1.
Medical marijuana
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Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana is cannabis and cannabinoids that are prescribed by doctors for their patients. The use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously tested due to production restrictions, there is a limited amount of evidence that suggests cannabis can reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and reduce chronic pain and muscle spasms. Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in people. The Cannabis plant has a history of use dating back thousands of years across many cultures. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that while cannabinoids may have potential as therapy for a number of medical conditions and they, along with the American Medical Association and the Minnesota Medical Association, call for moving cannabis out of DEA Schedule I to facilitate this research. Synthetic cannabinoids are available as prescription drugs in some countries, examples include, dronabinol, australia is currently in the process of passing a law which would allow the use of marijuana for medical and scientific purposes. Many different cannabis strains are called medical cannabis. Since many varieties of the plant and plant derivatives all share the same name. A Cannabis plant includes more than 400 different chemicals, of which about 70 are cannabinoids, in comparison, typical government-approved medications contain only 1 or 2 chemicals. The number of chemicals in cannabis is one reason why treatment with cannabis is difficult to classify. A2014 review stated that the variations in ratio of CBD-to-THC in botanical and pharmaceutical preparations determines the therapeutic vs psychoactive effects of cannabis products, Medical cannabis has several potential beneficial effects. Evidence is moderate that it helps in chronic pain and muscle spasms, low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy, improving appetite in HIV/AIDS, improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome. When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also recommended for anorexia, arthritis, migraine. The FDA finds that cannabis does not meet the criteria for accepted medical use due to lack of evidence regarding safety and it is recommended that cannabis use be stopped in pregnancy. Medical cannabis is somewhat effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and may be an option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment. Long-term cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting, a known as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome
2.
Cannabis
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Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed, the genus is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Cannabis has long used for hemp fibre, for hemp oils, for medicinal purposes. Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber, to satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention, some cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol, the principal psychoactive constituent. Many plants have been bred to produce a maximum of THC. Various compounds, including hashish and hash oil, are extracted from the plant, globally, in 2013,60,400 kilograms of cannabis were produced legally. In 2014 there were an estimated 182.5 million cannabis users and this percentage has not changed significantly between 1998 and 2014. Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb, the leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of thirteen leaflets per leaf, depending on variety. At the top of a plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in a leaf arrangement. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip, however, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration and this venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, the plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term is used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with male and pistillate female flowers occurring on separate plants. It is not unusual, however, for plants to bear both male and female flowers. Male flowers are borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes
3.
Cannabis (drug)
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Cannabis, also known as marijuana among several other names, is a preparation of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug or medicine. The main psychoactive part of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol, one of 483 known compounds in the plant, Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporization, within food, or as an extract. Cannabis is often used for its mental and physical effects, such as a high or stoned feeling, a change in perception, euphoria. Short term side effects may include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, red eyes, long term side effects may include addiction, decreased mental ability in those who started as teenagers, and behavioral problems in children whose mothers used cannabis during pregnancy. Onset of effects is within minutes when smoked and about 30 to 60 minutes when cooked and they last for between two and six hours. Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal drug and it may also be used for religious or spiritual purposes. In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis, in 2015, 43% of Americans had used cannabis, which increased to 51% in 2016. About 12% have used it in the past year, and 7. 3% have used it in the past month and this makes it the most commonly used illegal drug both in the world and the United States. The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC, since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions. The possession, use, and sale of cannabis is illegal in most countries of the world, Medical cannabis refers to the physician-recommended use of cannabis, which is taking place in Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U. S. states. Cannabis use started to become popular in the US in the 1970s, support for legalization has increased in the United States and several US states have legalized recreational or medical use. Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms, however, the use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously scientifically tested, often due to production restrictions and other federal regulations. There is limited evidence suggesting cannabis can be used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS and its use for other medical applications is insufficient for conclusions about safety or efficacy. Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in people. Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, at higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to states such as depersonalization and derealization
4.
Hemp
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Hemp or industrial hemp, typically found in the northern hemisphere, is a variety of the Cannabis sativa plant species that is grown specifically for the industrial uses of its derived products. It is one of the fastest growing plants and was one of the first plants to be spun into usable fiber 10,000 years ago. It can be refined into a variety of items including paper, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, paint, insulation, biofuel, food. Hemp has lower concentrations of THC and higher concentrations of cannabidiol, the legality of industrial hemp varies widely between countries. Some governments regulate the concentration of THC and permit only hemp that is bred with an especially low THC content, then it appears to have been borrowed into Latin, and separately into Slavic and from there into Baltic, Finnish, and Germanic languages. Following Grimms law, the k would have changed to h with the first Germanic sound shift, after which it may have been adapted into the Old English form, hænep. Another possible source of origin is Assyrian qunnabu, which was the name for a source of oil, fiber, cognates of hemp in other Germanic languages, include Dutch hennep, Danish and Norwegian, hamp, German, hanf, and Swedish, hampa. Hemp is used to make a variety of commercial and industrial products including rope, clothes, food, paper, textiles, plastics, insulation, the inner two fibers of the plant are more woody and typically have industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding and litter. When oxidized, hemp oil from the seeds becomes solid and can be used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as an agent, for cooking. Hemp seeds have been used in bird feed mix as well, a survey in 2003 showed that more than 95% of hemp seed sold in the European Union was used in animal and bird feed. Hemp seeds can be raw, ground into a meal, sprouted. The leaves of the plant can be consumed raw in salads. Hemp can also be made into a liquid and used for baking or for such as hemp milk, hemp juice. Hempseed oil is cold-pressed from the seed and is high in unsaturated fatty acids. In 2011, the U. S. imported $11.5 million worth of products, mostly driven by growth in demand for hemp seed. In the U. S. imported hemp can be used legally in food products,100 grams of hulled hemp seeds supply 586 calories. They are 5% water, 5% carbohydrates, 49% total fat, Hemp seeds are notable in providing 64% of the Daily Value of protein per 100 gram serving. Hempseed amino acid profile is comparable to other sources of such as meat, milk, eggs
5.
Autoflowering cannabis
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Many autoflowers will be ready to harvest in less than 10 weeks from seed. Dwarf varieties can have short stature while still giving decent yield, conversely super autos can take over 100 days to mature and can reach over 6 feet tall. The origins of autoflowering cannabis are still debatable, the strain Lowryder by breeder The Joint Doctor was the original large scale marketed autoflower. Lowryder contains Cannabis ruderalis genetics from a Mexican strain that was referred to as Mexican Rudy and is believed to be created from a cross between a Mexican sativa and a Russian ruderalis. Another theory is that the early came from the first oilseed hemp variety called Finola. These early hybrids with large amounts of C. ruderalis genes were lacking some of the qualities of high grade cannabis strains available. Further hybrids from these ruderalis dominant strains were created using some of the more popular, since the first mass market autoflower, Lowryder, many improvements have been made by breeders. The genetics behind these new autoflowering strains that breeders are producing are generally not shared or if so only in very vague terms, online vendors offer, as of January 2012, nearly 200 autoflowering strains. Most of these strains can be identified by the presence of ryder or automatic in their names, the newly produced strains of autoflowering cannabis have proven that they can produce quality medicine comparable with classical short-day strains. Breeders have reported THC content in the low 20% in some newer varieties while many also have high CBD content. The number one reason for these feelings are the understandable disappointment many had with the results of the first Lowryder, also commonly argued is that when growing indoors, growers already have the ability to initiate flowering with photoperiod/short-day plants at will by changing the lighting. Hormones such as BAP and paclobutrazol can also be used to completely arrest vertical growth in photoperiod plants, there are however concerns about the carcinogenicity of some of these growth regulators. When growing outdoors, initiation of flowering in plants is more difficult to control than with autoflowers. Another concern is the yield of autoflowering plants which with some dwarf strains can be a half ounce per plant. The last concern with autoflowering cannabis is the chance of buying genetics that do not actually automatically flower regardless of photoperiod, most of the autoflowering seeds available in the market are feminised. Only a few brands do regular autoflowering seeds, SuperAutos were created by breeder Stitch in order to satisfy those growers looking for larger sativa plants with a more photoperiod/short-day feel to them. A SuperAuto starts flowering automatically only after a much longer period between 28/32 days most of the time. Just like other autoflowers changing the lighting schedule does not affect the cycle of these strains
6.
