soda lakes, only less extreme. In order for a lake to become alkalic, a combination of geographic, geological. First of all, a suitable topography is needed, that limits the outflow of water from the lake, when the outflow is completely prevented, this is called an endorheic basin. Craters or depressions formed by tectonic rifting often provide such topological depressions, the high alkalinity and salinity arise through evaporation of the lake water. This requires suitable conditions, in order for the inflow to balance outflow through evaporation. Another critical geological condition for the formation of a lake is the relative absence of soluble magnesium or calcium. This results in a salt lake instead. A good example is the Dead Sea, which is rich in Mg2+. In some soda lakes, inflow of Ca2+ through subterranean seeps, in Mono Lake, California and Lake Van, Turkey, such precipitation has formed columns of tufa rising above the lake surface. Many soda lakes are strongly stratified, with well-oxygenated upper layer, stratification can be permanent, or with seasonal mixing. The depth of the interface separating the two layers varies from a few centimeters to near the bottom sediments, depending on local conditions. In either case, it represents an important barrier, both physically and between strongly contrasting biochemical conditions, a rich diversity of microbial life inhabit soda lakes, often in dense concentrations
32.
Alkali Lake (Oregon)
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Alkali Lake is a geographic sink in Lake County, Oregon, United States. Alkali Lake is thought to have reached a maximum depth of 270.7 feet. Since then, its level has varied, with a drying trend. Notable features include dissolved alkaline salts averaging 10% of total weight in its seasonal waters. Plants known to occur in the dunes north of the lake include. Alkali Lake State Airport McArthur, Lewis A, Oregon Geographic Names, Fourth ed.1974. Ann Arbor, MI U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Oregon Field Office
33.
Lake County, Oregon
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Lake County is a county in the south-central region of the U. S. state of Oregon. As of the 2010 census, the population was 7,895, the county is named for the many lakes found within its boundaries, including Lake Abert, Summer Lake, Hart Lake, and Goose Lake. Lake County is in the desert region known as the Oregon Outback. The county is divided between the communities around Lakeview and Paisley to the south and the communities around Christmas Valley, Fort Rock. Its economy consists largely of agriculture and natural resource management and extraction and it is home to many large cattle ranches, hay farms, and timber holdings, as well as several frontier towns and early 20th-century homesteads. Although lumber was once an economic driver in Lake County, today only one mill remains. Pre-Clovis era coprolites found in the Paisley Caves in northern Lake County in 2007 have been dated to 14,300 calendar years before present. DNA extracted from human remains bears certain genetic markers found only in Native American populations. European traders, explorers and military expeditions arrived in the region during the part of the 19th century. Peter Skene Ogden led Hudsons Bay Company trappers to Goose Lake in 1827, in 1832, the Hudson Bay trappers under John Work were in the Goose Lake Valley and their journals mentioned Hunters Hot Springs. Works expedition visited Warner Lakes and Lake Abert and camped at Crooked Creek in the Chandler Park area, there they documented eating wild plums, which still grow in the area. They also reported being attacked by Indians, in 1838, Colonel J. J. Abert, a U. S. engineer, prepared a map that includes Warner Lakes and other natural features using information from the Hudson Bay trappers. Fremont led a party which named Christmas Lake, Lake County once hosted significant populations of Basque and Irish sheepherders. Disputes over grazing rights, exacerbated by the introduction of wheat farming, at least one band of masked rifle-armed cattlemen killed sheep in the northern part of the county and in Deschutes County during the early 20th century and they came to be known as sheepshooters. According to the Oregon History Project,2,300 sheep were killed in a night in April 1904 in Lake County. Lake County grew with the arrival of homesteaders, but the dry climate made for challenging development, Lake County was created from Jackson and Wasco Counties on October 24,1874, by the State Legislature. It then included the present Klamath County and all of the present Lake County except Warner Valley, in 1882, land was assigned to create Klamath County, and in 1885 the Warner area from Grant County was added. Linkville, now Klamath Falls, was the first county seat, M. Bullard gave 20 acres as the Lakeview townsite
34.