Cannabis indica
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Cannabis indica, formally known as Cannabis sativa forma indica, is an annual plant in the Cannabaceae family. A putative species of the genus Cannabis, in 1785, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica. Lamarck based his description of the named species on plant specimens collected in India. Richard Evans Schultes described C. indica as relatively short, conical, loran C. Anderson described C. indica plants as having short, broad leaflets whereas those of C. sativa were characterized as relatively long and narrow. Cannabis indica plants conforming to Schultess and Andersons descriptions may have originated from the Hindu Kush mountain range, because of the often harsh and variable climate of those parts, C. indica is well-suited for cultivation in temperate climates. Broad-leafed Cannabis indica plants in India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan are traditionally cultivated for the production of charas, differences in the terpenoid content of the essential oil may account for some of these differences in effect. Common indica strains for recreational or medicinal use include Kush and Northern Lights, a recent genetic analysis included both the narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug biotypes under C. indica, as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp landraces and wild Himalayan populations. There are several key differences between Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa and these include height and stature, internodal length, leaf size and structure, buds size and density, flowering time, odour, smoke and effects. Indica plants tend to grow shorter and bushier than the sativa plants, Indica strains tend to have wide, short leaves with short wide blades, whereas sativa strains have long leaves with thin long blades. The buds of indica strains tend to be wide, dense and bulky, while sativa strains are likely to be long, on average, Cannabis sativa has higher levels of THC compared to CBD, whereas Cannabis indica has lower levels of THC to CBD. However, huge variability exists within either species, a 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005. In the recent era of cannabis breeding higher-ratio CBD strains are being developed from Indica origins that may test out as 1,1 or even as high as a 22,1. The medical interests in Cannabis are taking this further and we will see increasing cultivation trends for more developed with CBD-dominant ratios. In California, cities such as Coachella and Desert Hot Springs are re-zoning areas for cannabis cultivation, low anxiety and hallucinogenic properties make these high-CBD strains very desirable for chronic treatment programs. There are three types of Cannabis, one with high levels of THC, one which is more fibrous and has higher levels of CBD. Cannabis strains with CBD, THC ratios above 5,2 are likely to be more relaxing and this may be due to CBDs antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptors, compared to THCs partial agonist effect. CBD is also a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, which may contribute to an anxiolytic-content effect. The effects of sativa are well known for its cerebral high, users can expect a more vivid and uplifting high, while indica is well known for its sedative effects which some prefer for night time use
7.
Cannabis ruderalis
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Cannabis ruderalis is a species of Cannabis originating in central Russia. It is less common than the species of Cannabis. The term ruderalis is derived from the Latin rūdera, which is the form of rūdus. A ruderal species refers to any plant that is the first to land after a disturbance removing competition. Cannabis ruderalis rarely grows over two feet in height, and matures in approximately seven weeks, the plants have a thin, slightly fibrous stem with little branching. Foliage is open with large leaves, Cannabis ruderalis will produce flowers based on its age, rather than light cycle, unlike flowering in C. sativa and C. indica varieties. This kind of flowering is also known as autoflowering and it has less THC in its resin compared to other Cannabis species. However, it is high in cannabidiol. Cannabis ruderalis was first scientifically identified in 1942 in southern Siberia, the Russian botanist, Janischewski, was studying wild Cannabis in the Volga River system and realized he had come upon a third species. C. ruderalis is a variety grown in the northern Himalayas and southern states of the former Soviet Union, characterized by a more sparse. Similar C. ruderalis populations can be found in most of the areas where hemp cultivation was once prevalent, the most notable region in North America is the midwestern United States, though populations occur sporadically throughout the United States and Canada. Large wild C. ruderalis populations are found in central and eastern Europe, most of them in Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia. Without human selection, these plants have lost many of the traits they were selected for. Seeds of C. ruderalis were brought to Amsterdam in the early 1980s in order to enhance the program of the Seed Bank. Cannabis ruderalis strains are high in the cannabіnoid cannabidiol, so they are grown by some medical marijuana users, however, C. ruderalis early, plant-age triggered autoflowering characteristic as well as its reputed resistance to insect and disease pressures makes it attractive to plant breeders. C. indica strains are frequently cross-bred with C. ruderalis to produce autoflowering plants with high THC content, improved hardiness, one strain, identified in 1960, is Cannabis x intersita Sojak which is a cross between C. sativa and C. ruderalis. Attempts to produce a Cannabis strain with a growing season are another application of cultivating C. ruderalis. C. ruderalis when crossed with sativa and indica strains produces a plant which flowers automatically and is mature in 10 weeks
8.
Cannabis sativa
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Cannabis sativa is an annual herbaceous plant in the Cannabis genus, a species of the Cannabaceae family. People have cultivated Cannabis sativa throughout recorded history as a source of fibre, seed oil, food, recreation, religious and spiritual moods. Each part of the plant is harvested differently, depending on the purpose of its use, the species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Its seeds are used to make hempseed oil which can be used for cooking, lamps. They can also be used as feed, as they provide a moderate source of nutrients for most birds. The flowers contain psychoactive chemical compounds known as cannabinoids that are consumed for recreational, medicinal and spiritual purposes, when so used, preparations of flowers and leaves and preparations derived from resinous extract are consumed by smoking, vaporising and oral ingestion. Historically, tinctures, teas and ointments have also been common preparations, in traditional medicine of India in particular C. sativa has been used as hallucinogenic, hypnotic, sedative, analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. The flowers of the plant are arranged in racemes and can produce hundreds of seeds. Male plants shed their pollen and die several weeks prior to seed ripening on the female plants, although genetic factors dispose a plant to become male or female, environmental factors including the diurnal light cycle can alter sexual expression. Naturally occurring monoecious plants, with male and female parts, are either sterile or fertile but artificially induced hermaphrodites can have fully functional reproductive organs. Feminized seed sold by commercial seed suppliers are derived from artificially hermaphrodytic females that lack the male gene. In the case of production related to use of Cannabis. A Cannabis plant in the growth phase of its life requires more than 12–13 hours of light per day to stay vegetative. Flowering usually occurs when darkness equals at least 12 hours per day, the flowering cycle can last anywhere between nine and fifteen weeks, depending on the strain and environmental conditions. In soil, the optimum pH for the plant is 6.3 to 6.8. In hydroponic growing, the nutrient solution is best at 5.2 to 5.8, making Cannabis well-suited to hydroponics because this pH range is hostile to most bacteria and fungi. Broadly, there are three main groups of cannabis that are cultivated today, Cultivars primarily cultivated for their fibre, characterised by long stems. Cultivars grown for seed which can be eaten raw or from which hemp oil is extracted
9.