Baldwin Lake (San Bernardino County, California)
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Baldwin Lake is a natural, intermittent, alkali lake in the Big Bear Valley of the San Bernardino Mountains, in San Bernardino County, California. It is located east of Big Bear Lake reservoir and Big Bear City, the lake is at a surface elevation of 6,752 feet. Its deepest point it can be approximately 25 feet, at its widest, the lake is more than 1 mile across. It is in the watershed of the Santa Ana River. The terrain surrounding the lakebed supports montane chaparral and pinyon-juniper woodland habitats, Baldwin Lake is within the 156-acre Baldwin Lake Ecological Reserve. It is at the intersection of California State Route 18 and Holcomb Valley Road on the side of the lake. Hwy 18 wraps around the northeastern and northern shores of Baldwin Lake, the Baldwin Lake linanthus is a rare plant at lakes pebble plain and adjacent meadows, that is endemic to the locale and an endangered species. Benjamin Davis Wilson encountered the lake in 1845, while tracking horse thieves in the San Bernardino Mountains, when Wilson saw that the region was populated by many grizzly bears, he divided his 22 men into hunting partners. The men slaughtered 11 bears for the fur pelts, while returning to Jurupa, they slaughtered another 11 bears for the fur. Wilson named the region Big Bear Valley, and the lake he called Lake Big Bear, in 1884, the Bear Valley Land and Water Company began construction of a dam southwest of the lake. The companys stakeholders named the new reservoir Big Bear Lake and they also renamed the alkali lake to Baldwin Lake, after Elias Jackson Lucky Baldwin, who came to Big Bear and Holcomb Valley in 1876 when he purchased Gold Mountain Mine, later renamed Baldwin Mine. The Baldwin Lake CDP is within the Big Bear City CDP−Census-designated place for demographic statistics, Baldwin Lake — pond at Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden, Baldwins former estate. List of lakes in California San Bernardino Mountains-related topics Baldwin Lake Fire Department US Forest Service. gov, Guide to Big Bear Valley Hiking Trails — trail descriptions and maps
35.
San Bernardino County, California
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San Bernardino County, officially the County of San Bernardino, is a county located in the southern portion of the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,035,210, making it the fifth-most populous county in California, the county seat is San Bernardino. With an area of 20,105 square miles, San Bernardino County is the largest county in the United States by area, although some of Alaskas boroughs and census areas are larger. It is larger than each of the nine smallest states, larger than the four smallest states combined, Spanish Missionaries from Mission San Gabriel Arcángel established a church at the village of Politania in 1810. Father Francisco Dumetz named the church San Bernardino on May 20,1810, the Franciscans also gave the name San Bernardino to the snowcapped peak in Southern California, in honor of the saint and it is from him that the county derives its name. In 1819, they established the San Bernardino de Sena Estancia, following Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, Mexican citizens were granted land grants to establish ranchos in the area of the county. Rancho Jurupa in 1838, Rancho Cucamonga and El Rincon in 1839, Rancho Santa Ana del Chino in 1841, Rancho San Bernardino in 1842 and Rancho Muscupiabe in 1844. Agua Mansa was the first town in what became San Bernardino County, some of the southern parts of the countys territory were given to Riverside County in 1893. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 20,105 square miles. It is the largest county by area in California and the largest in the United States and it is slightly larger than the states of New Jersey, Connecticut, Delaware and Rhode Island combined. It borders both Nevada and Arizona, the bulk of the population, roughly two million, live in the roughly 480 square miles south of the San Bernardino Mountains adjacent to Riverside and in the San Bernardino Valley. Over 300,000 others live just north of the San Bernardino Mountains, agglomerating around Victorville covering roughly 280 square miles in Victor Valley, roughly another 100,000 people live scattered across the rest of the sprawling county. The Mojave National Preserve covers some of the desert, especially between Interstate 15 and Interstate 40. The desert portion also includes the cities of Needles next to the Colorado River and Barstow at the junction in Interstate 15, trona is at the northwestern part of the county west of Death Valley. This national park, mostly within Inyo County, also has a portion of land within the San Bernardino County. The largest metropolitan area in the Mojave Desert part of the county is Victor Valley, with the localities of Adelanto, Apple Valley, Hesperia. Further south, a portion of Joshua Tree National Park overlaps the county near Twentynine Palms, additional places near and west of Twentynine palms include Yucca Valley, Joshua Tree, and Morongo Valley. The mountains are home to the San Bernardino National Forest, and include the communities of Crestline, Lake Arrowhead, Running Springs, Big Bear City, Forest Falls, the San Bernardino Valley is at the eastern end of the San Gabriel Valley
36.