Cannabis consumption
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Among the variety of ways cannabis is consumed, forms of smoking or oral consumption are most common. Each method leads to subtly different psychoactive effects due to the THC and other chemicals being activated, cannabis can be smoked with implements such as bongs, hookahs, and pipes. Makeshift pipes or commercial pipes may be used, or cigarette-like joint or cigar-like blunt may be smoked, local methods have differed by the preparation of the cannabis plant before use, the parts of the cannabis plant that are used, and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation. In early times, as in parts of Africa today, a pile of cannabis was simply laid on a fire. A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 157–210 °C, which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a gas without burning any plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C, a MAPS-NORML study using a Volcano vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. An older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found some toxins, a pocket-sized form of vaporizer is available as of September 2013—one particular model uses a rechargeable battery, is constructed from wood, and features a removable cover. Typically, portable vaporizers can only be used for liquids, feature pre-soaked wicks, as an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. However, herbal cannabis must be heated or dehydrated to cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid. All of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is consumed orally and it has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC by the liver. Titration to the effect by ingestion is more difficult than through inhalation. Cannabis material can be leached in high-proof spirits to create a “Green Dragon” and this process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves. Cannabis can also be consumed as a cannabis tea, although THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble, enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are considered to be an inefficient use of the herb. However, bhang, a decoction of cannabis and spices in milk, averts the issue, to kill potentially very dangerous aspergillus, and other microorganisms, researchers Levitz and Diamond suggested baking marijuana in home ovens at 150 °C for five minutes before smoking. Oven treatment killed conidia of A. fumigatus, A. flavus, however, neither this, nor other suggested sterilization methods, degrade microbial antigens or decompose the microbial toxins. Many cannabinoids evaporate below 150 °C, in particular, the more volatile aromatic oils and terpenes, which give cannabis its distinctive flavors and odors
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Cannabis cultivation
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This article presents common techniques and facts regarding the cultivation of the flowering plant Cannabis, primarily for the production and consumption of cannabis flowers. Cultivation techniques for other purposes differ, Cannabis belongs to the genus Cannabis in the family Cannabaceae and includes three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. It is typically an annual plant. C. sativa and C. indica generally grow tall and their females start the production of rich in tetrahydrocannabinol as the season changes from summer to autumn. However, commercial cross-bred hybrids containing both ruderalis, indica and/or sativa genes exist, Cannabis needs certain conditions to flourish. e. Nutrients are often provided to the soil via fertilizers but such practice requires caution and this value can be adjusted – see soil pH. Commercial fertilizers tend to make the more acidic. The optimal day temperature range for cannabis is 24 to 30 °C, temperatures above 31 °C and below 15.5 °C seem to decrease THC potency and slow growth. At 13 °C the plant undergoes a mild shock, though some strains withstand frost temporarily, light can be natural or artificial. There is a debate over the necessity of a dark period for vegetative growth. Typically, flowering is induced by providing at least 12 hours per day of complete darkness, some Indica varieties require as little as 8 hours of dark to begin flowering, whereas some Sativa varieties require up to 13 hours. Watering frequency and amount is determined by many factors, including temperature and light, the age, size and stage of growth of the plant, a conspicuous sign of water problems is the wilting of leaves. Giving too much water can kill young cannabis plants if the growing medium gets oversaturated, nutrients are taken up from the soil by roots. Nutrient soil amendments are added when the nutrients are depleted. Fertilizers can be chemical or organic, liquid or powder, commercial fertilizers indicate the levels of NPK. During the vegetative stage, cannabis needs more N than P and K, while during the flowering stage, the presence of secondary nutrients is recommended. Micro nutrients rarely manifest as deficiencies, because Cannabis nutrient needs vary widely depending on the variety, they are usually determined by trial and error and fertilizers are applied sparingly to avoid burning the plant. Germination is the process in which the seeds sprout and the root emerges, in Cannabis it takes from 12 hours to 8 days
11.
Marijuana (word)
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Marijuana or marihuana, etc. is a name for the cannabis plant and more specifically a drug preparation from it. Marijuana as a term varies in usage, definition and legal application around the world, some jurisdictions recognize marijuana as a distinctive strain of cannabis, the other being hemp. The form marihuana is first attested in Mexican Spanish, it spread to other varieties of Spanish and to English, French. The term, originally spelled variously as marihuana, mariguana, etc. originated in Mexican Spanish, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, it may come from the Nahuatl mallihuan, meaning prisoner. Author Martin Booth notes that this etymology was popularized by Harry J. Anslinger in the 1930s, however, linguist Jason D. Haugen finds no semantic basis for a connection to mallihuan, suggesting that the phonetic similarity may be a case of accidental homophony. Cannabis is not known to have present in the Americas, before Spanish contact. Other suggestions trace the origins of the word to Chinese ma ren hua hemp seed flower. The Semitic root is found in the Spanish word mejorana and in English marjoram, which could be related to the word marihuana. Additionally, traditional association with the personal name María Juana is probably a folk etymology, the original Mexican Spanish used forms with the letter h. Forms using the letter j seem to be an innovation of English, though they appeared in French and in Spanish. The word entered English usage in the late 19th century, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known appearance of a form of the word in English is in Hubert Howe Bancrofts 1873 The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. Other early variants include mariguan, marihuma first recorded in 1905, marihuano in 1912, through the early 20th century, however, both the drug and the plant were more commonly known as cannabis or hemp. Marihuanas currency in American English increased dramatically in the 1930s, when it was preferred as an alternative name during the debates of the drugs use. It has been suggested that it was promoted by opponents of the drug, the word was codified into law and became part of common American English with the passing of the 1937 Marihuana tax act. For research and statistical data marijuana generally refers to the leaves and flowering tops. Many legal references prefer the term cannabis, for instance in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, cannabis The Mysterious Origins of the Word Marijuana, Alan Piper, Sino-Platonic Papers 153,2005
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Cannabis strains
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Cannabis strains are either pure or hybrid varieties of Cannabis, typically of C. sativa, C. indica and C. ruderalis. Varieties are developed to intensify specific characteristics of the plant, or to differentiate the strain for the purposes of marketing or to make it effective as a drug. Variety names are chosen by their growers, and often reflect properties of the plant such as taste, color, smell. Cannabis strains commonly refer to those varieties with recreational and medicinal use and these varieties have been cultivated to contain a high percentage of cannabinoids. Several varieties of Cannabis, known as hemp, have a very low cannabinoid content, clone-only variety – The grower may distribute genetically identical clones of the plant. A clone is the way to propagate a plant while retaining its exact genetic makeup. Nevertheless, the conditions under which the plant is grown will still greatly affect the final product, stable seed variety – Creating a genetically stable variety involves selectively choosing male and female cannabis plants and breeding them over the course of multiple generations. The final generations seeds reliably grow into plants that exhibit the desired characteristics, Unstable seed varieties – Unstable varieties are produced without numerous generations of breeding. Although they can be produced quickly, plants grown from seeds may have widely varying characteristics. Commercial seed retailers generally do not distribute unstable seed varieties, though some disreputable shops might, amateur and third-party growers may, whether knowingly or not, produce unstable derivatives from well known varieties and misleadingly call them by their true variety name. Wild varieties or landraces – Some varieties, such as Colombian and Thai, typically, these plants are used as bases for the production of more specialized varieties, such as G-13, or Hash. The two species of the Cannabis genus that are most commonly grown are Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa, a third species, Cannabis ruderalis is very short and produces only trace amounts of tetrahydrocannabinol, and thus is not commonly grown for industrial, recreational or medicinal use. However, because Cannabis ruderalis flowers independently of the photoperiod and according to age, pure sativas are relatively tall, with long internodes and branches, and large, narrow-bladed leaves. Pure indica varieties are shorter and bushier, have wider leaflets and they are often favored by indoor growers for their size. Sativas bloom later than indicas, often taking a month or two longer to mature, the subjective effects of sativas and indicas are said to differ, but the ratio of tetrahydrocannabinol to cannabidiol in most named drug varieties of both types is similar. Unlike most commercially developed strains, indica landraces exhibit plants with varying THC/CBD ratios, avidekel, a medical marijuana strain developed in Israel, has a very low content of THC but a high content of CBD, limiting its recreational value but maximizing medical effect. There has been a recent movement to characterize strains based on their reported subjective effects, for example, WoahStork has used machine learning algorithms to classify strains into 6 Distinct Activity groups. It is impossible for a hermaphrodite to create any male only plants, a hermaphrodite may create female only seeds and hermaphrodite seeds
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Synthetic cannabinoids
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Synthetic cannabinoids are a class of chemicals that are different from the cannabinoids found in cannabis but which also bind to cannabinoid receptors. They are often marketed as designer drugs or sold in products with claims that they give the effects of cannabis, when these chemicals are sprayed or otherwise soaked into a plant or other base material the blend is sometimes misleadingly referred to as synthetic marijuana. These synthetic marijuana products are sold for recreational drug use, when synthetic cannabinoid blends first went on sale in the early 2000s, it was thought that they achieved an effect through a mixture of natural herbs. They have been sold under brand names, online, in head shops. Studies have associated synthetic cannabinoid use with psychotic episodes days after use and these blends are often marketed as herbal incense or herbal smoking blends, and the products are usually consumed through smoking. Although synthetic cannabinoids may not produce results in drug tests for cannabis. The synthetic cannabinoids contained in these products have made illegal in many countries. Synthetic cannabinoids are used for drug use, however many were designed for research purposes. Studies are ongoing to examine their therapeutic potential, the drug is used in an attempt to get the effects of cannabis or similar effects. Part of the appeal of the drug is that it is marketed as being like natural cannabis, in comparison with cannabis, it is inexpensive and can be easy to get as a commercial product through convenience stores, tobacco shops, or head shops. A standard drug test will not identify a user of synthetic cannabinoids whereas that would happen with natural cannabis, Synthetic cannabinoids have been legal in the past, or at least, not illegal to sell or possess. There are many different chemicals which are called synthetic cannabinoids and many of them are regulated by different laws or not mentioned in laws, Synthetic cannabinoids frequently produce adverse effects which lead to hospitalization or referrals to poison control centers. Synthetic cannabinoids can be any of a number of different drugs, there is no way to describe general effects among all the different chemicals because they all have different effects. Many compounds have been banned in the U. S. and numerous countries, although loopholes remain. No official studies have been conducted on the effects of cannabinoids on humans. However, reports describing effects seen in patients seeking medical care after taking synthetic cannabinoids have been published, other symptoms included epileptic seizures, and acute psychosis. At least one death has been linked to overdose of synthetic cannabinoids and this may further explain the increased toxicity of synthetic cannabinoids compared to THC. Professor John W. Huffman, who first synthesised many of the used in synthetic cannabis mimics, is quoted as saying
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Medical cannabis
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Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana is cannabis and cannabinoids that are prescribed by doctors for their patients. The use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously tested due to production restrictions, there is a limited amount of evidence that suggests cannabis can reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and reduce chronic pain and muscle spasms. Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in people. The Cannabis plant has a history of use dating back thousands of years across many cultures. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that while cannabinoids may have potential as therapy for a number of medical conditions and they, along with the American Medical Association and the Minnesota Medical Association, call for moving cannabis out of DEA Schedule I to facilitate this research. Synthetic cannabinoids are available as prescription drugs in some countries, examples include, dronabinol, australia is currently in the process of passing a law which would allow the use of marijuana for medical and scientific purposes. Many different cannabis strains are called medical cannabis. Since many varieties of the plant and plant derivatives all share the same name. A Cannabis plant includes more than 400 different chemicals, of which about 70 are cannabinoids, in comparison, typical government-approved medications contain only 1 or 2 chemicals. The number of chemicals in cannabis is one reason why treatment with cannabis is difficult to classify. A2014 review stated that the variations in ratio of CBD-to-THC in botanical and pharmaceutical preparations determines the therapeutic vs psychoactive effects of cannabis products, Medical cannabis has several potential beneficial effects. Evidence is moderate that it helps in chronic pain and muscle spasms, low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy, improving appetite in HIV/AIDS, improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome. When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also recommended for anorexia, arthritis, migraine. The FDA finds that cannabis does not meet the criteria for accepted medical use due to lack of evidence regarding safety and it is recommended that cannabis use be stopped in pregnancy. Medical cannabis is somewhat effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and may be an option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment. Long-term cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting, a known as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome
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History of medical cannabis
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The history of medical cannabis can be traced thousands of years. Cannabis, called má 麻 or dàmá 大麻 in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago, the botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, The use of Cannabis in medicine was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was natural for them to also discover the medicinal properties of the plant. The oldest Chinese pharmacopeia, the Shennong Bencaojing 神農本草經, describes dama cannabis, the flowers when they burst are called 麻蕡 or 麻勃. The best time for gathering is the day of the seventh month. The seeds are gathered in the ninth month, the seeds which have entered the soil are injurious to man. The flowers, the fruit and the leaves are officinal, the leaves and the fruit are said to be poisonous, but not the flowers and the kernels of the seeds. The early Chinese surgeon Hua Tuo is credited with being the first recorded person to use cannabis as an anesthetic and he reduced the plant to powder and mixed it with wine for administration prior to conducting surgery. The Chinese term for anesthesia literally means cannabis intoxication, such a strong drug, however, suggests that the Chinese pharmacists had now obtained from far to the southwest not THC-bearing Cannabis sativa but Cannabis indica, so strong it knocks you out cold. The seeds of cannabis, reduced to powder and mixed with wine, were recommended in various other materia medica against several ailments. After copious consumption, according to the ancient Shennong bencaojing, one could see demons and walk like a madman, other medical writers warned that ghosts could be seen after ingesting a potion based on raw seeds blended with calamus and podophyllum. Cannabis is one of the 50 fundamental herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, FP Smith writes in Chinese Materia Medica, Vegetable Kingdom, Every part of the hemp plant is used in medicine. The flowers are recommended in the 120 different forms of disease, in menstrual disorders, the achenia, which are considered to be poisonous, stimulate the nervous system, and if used in excess, will produce hallucinations and staggering gait. They are prescribed in nervous disorders, especially marked by local anaesthesia. Are considered to be tonic, demulcent, alternative, laxative, emmenagogue, diuretic, anthelmintic and they are prescribed internally in fluxes, post-partum difficulties, aconite poisoning, vermillion poisoning, constipation, and obstinate vomiting. Externally they are used for eruptions, ulcers, favus, wounds, the oil is used for falling hair, sulfur poisoning, and dryness of the throat. The leaves are considered to be poisonous, and the expressed juice is used as an anthelmintic, in scorpion stings, to stop the hair from falling out. The stalk, or its bark, is considered to be diuretic, the juice of the root is
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Cannabis and religion
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Different religions have varying stances on the use of cannabis, historically and presently. In ancient history some religions used cannabis as an entheogenic, particularly in South Asia where the tradition continues on a limited basis. Other groups, such as some Protestant and Jewish factions, have supported the use of cannabis for medical purposes, in the Baháí Faith, use of alcohol and other drugs is prohibited, see Baháí laws, though use of tobacco is an individual decision. This is the worst of all intoxicants, and its prohibition is explicitly revealed and its use causeth the disintegration of thought and the complete torpor of the soul. How could anyone seek the fruit of the tree, and by partaking of it. How could one use this drug, and thus deprive himself of the blessings of the All-Merciful. Cannabis and some other plants are specifically prescribed in the Mahākāla Tantra for medicinal purposes. However, Tantra is a teaching of Hinduism and Buddhism not generally accepted by most other forms of these religions. Most bodies within Christianity have not taken any explict stance on the use of cannabis, prior to assuming his position as leader of the Catholic Church, Pope Francis had spoken against recreational cannabis. He stated in 2013 in Buenos Aires, A reduction in the spread, the Georgian Orthodox Church has resisted legalization of cannabis in that country. The Arkansas Baptist State Convention voted to discourage medical marijuana in 2016, other Protestant churches have endorsed the legality of medical marijuana, including the Presbyterian Church, United Methodist Church, United Church of Christ, and the Episcopal Church. During the Indian and Nepalese festival of Holi, people consume bhang which contains cannabis flowers, according to one description, when the amrita was produced from the churning of the ocean by the devas and the asuras, Shiva created cannabis from his own body to purify the elixir. Another account suggests that the cannabis plant sprang up when a drop of the elixir dropped on the ground, thus, cannabis is used by sages due to association with elixir and Shiva. Wise drinking of bhang, according to rites, is believed to cleanse sins, unite one with Shiva. It is also believed to have medicinal benefits, in contrast, foolish drinking of bhang without rites is considered a sin. Further in Nepal its seeds are used in making pickles bhang ko achar. The dried seeds are ground and then mixed with aalo and this is common in hilly area like Kathmandu, Pokhara of Nepal. The Quran does not directly forbid cannabis, however, cannabis is deemed to be khamr by many religious scholars, a hadith by the prophet Mohammed states, If much intoxicates, then even a little is haraam