Mono Lake
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Mono Lake is a large, shallow saline soda lake in Mono County, California, formed at least 760,000 years ago as a terminal lake in an endorheic basin. The lack of an outlet causes high levels of salts to accumulate in the lake and these salts also make the lake water alkaline. The human history of Mono Lake is associated with its productive ecosystem, the native Kutzadikaa people derived nutrition from the pupae of the alkali flies that live in the lake. When the city of Los Angeles diverted water from the lake, it lowered the lake level, the Mono Lake Committee formed in response and won a legal battle that forced Los Angeles to partially restore the lake level. Mono Lake occupies part of the Mono Basin, a basin that has no outlet to the ocean. Dissolved salts in the runoff thus remain in the lake and raise the waters pH levels, the tributaries of Mono Lake include Lee Vining Creek, Rush Creek and Mill Creek which flows through Lundy Canyon. The basin was formed by forces over the last five million years, basin and range crustal stretching and associated volcanism. Five million years ago, the Sierra Nevada was a set of rolling hills and Mono Basin. From 4.5 to 2.6 million years ago, large volumes of basalt were extruded around what is now Cowtrack Mountain, eventually covering 300 square miles, later volcanism in the area occurred 3.8 million to 250,000 years ago. This activity was northwest of Mono Basin and included the formation of Aurora Crater, Beauty Peak, Cedar Hill, Mono Lake is believed to have formed at least 760,000 years ago, dating back to the Long Valley eruption. At its height during the most recent ice age, the lake would have been about 900 feet deep, prominent old shore lines, called strandlines by geologists, can be seen west of the Lake. Currently, Mono Lake is in an active area at the north end of the Mono–Inyo Craters volcanic chain and is close to Long Valley Caldera. Volcanic activity continues in the Mono Lake vicinity, the most recent eruption occurred 350 years ago, panum Crater is an excellent example of a combined rhyolite dome and cinder cone. The limnology of the shows it contains approximately 280 million tons of dissolved salts. Before 1941, average salinity was approximately 50 grams per liter, in January 1982, when the lake reached its lowest level of 6,372 feet, the salinity had nearly doubled to 99 g/l. In 2002, it was measured at 78 g/l and is expected to stabilize at an average 69 g/l as the lake replenishes over the next 20 years, an unintended consequence of ending the water diversions was the onset of a period of meromixis in Mono Lake. In meromictic lakes, the waters do not undergo this mixing, the deeper layers are more saline than the water near the surface. As a result, becoming meromictic greatly changes a lakes ecology, Mono Lake has experienced meromictic periods in the past, this most recent episode of meromixis, brought on by the end of the water diversions, commenced in 1994 and had ended by 2004
37.
Owens Valley
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The mountain peaks on either side reach above 14,000 feet in elevation, while the floor of the Owens Valley is at 4,000 feet, making the valley one of the deepest in the United States. The Sierra Nevada casts the valley in a shadow, which makes Owens Valley the Land of Little Rain. The bed of Owens Lake, now a predominantly dry endorheic alkali flat and these episodes inspired aspects of the film Chinatown. Towns in the Owens Valley include Bishop, Lone Pine, Independence, the major road in the valley is U. S. Route 395. Owens Valley is a graben—a downdropped block of land between two vertical faults, Owens Valley is the westernmost graben in the Basin and Range Province. It is also part of a trough which extends from Oregon to Death Valley called the Walker Lane, the western flank of much of the valley has large moraines coming off the Sierra Nevada. These unsorted piles of rock, boulders, and dust were pushed to where they are by glaciers during the last ice age, an excellent example of a moraine is on State Route 168 as it climbs into Buttermilk Country. This graben was formed by a series of earthquakes, such as the 1872 Lone Pine earthquake. The topmost part of this escarpment is exposed at Alabama Hills, the Owens Valley is also part of the Long Valley Caldera, a super-volcano that last erupted 260,000 years ago. It is filled with many mini-volcanoes, which look like hills, see also, Inyo and Mono Craters. Smaller versions of the Devils Postpile, can be found, for example, the valley contains plants adapted to alkali flat habitat. One of these, the Owens Valley checkerbloom, is endemic to Owens Valley, the valley was inhabited in late prehistoric times by the Timbisha in the extreme south end around Owens Lake and by the Mono tribe in the central and northern portions of the valley. The Timbisha speak the Timbisha language, classified in the Numic branch of Uto-Aztecan language family, the closest related languages are Shoshoni and Comanche. The Eastern Mono speak a dialect of the Mono language which is also Numic, the Timbisha presently live in Death Valley at Furnace Creek although most families also have summer homes in the Lone Pine colony. The Eastern Mono live in colonies from Lone Pine to Bishop. Trade between Native Americans of the Owens Valley between coastal tribes such as the Chumash has been indicated by the archaeological record, on May 1,1834, Joseph R. Walker entered Owens Valley at the mouth of Walker Pass. He and his group of 52 men traveled up the valley on their way back to the Humboldt Sink, fremont named the Owens valley, river and lake for Richard Owens, one of his guides. Camp Independence was established on Oak Creek nearby modern Independence, California, on July 4,1862, from 1942 to 1945 during World War II, the first Japanese American Internment camp operated in the valley at Manzanar near Independence, California
38.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
39.