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Chalice (pipe)
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A chalice, also known as a wisdom chalice or chillum chalice, is a type of cannabis smoking pipe used most often by members of the Jamaican Rastafari movement. It is a sort of water pipe with a hose, or drawtube, for inhaling, the water cools and filters the smoke, a screen embedded in the crater protects against drawing in burning particles to clog the interior. The word chalice is often used to refer to marijuana itself, the term lick the chalice refers to Rasta communing with Jah. A group of practitioners gather, a prayer is said, a bong-like chillum equipped with a water filtration chamber is sometimes referred to as a chalice, based on a quote from the Biblical book of Deuteronomy. Thanks and praises are offered to Jah before smoking the chillum
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Hanfparade
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The Hanfparade is a hemp legalization demonstration in Berlin. It has taken each year in August since 1997. The traditional course of the parade floats make a prelude through the German capital, in a demonstration, thousands give hemp and cannabis their attention. At the end of the demonstration a closing speech takes place, the parade offers a variety of hemp-related entertainment. The main stage offers mixes of speeches and live-music, national and international musicians entertain the visitors, which often includes high-ranking personalities from politics, culture, medicine and the legalization movement. In the speakers corner an open microphone waits for contributions, the demonstrations so far have always been peaceful, which may be because the police rarely pursue offenses against cannabis possession laws. The 20th anniversary of the Hanfparade took place on August 13,2016, the motto was Legalization is in the air. The next Hanfparade took place on Saturday August 7,2010 and it started at 1,00 p. m. with a speech between TV tower and railway station Alexanderplatz in Berlin under the slogan Cannabis is Culture. Hanfparade took place August 1,2009 in Berlin, the motto was For free choice. The demonstration started at Alexanderplatz and went to Brandenburger Tor, the 12th Hanfparade took place on August 2,2008 from TV Tower at Alexanderplatz to Leipziger Platz, next to Potsdamer Platz. The motto was Youth protection, Consumer protection, Legalize, the 11th Hanfparade took place on August 25,2007 in Berlin. The 10th Hanfparade took place on August 5,2006 in Berlin and it took place under the motto, Legalization now. Reorient your opinion instead of giving billions away, and led a march down Unter den Linden to the Brandenburger Tor from the Alexanderplatz across the Oranienburger. Intermediate demonstrations took place in front of Kunsthaus Tacheles and the British embassy, approximately 1500 participants took part in the parade. At the Brandenburger Gate there was a market with several hemp panels. The police managed to cut several thousand hemp plants down at the Brandenburger Gate, at the conclusion of the demonstration there was a six-hour closing speech at the Platz des 18. The Hanfparade took place on August 13,2005 in Berlin and it took place under the motto, We are the hemp. —a play on the slogan Wir sind das Volk. used by the East Germans before the opening of the inner German border. The demonstration started at 12,00 at the city hall Rotes Rathaus accompanied by five parade floats, the parade was again smaller than in the previous years with 1000 to 1200 participants
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Hemp jewelry
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Some types of hemp jewelry include bracelets, necklaces, anklets, rings, watches, masks, purses, and other adornments. The jewelry can also use of other materials, such as glass, wood, bones, rocks. In 1937, growing political antidrug sentiment brought the Marijuana Tax Act before Congress where it was determined that no Cannabis plant had permit for cultivation. Many farmers and lobbyists objected to the act exclaiming that it would prevent the cultivation of hemp which at the time was used for products in the American market. Despite the objections, Congress passed the Marijuana Tax Act and it was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 2,1937, the industrial hemp industry in America was then crippled for many years. Despite the act, American farmers were allowed to grow hemp for wartime needs in 1942 during the U. S. governments “Hemp for Victory” campaign, after the war hemp mills were shut down. Macramé is the ancient art form of knotting many different geometric patterns together without the use of hooks, needles and this knotting can be used to not only make jewelry, but decorative coverings and wall hangings as well. Materials used for this include natural fibers such as cotton, jute, sisal, linen, and hemp which all come from plants and herbs and synthetic cords such as yarn, rayon, rattail, and nylon. Finally, they are processed into strands in which the fibers lay parallel to each other, the terminology “macramé” dates back to an Arabic origin and translates to ‘fringe’. This skill originated in the 13th century when Arabian weavers would knot excess fabric at the edges of loomed fabric, sailors would describe the rope materials used by their circumference, however, now cord size is given in diameter length. They typically used cotton, hemp or steel cord to ornament the ships rigging, the round braids, hitching and Turk’s head macramé styles were often used as protective wrappings for rails, spars and rigging. Mats were made from hemp and cotton to create nonskid surfaces on deck, there are many types of macramé knots. Macramé art also includes lacings and crossings created when two or more segments are joined together. The square knot is considered the simplest knot and the half hitch and these knots are typically used when hemp making hemp jewelry. The half knot produces a spiral cord and the square knot produces a flat cord. Beads and other decorations are also weaved into the jewelry, Hemp is ideal for this jewelry because it is durable and keeps its shape well. In 1993, the United Kingdom lifted its ban on hemp, by 1995, hundreds of entrepreneurs in Canada, the UK, Germany, Austria, Australia and the United States started hemp companies. Then in 1996 the North American Industrial Hemp Council was founded by environmentalists, entrepreneurs and this proved a strong commercial interest in hemp
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Hemp milk
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Hemp milk, or hemp seed milk, is a plant milk made from hemp seeds that are soaked and ground in water, yielding a beany-nutty cream-flavored substance. There are various options available for sale including organic, non-GMO, and conventional, unsweetened, original, vanilla, production of hemp milk requires hemp seeds, water, and a blender. Many recipes call for ground vanilla or vanilla extract to add flavor. Once all ingredients are blended together some people pour the product over a cheesecloth and strainer to get a smoother, in coffee drinks, hemp milk is said to produce better latte art and to have a texture more like cows milk, compared to soy milk. In a 100 ml serving, hemp milk provides 46 calories from 3 g of carbohydrates,3 g of fat and 2 g of protein, hemp milk contains no micronutrients in significant content. Although there is limited history of use, hemp milk appears to be safe for those concerned about soy or milk allergies
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Hemp oil
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Hemp oil or hempseed oil is obtained by pressing hemp seeds. Cold pressed, unrefined hemp oil is dark to light green in color. The darker the color, the grassier the flavour and it should not be confused with hash oil, a tetrahydrocannabinol-containing oil made from the Cannabis flower, hailed by some for its medicinal qualities. Refined hempseed oil is clear and colorless, with flavor and lacks natural vitamins. Refined hempseed oil is used in body care products. Industrial hempseed oil is used in lubricants, paints, inks, fuel, hempseed oil has found some limited use in the production of soaps, shampoos and detergents. The oil is of high nutritional value because of its 3,1 ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 essential fatty acids and it has also received attention in recent years as a possible feedstock for the large-scale production of biodiesel. There are a number of organizations that promote the production and use of hempseed oil, hempseed oil is manufactured from varieties of Cannabis sativa that do not contain significant amounts of tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive element present in the cannabis plant. This manufacturing process typically includes cleaning the seed to 99. 99% before pressing the oil, there is no THC within the hempseed, although trace amounts of THC may be found in hempseed oil when plant matter adheres to the seed surface during manufacturing. The modern production of hempseed oil, particularly in Canada, has successfully lowered THC values since 1998, regular accredited sampling of THC in Canadian hemp seed oil shows THC levels usually below detection limit of 4 ppm. Legal limit for THC content in foodstuffs in Canada is 10 ppm, some European countries have limits of 5ppm or none-detected, some EU countries do not have such limits at all. The proportions of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in one tablespoon per day of hempseed oil easily provides human daily requirements for EFAs, advocates of hempseed oil hold that unlike flaxseed oil, hempseed oil can be used continuously without developing a deficiency or other imbalance of EFAs. In common with other oils, hempseed oil provides 9 kcal/g, compared with other culinary oils it is low in saturated fatty acids. Hempseed oil can be frozen for periods of storage time. Preservatives are not necessary for high-quality oils that are stored properly, hempseed oil has a relatively low smoke point and is not suitable for frying. Hempseed oil is used as a food oil and dietary supplement. It has uses similar to linseed oil and characteristics similar to tung oil, Cannabis Cannabis flower essential oil Hemp plastic Vegetable oil
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Hemp for Victory
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Hemp for Victory is a black-and-white United States government film made during World War II and released in 1942, explaining the uses of hemp, encouraging farmers to grow as much as possible. The film was made to farmers to grow hemp for the war effort because other industrial fibers. The film shows a history of hemp and hemp products, how hemp is grown, and how hemp is processed into rope, cloth, cordage, before 1989, the film was relatively unknown. The United States government denied ever having made such a film, the United States Department of Agriculture library and the Library of Congress told all interested parties that no such movie was made by the USDA or any branch of the US government. Two VHS copies were recovered and donated to the Library of Congress on 19 May 1989 by Maria Farrow, Carl Packard and it was given in trust that it would be made available to as many as possible. It was put into the hands of Jack Herer by William Conde during the 1984 OMI, the film 20 years later is now available in numerous locations on the Internet. Subsequently, in May 1990, the founder of The Institute for Hemp, J. T. Birrenbach, the film was a two part film the first section being 6,46 the second being 7,16 long. Together the approx 15 minute film detailed the cultivation of Cannabis for fiber and this was the first recovery of the film from a government source. The film, as well as shown, was referenced to in an episode of 10 Things You Dont Know About on marijuana. Hemp for Victory is also the title of a book about hemp and it is the work of several authors active in the hemp world, including Kenyon Gibson, Nick and Cindy Mackintosh, Woody Harrelson, Mina Hegaard and Sam Heslop. In 2008 efforts were made to make a sequel of the movie by UK-based production houses as a series of short films and it was developed as a three film series of 60 minutes each. The first part is starred by David Hayman and Jack Herer, the second part released at the 2009 Seattle HempFest had Steve Levine and Andrea Hermann on the speaker panel. The movie did not have an official release. It was released as a 2012 remake at select locations
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The Emperor Wears No Clothes
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The Emperor Wears No Clothes is a non-fiction book written by Jack Herer. After a dozen years of collecting and compiling historical data, Herer first published his work as The Emperor Wears No Clothes, the eleventh edition was published in November 2000, and the book continues to be cited in Cannabis rescheduling and re-legalization efforts. Hanf Haus, Sensi Seeds/Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum, Amsterdam, the Texas Hemp Campaign, offers $100,000 to anyone who can disprove the claims made within. Quoting from the back cover, The title of the book alludes to Hans Christian Andersens classic fairy tale The Emperors New Clothes. Herer uses Andersens story as an allegory for the current prohibition of Cannabis, chemurgy The Emperor Wears No Clothes at Wikimedia Commons
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Cannabis edible
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A cannabis edible, also called cannabis-infused food, is a food product that contains cannabinoids, especially THC. Cannabis edibles are consumed for both medical and recreational purposes, during preparation, the cannabis or its extract must be heated sufficiently to cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, THCA, converting it into the psychoactive THC. The oil-solubility of cannabis extracts has been known since ancient times, making a tea by boiling cannabis in water is a highly inefficient way to extract psychoactive cannabinoids. Adding milk when steeping, however, makes it more efficient than using plain water. Modern interest in edible cannabis is credited to the publication of The Alice B, Toklas included a recipe for Haschich Fudge which was contributed by artist and friend Brion Gysin when it was published in 1954. Although it was omitted from the first American editions, Toklas name, whereas the effects from smoking cannabis are usually felt within a few minutes, it can take up to two hours to reach full effects after ingesting it. Cannabis produces THCA, an acid with the group attached. It is only when the group is removed that the THCA becomes THC. Liquid THC and other cannabinoids have a point of between 180-200 °C. Before it turns gaseous, the group is released from the molecule as carbon dioxide. In the cooking of edible products, some research indicates heating cannabis to a temperature of 122 °C for 27 minutes to be the optimum method to optimize THC. Because oral doses are processed by the liver before entering the bloodstream, oral THC produces high levels of active metabolite 11-Hydroxy-THC, 11-OH-THC is more potent than THC and crosses the blood–brain barrier more easily. Hash cookies are bakery products made using hashish, a mild flavor can be detectable if sufficient quantities are used. Many resources for recipes, preparation, and dosage are available online, though they vary greatly in effectiveness, toklass inclusion of her friend Brion Gysins recipe for Haschich Fudge in her 1954 literary memoir The Alice B. Toklas Cookbook caused a sensation at the time, and led to her name becoming associated with food with the use of the phrase Alice B. Toklas brownies for many years afterwards, space cakes is a common name for muffins, brownies, and cookies baked with marijuana, which are very popular in the Netherlands. It used to sometimes be popular to frost these with psilocybin mushroom frosting, cannabis-infused drinks have become an increasingly popular method of consuming cannabinoids, especially in U. S. states that have legalized cannabis for recreational use. Mirth Provisions is one of the largest companies in the emerging cannabis-infused beverage market, cannabis oils, or marijuana oils are products based in cooking oils that have been infused with cannabinoids by mixing cannabis with the heated oil
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Bhang
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Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis. Traditionally it has used in food and drink for centuries dating far back as 2000 B. C. in the Indian subcontinent. Bhang in India and Nepal is distributed during some Hindu festivals like Holi, Janmashtami, Shivratri, Bhang is an edible form of cannabis which has been used in India since before the Vedic period, and is an integral part of Indian Hindu culture. Hindu monks make use of the effects of bhang to boost meditation, in the ancient text Atharvaveda, Bhang is described as a beneficial herb that releases anxiety. Hindus associate it with their most powerful deity Shiva, one of Shivas epithets was Lord of Bhang as he is said to have discovered the transcendental properties of the mixture. Legend has it that Shiva brought bhang from the Himalayas for the pleasure of mankind, a famous Greek historian Herodotus who lived in the 4th century B. C. mentions the use of bhang among Indians. A 15th century Indian document refers to Bhang as light hearted, joyful, india’s holy men ritually use Bhang in order to facilitate communication with their deities. According to a legend, Siddhartha Gautama lived on a ration of one bhang seed. The historian Richard Davenport-Hines lists Thomas Bowrey as the first Westerner to document the use of bhang, anywhere on the ghats, one can find large numbers of men engaged in preparing bhang. Using mortar and pestle, the buds and leaves of cannabis are ground into a paste, to this mixture, milk, ghee, mangoes, and Indian spices are added. Bhang is also mixed with ghee and sugar to make a purple halva, Bhang has been an integral part of the traditions and customs on the Indian subcontinent for the past four thousand years and persists as a practice today. In some parts of rural India, people attribute various medicinal properties to the cannabis plant. If taken in quantity, bhang is believed to cure fever, dysentery, sunstroke, to clear phlegm, aid in digestion, appetite, cure speech imperfections and lisping. Bhang lassi is a preparation of powdered green inflorescence with curd and it is regarded as tasty and refreshing. It is legal in parts of India and mainly sold during Holi. Uttar Pradesh has licensed bhang shops, and in places in India one can buy bhang products. The tradition of consuming bhang lassi during Holi is particularly common in North India where Holi itself is celebrated with a fervor unseen elsewhere, Bhang is heavily consumed in Mathura, an ancient town of religious importance to the Hindus. Here the practice is believed to have introduced by the followers of Krishna and has stayed ever since
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Cannabis smoking
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Apart from being smoked and vaporized, cannabis may be ingested, placed under the tongue or applied to the skin. The bioavailability characteristics and effects of smoking and vaporizing cannabis differ from other methods in having a more rapid. Drug Containing cannabis can be smoked in a variety of implements made in different shapes and of different materials, water pipes, cigarettes. When smoking a joint or blunt with someone else or a group of people, with a pipe, bowl, bong, or vape, one inhalation is the norm. Joint is a term for a cigarette filled with cannabis. Alternatively, mainly in Europe, joints may contain tobacco or various non-addictive herbs, sometimes a joint will contain Kief or hashish, hashish can be heated and made to crumble before placement within the joint. Specially manufactured rolling papers are most often used in industrialized countries, however, modern papers are now made from a wide variety of materials including rice, hemp, and flax. A joint typically contains 250–750 mg net weight of cannabis and/or fillers, a blunt is cannabis rolled with a cigar wrapper. Subtypes include one-hitters, bubblers, chillums, glass blunts, corn cob pipes, pipes vary greatly in shape and materials, and most are handmade. The common thread between them is having a narrow screened receptacle, a stem, and a mouthpiece, the smoking material is placed in the receptacle and affected with a heat source while air is drawn through the bowl and stem to the user. Blown-glass pipes and bongs are often intricately and colorfully designed, in India and Jamaica, the most commonly used pipe is the chillum. in the UAE, midwakh, in Morocco, sebsi. The exterior surface of the bowl of some pipes may be fashioned with some kind of design. Curtis describes the best as being made by a W. Willurgby the bowl of which is of cast brass and is enough to contain about an ounce. A bubbler is a mix of a bong and a pipe, a bubbler contains a chamber for water, commonly with a down stem directly connected to the bowl of the piece. A bubbler normally has a dedicated carb, which may not be included on a bong. A bong is similar to a pipe, only it has a water-chamber through which cannabis smoke passes prior to inhalation, users fill the bong with water, sometimes also adding ice in order to cool the smoke. This cooling effect allows a larger amount of cannabis to be consumed at once while reducing the discomfort caused by the heat of the smoke, a gravity bong is a hydropneumatic device used for smoking cannabis. One variant consists of a bucket of water in which is placed a bottle with the bottom cut off