Redberry Lake (Saskatchewan)
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Redberry Lake is a lake near Hafford, Saskatchewan, Canada. It is a medium sized saline lake within an area characterized by mostly freshwater aquatic environments, the lake makes up the core protected area of the Redberry Lake Biosphere Reserve, and is a federal bird sanctuary of the same name. A small regional park is situated at the north west corner of the lake, the countryside surrounding Redberry Lake is typical of the aspen parkland biome of which it is a part. The regional park offers camping, golfing, swimming, hiking, boating, although there are no sport fish in the lake itself, the park has installed a small earthen dam on a creek which flows into the lake, creating a freshwater trout pond. Redberry Lake Regional Park Website Redberry Lake Biosphere Reserve Roadmap showing location of Redberry Lake Redberry Lake Federal Migratory Bird Sanctuary
40.
Summer Lake (Oregon)
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Summer Lake is a large, shallow, alkali lake in Lake County, Oregon, United States located 5 miles south of the small, unincorporated community of Summer Lake, Oregon. At high water it is about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide, the lake was named by explorer John C. Fremont on his expedition into Central Oregon in 1843, the arid lands around Summer Lake were once lush. During the Pleistocene Epoch, vast areas of this region of south central Oregon were covered by lakes and wetlands. As the last ice age was ending, rain and runoff from melting snow filled the lowlands throughout this region of the Great Basin, creating an immense, the lake covered 461 square miles at depths of up to 375 feet. Lake Chewaucan covered the Summer Lake basin and drainage system much of the late Pleistocene, the last high water period is thought to have occurred about 13,000 years ago. There is no evidence of human use of Lake Chewaucan during this time. The earliest evidence for human occupation of the basin comes from the Paisley Caves excavated by Luther Cressman in the late 1930s. Cressman found some evidence that humans could have begun occupation of the Summer Lake area around 11,000 years ago. Lake Chewaucan began to dry up at the close of the Pleistocene, as it shrank, salts and alkali were concentrated in its remaining waters. The exposed lake bottom sediments were blown by the westerly winds to form the sand dunes that still lie on the east side of Summer Lake. Today, Summer Lake and Abert Lake are separated by 20 miles and are the remnants of Lake Chewaucan. At high water, Summer Lake is about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide, however, water levels fluctuate dramatically, the main source of fresh water is the small spring-fed Ana River, which is used for irrigation. Summer Lake was spotted and named by Captain John C, frémont during his 1843 mapping expedition through central Oregon. Fremont and his Army topographical team were mapping the Oregon Territory from The Dalles on Columbia River to Sutters Fort in Sacramento, on 16 December 1843, the expedition struggled down a steep cliff from a snow-covered plateau to reach a large lake in the valley below. Fremont named the snow-covered rim Winter Ridge and the temperate waters Summer Lake and this makes Summer Lake a favorite bird watching and hunting area. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife maintains the Summer Lake Wildlife Area on the side of the lake. The refuge consists of a large wetland marsh fed by the Ana River with associated high desert uplands with an 8. 3-mile tour route open to the public most of the year
41.