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Vaporizer (inhalation device)
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A vaporizer or vaporiser is a device used to vaporize the active ingredients of plant material, commonly cannabis, tobacco, or other herbs or blends for the purpose of inhalation. However, they can also be filled with a mixture of propylene glycol, glycerin, vaporizers contain various forms of extraction chambers including straight bore, venturi, or sequential venturi, and are made of materials such as metal or glass. The extracted vapor may be collected in a bag, or inhaled directly through a hose or pipe. When used properly, cooler temperatures due to lack of combustion result in more efficient extraction of the ingredients. Hence, the irritating and harmful effects of smoking are heavily reduced, an electronic cigarette is a battery-powered vaporizer which simulates the feeling of smoking, but without burning tobacco. The three main types of e-cigarettes are cigalikes, eGos, and MODs and their use is commonly called vaping. The user activates the e-cigarette by taking a puff or pressing a button and they are often cylindrical, but come in many variations. Most are reusable but there are also disposable versions called first generation cigalikes, there are also second, third, and fourth generation devices. Instead of cigarette smoke, the user inhales an aerosol, commonly called vapor, e-cigarettes typically have a heating element that atomizes a liquid solution known as e-liquid. E-liquids usually contain propylene glycol, glycerin, water, nicotine, the nicotine in liquids can range from 0-18mg/ml. Depending on how strong the nicotine is, the easier it is to become addicted, nicotine levels that are smaller can also help with those who are attempting to quit smoking, which is one of the main reasons e-cigarettes are used. E-liquids are also sold without propylene glycol, without nicotine, or without flavors, the benefits and the health risks of e-cigarettes are uncertain. There is tentative evidence that they can help people quit smoking, as of 2014, their usefulness in tobacco harm reduction is unclear, but they have a potential to be part of the strategy to decrease tobacco related death and disease. Their safety risk to users is similar to that of smokeless tobacco, regulated US Food and Drug Administration nicotine replacement products are safer than e-cigarettes, but e-cigarettes are probably safer than smoking. Vaporizers are also used to inhale marijuana, of the studies about vaporizing marijuana, few have addressed the quality of the vapor extracted and delivered, instead, studies usually focus on the mode of usage of the vaporizers. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, vaporizing is more efficient than smoking, because approximately 30% of THC in marijuana or hashish cigarettes is destroyed by pyrolysis during smoking. In a study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology in May 2008, a 2006 study performed by researchers at Leiden University found that vaporizers were safe and effective cannabinoid delivery system. The study stated that the amount of THC delivered by vaporizers were equivalent to the amount delivered by smoking, because of those studies and other studies, vaporizers are considered medically sound devices for delivering THC
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Kief
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Kief, sometimes transliterated as keef or kif, refers to the resinous trichomes of cannabis that may accumulate in containers or be sifted from loose, dry cannabis flower with a mesh screen or sieve. Using a three-chamber herb grinder the cannabis can be finely ground while letting kief crystals fall through a screen, Kief contains a much higher concentration of psychoactive cannabinoids, such as THC, than that of the cannabis flowers from which it is derived. Traditionally, kief has been pressed into cakes of hashish for convenience in storage, after the kief is collected it is heated and pressurized, which turns it into hashish. Hash oil Bhang Charas What is Kief
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Charas
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Charas is the name given to a hashish form of cannabis which is handmade in India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Jamaica. It is made from the resin of the cannabis plant, the plant grows wild throughout Northern India along the stretch of the Himalayas and is an important cash crop for the local people. The difference between charas and hashish is that hashish is made from a dead plant and charas is made from a live one. Despite this long history, charas was made illegal in India under pressure from the United States in the 1980s and severe sentences were introduced for cultivation, even the mere possession had a mandatory ten-year prison sentence. These laws have been relaxed, but charas remains a medium for police to extort money from consumers of the drug. Even at the peak of the crackdown, charas was still popular and remains so today, especially young professionals. The Naga Sadhus, Aghoris and Tantric Bhairava sects smoke it freely as an part of their religious practice. Many smoke it in clay pipes called chillums, using a cloth to cover the smoking end of the chillum. Before lighting the chillum they will chant the names of Shiva in veneration. It is regaining the popularity it once enjoyed with younger generation of India regarding it as a drug of choice. It is freely available in places around India especially where there is a strong affluence of tourists. In southern India there are several places where charas is manufactured. Charas can be found in places around India simply because there are people that take charas from the source to distribute it in areas where there is a substantial demand of it. The nominal price of charas in these areas is higher than in the places where charas is made. There is also an amount of charas that is illegally exported across to Europe. High quality hashish in India comes from cannabis grown in the mountains, the variety from Himachal Pradesh is considered to be of the highest quality throughout India. It is easily available in Kinnaur, Rispa, Ribba, Shimla, Naldera, Karsog, Narkanda, for this reason, the Indian subcontinent has become very popular with backpackers and drug smugglers. During hand-harvesting, live cannabis plants flowering buds are rubbed between the palms of the hands, and by the end of the day one has perhaps 8 or 9 grams of charas
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Cannabis flower essential oil
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A pale yellow liquid, cannabis flower essential oil is a volatile oil that is a mixture of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other terpenoid compounds. The typical scent of hemp results from about 140 different terpenoids, the essential oil is manufactured from both low-THC and high-THC varieties of hemp. As most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water, hemp essential oil contains only traces of cannabinoids, even in drug-type hemp, the THC content of the essential oil does not exceed 0. 08%. Hemp essential oil is used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and it is also used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy and beverages. The yield depends on the type and pollination, sex, age, and part of the plant, cultivation, harvest time and conditions, drying. For example, fresh buds from an Afghani variety yielded 0. 29% essential oil, drying and storage reduced the content from 0. 29% to 0. 20% after 1 week, and to 0. 13% after 3 months. Monoterpenes showed a greater loss than sesquiterpenes, but none of the major components completely disappeared in the drying process. About 1.3 L of essential oil per ton resulted from freshly harvested outdoor-grown hemp, the yield of nonpollinated hemp at 18 L/ha was more than twofold compared with pollinated hemp. Sixty-eight components were detected by GC and GC/mass spectrometry in fresh bud oil distilled from high-potency, the 57 identified constituents were 92% monoterpenes, 7% sesquiterpenes, and approx. The dominating monoterpenes were myrcene and limonene, in the essential oil from outdoor-grown hemp, the monoterpene concentration varied between 47.9 and 92. 1% of the total terpenoid content. The sesquiterpenes ranged from 5.2 to 48. 6%, the most abundant monoterpene was β-myrcene, followed by trans-caryophyllene, α-pinene, trans-ocimene, and α-terpinolene. Even in drug-type hemp, the THC content of the oil was not more than 0. 08%. In the essential oil of five different European hemp cultivars, the dominating terpenes were myrcene, α-pinene, α-terpinolene, trans-caryophyllene, the main differences between the cultivars were found in the contents of α-terpinolene and α-pinene. The major alkane present in an oil obtained by extraction. Cannabis Cannabis Hemp Essential Oil, Sweet Smell of Success Essential oil of Cannabis sativa L. strains
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Hash oil
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Hash oil is an oleoresin obtained by the extraction of marijuana and/or hashish. The tetrahydrocannabinol content of oil varies tremendously, since the manufacturers use a varying assortment of marijuana plants. Dealers sometimes cut hash oils with other oils, hash oils seized in the 1970s had a THC contents ranging from 10 to 30%. The oil available on the U. S, west Coast in 1974 averaged about 15% THC. The highest THC concentrations measured were 52. 9% in hashish and 47. 0% in hash oil, monoterpenes, β-pinene, myrcene, β-phellandrene, cis-ocimene, terpinolene, and terpineol. Sesquiterpenes, β-caryophyllene, humulene, δ-guaiene, γ-cadinene, eudesma-3, 7-diene, the form of the extract varies depending on the process used, it may be liquid, a clear amber solid, a sticky semisolid substance, or a brittle, honeycombed solid. Hash oil is consumed usually by smoking, ingestion, or vaporization, smoking or vaporizing hash oil is known colloquially as dabbing, from the English verb to daub, to smear with something adhesive. Dabbing devices include special kinds of pipes, and vaporizers similar in design to electronic cigarettes. Oil rigs include a water pipe and a hollow tube. The pipe is heated with a blowtorch rather than a cigarette lighter. Hash oil is produced by solvent extraction of marijuana and/or hashish, after filtering and evaporating the solvent, a sticky resinous dank liquid with a strong herbal odor remains. Fresh, undried plant material is less suited for hash oil production, because much THC and CBD will be present in their carboxylic acid forms, the acids are decarboxylated during drying and heating. Fresh, undried plant material is best suited for concrete production, a wide variety of solvents can be used for extraction, such as chloroform, dichloromethane, petroleum ether, naphtha, benzene, butane, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and olive oil. Currently, resinoids are often obtained by extraction with carbon dioxide. The alcohols extract undesirable water-soluble substances such as chlorophylls and sugars, non-polar solvents such as benzene, chloroform and petroleum ether will not extract the water-soluble constituents of marijuana or hashish, and will yield a somewhat more potent oil as a result. In general, non-polar cannabis extracts taste much better than polar extracts, alkali washing further improves the odor and taste. This process reduces the oil yield, but the oil is less acidic, easier digestible. Process 2) consists of dissolving the oil in a solvent such as absolute ethanol containing 0. 05% hydrochloric acid