Lake Magadi
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Lake Magadi is the southernmost lake in the Kenyan Rift Valley, lying in a catchment of faulted volcanic rocks, north of Tanzanias Lake Natron. During the dry season, it is 80% covered by soda and is known for its wading birds. Lake Magadi is a saline, alkaline lake, approximately 100 square kilometers in size, the lake is an example of a saline pan. The lake water, which is a sodium carbonate brine. In places, the salt is up to 40 m thick, the lake is recharged mainly by saline hot springs that discharge into alkaline lagoons around the lake margins, there being little surface runoff in this arid region. Most hot springs lie along the northwestern and southern shorelines of the lake, during the rainy season, a thin layer of brine covers much of the saline pan, but this evaporates rapidly leaving a vast expanse of white salt that cracks to produce large polygons. Lake Magadi was not always so saline, evidence also exists for several older Pleistocene precursor lakes that were much larger than present Lake Magadi. At times, Lake Magadi and Lake Natron were united as a larger lake. Lake Magadi is also known for its extensive deposits of siliceous chert. There are many varieties including bedded cherts that formed in the lake, most famous is Magadi-type chert, which formed from a sodium silicate mineral precursor magadiite that was discovered at Lake Magadi during the 2016s. Magadi township lies on the lakes east shore, and is home to the Magadi Soda factory and this factory produces soda ash, which has a range of industrial uses. A causeway that crosses the lake access to the area west of the lake. Recently accommodation for tourists is provided in air conditioned canvas tents, ngorongoro Conservation Area also has a Lake Magadi. Report of the Geological Survey of Kenya,42,81 pp. Behr, magadiite and Magadi chert, a critical analysis of the silica sediments in the Lake Magadi Basin, Kenya. SEPM Special Publication 73, p. 257-273, chemistry and origin of the brines from Lake Magadi, Kenya. Mineralogical Society of America Special Paper, No, Lake Magadi, Kenya, and its Pleistocene precursors. In Nissenbaum, A. Hypersaline brines and evaporitic environments, jones, B. F. Eugster, H. P. and Rettig, S. L. Hydrochemistry of the Lake Magadi basin, Kenya, geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v.41, p. 53-72
42.
Lake Turkana
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Lake Turkana, formerly known as Lake Rudolf, is a lake in the Kenyan Rift Valley, in northern Kenya, with its far northy end crossing into Ethiopia. It is the worlds largest permanent desert lake and the worlds largest alkaline lake, by volume it is the worlds fourth-largest salt lake after the Caspian Sea, Issyk-Kul, and Lake Van, and among all lakes it ranks 24th. The water is potable, but not palatable and it supports a rich lacustrine wildlife. The climate is hot and very dry, the rocks of the surrounding area are predominantly volcanic. Central Island is a volcano, emitting vapour. Outcrops and rocky shores are found on the east and south shores of the lake, while dunes, spits and flats are on the west and north, on-shore and off-shore winds can be extremely strong, as the lake warms and cools more slowly than the land. Three rivers flow into the lake, but lacking outflow, its water loss is by evaporation. Lake volume and dimensions are variable, for example, its level fell by 10 metres between 1975 and 1993. Due to temperature, aridity and geographic inaccessibility, the lake retains its wild character, Nile crocodiles are found in great abundance on the flats. The rocky shores are home to scorpions and carpet vipers, Lake Turkana National Parks are now listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sibiloi National Park lies on the eastern shore, while Central Island National Park. Both are known for their Nile crocodiles, an abundance of hominid fossils have been discovered in the area surrounding Lake Turkana. The lake was named Lake Rudolf by Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék and his second-in-command Lieutenant Ludwig Ritter Von Höhnel, a Hungarian and they were the first Europeans to have recorded visiting the lake after a long safari across East Africa. Natives who live around Lake Turkana include the Turkana, Rendille, Gabbra, Daasanach, Hamar Koke, Karo, Nyagatom, Mursi, Surma, for the location of many of these peoples, refer to the dialect map in the article. J. W. Gregory reported in The Geographical Journal of 1894 that it was called Basso Narok, likewise, nearby Lake Chew Bahir is Basso Naibor in Samburu, meaning White Lake. The Samburu are among the dominant tribes in the lake Turkana region when the explorers came, what the native form of this phrase was, what it might mean, and in which language is not clear. The lake kept its European name during the period of British East Africa. After the independence of Kenya, the president, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, renamed it in 1975 after the Turkana, at some unknown time, the lake acquired an alternate name as the Jade Sea from its turquoise colour seen approaching from a distance