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Hashish
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Hash is an extracted cannabis product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes, from the plant. This all depends on the process and amount of solvent left over, the name comes from the Arabic word which means grass. It is believed that massive hashish production for international trade originated in Morocco during the 1960s, before the coming of the first hippies from the Hippie Hashish Trail, only small pieces of Lebanese hashish were found in Morocco. In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on Bangue in his work documenting his journeys in the East. He particularly mentioned the Egyptian Hashish and he said, Bangue is likewise much used in Turkie and Egypt, and is made in three sorts, having also three names. In the 1800s, hashish was embraced in some European literary circles, baudelaire later wrote the 1860 book Les paradis artificiels, about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish. At around the time, American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow wrote the 1857 book The Hasheesh Eater about his youthful experiences. Hashish can be consumed by oral ingestion or smoking, typically in a pipe, vaporizer or joints, Hashish is made from cannabinoid-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments. The flowers of a female plant contain the most trichomes. Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce amounts of trichomes. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen, are separated from the plant through various methods, mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from the plant, such as sieving through a screen by hand or in motorized tumblers. This technique is known as drysifting, the resulting powder, referred to as kief or drysift, is compressed with the aid of heat into blocks of hashish, if pure, the kief will become gooey and pliable. When a high level of pure THC is present, the end product will be almost transparent, ice-water separation is another mechanical method of isolating trichomes. Newer techniques have developed such as heat and pressure separations. Trichomes may break away from supporting stalks and leaves when plant material becomes brittle at low temperatures, the ice-water method requires ice, water, agitation, filtration bags with various-sized screens and plant material. With the ice-water extraction method the resin becomes hard and brittle and this allows large quantities of pure resins to be extracted in a very clean process without the use of solvents, making for a more purified hashish. Chemical separation methods use a solvent such as ethanol, butane or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin. Remaining plant materials are filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost, the solvent is then evaporated, or boiled off leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, hash oil, or just oil
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Cannabinoid
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A cannabinoid is one of a class of diverse chemical compounds that acts on cannabinoid receptors in cells that alter neurotransmitter release in the brain. Ligands for these proteins include the endocannabinoids, the phytocannabinoids. The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol is another constituent of the plant. There are at least 113 different cannabinoids isolated from cannabis, exhibiting varied effects, the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in animals, and have found in mammals, birds, fish. At present, there are two types of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB1 and CB2, with mounting evidence of more. The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor type, CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus. They are also found in the cerebellum and in male and female reproductive systems. CB1 receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain responsible for respiratory. CB1 is also found in the anterior eye and retina. CB2 receptors are found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells with the greatest density in the spleen. While found only in the nervous system, a report does indicate that CB2 is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum. CB2 receptors appear to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabis seen in animal models, the classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the Cannabis plant To the right, the best studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol. All classes derive from cannabigerol-type compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized, the classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids by decarboxylation. CBG CBC CBL CBV THCV CBDV CBCV CBGV CBGM THC THCA CBD CBDA Tetrahydrocannabinol is the psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, mimic the actions of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol neurotransmitters produced naturally in the body and these cannabinoids produce the effects associated with cannabis by binding to the CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the brain
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Cannabidiol
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Cannabidiol is one of at least 113 active cannabinoids identified in cannabis. It is a major phytocannabinoid, accounting for up to 40% of the plants extract, Dravet syndrome is a rare form of epilepsy that is difficult to treat. It is a form of intractable epilepsy that begins in infancy. Initial seizures are most often prolonged events and in the year of life other seizure types begin to emerge. A number of profile and anecdotal reports have sparked interest in treatment of Dravet syndrome with cannabidiol. Some cannabis/hemp extract preparations containing CBD are marketed as dietary supplements, one such preparation is marketed under the tradename Charlottes Web Hemp Extract. GW Pharmaceuticals is seeking FDA approval to market a liquid formulation of pure plant-derived CBD, Epidiolex was granted fast-track status and is in late stage trials following positive early results from the drug. A2014 review stated that cannabidiol has been claimed, anecdotally, information in the review stated that there is no established mechanism of action and the lack of high-quality evidence in this area precluded conclusions being drawn. A2016 review states that because of the quality of available data. There is tentative evidence that CBD had an effect. Cannabidiol may also extend the duration of the effects of THC via inhibition of the cytochrome P450 CYP3A, cannabidiol has been found to act as an antagonist of the GPR55, a G protein-coupled receptor and putative cannabinoid receptor that is expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen. It has also shown to act as a 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist, and this action may be involved in the antidepressant, anxiolytic. It is a modulator of the μ and δ-opioid receptors as well. Cannabidiols pharmacological effects have additionally been attributed to PPARγ agonism and intracellular calcium release and it has also been speculated that some of the metabolites of CBD have pharmacological effects that contribute to the biological activity of CBD. Despite this, the evidence in humans suggests no significant effect of CBD on THC plasma levels. Nabiximols is an aerosolized mist for oral administration containing a near 1,1 ratio of CBD, the drug was approved by Canadian authorities in 2005 to alleviate pain associated with multiple sclerosis. Epidiolex, a drug with cannabidiol as its active pharmaceutical ingredient, Epidiolex is an oil formulation of CBD extracted from the cannabis plant undergoing clinical trials for refractory epilepsy syndromes. Cannabidiol is insoluble in water but soluble in solvents such as pentane
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Tetrahydrocannabinol
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Tetrahydrocannabinol, or more precisely its main isomer -trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, is the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis. It can be a clear, amber or gold colored glassy solid when cold, like most pharmacologically-active secondary metabolites of plants, THC in Cannabis is assumed to be involved in self-defense, perhaps against herbivores. THC also possesses high UV-B absorption properties, which, it has been speculated, THC, along with its double bond isomers and their stereoisomers, is one of only three cannabinoids scheduled by the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It was listed under Schedule I in 1971, but reclassified to Schedule II in 1991 following a recommendation from the WHO, based on subsequent studies, the WHO has recommended the reclassification to the less-stringent Schedule III. Cannabis as a plant is scheduled by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and it is specifically still listed under Schedule I by US federal law under the Controlled Substances Act signed by the US Congress in 1970. A pharmaceutical formulation is available by prescription in the U. S. dronabinol is the INN for a pure isomer of THC, -trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, which is the main isomer found in cannabis. It is used to treat anorexia in people with HIV/AIDS as well as for refractory nausea and it is safe and effective for these uses. An overdose of dronabinol usually presents with lethargy, decreased motor coordination, slurred speech, there was a single death rated by the investigator as possibly related to treatment. This person had a seizure followed by aspiration pneumonia, the paper does not describe whether this was one of the subjects from the epilepsy trials. The presence of these specialized cannabinoid receptors in the brain led researchers to the discovery of endocannabinoids, such as anandamide, THC targets receptors in a manner far less selective than endocannabinoid molecules released during retrograde signaling, as the drug has a relatively low cannabinoid receptor efficacy and affinity. In populations of low cannabinoid receptor density, THC may act to antagonize endogenous agonists that possess greater receptor efficacy, THC is a lipophilic molecule and may bind non-specifically to a variety of entities in the brain and body, such as adipose tissue. THC, similarly to cannabidiol, albeit less potently, is an allosteric modulator of the μ-. Due to its agonistic activity, THC appears to result in greater downregulation of cannabinoid receptors than endocannabinoids. However, this form of tolerance appears to be irregular throughout mouse brain areas, THC is metabolized mainly to 11-OH-THC by the body. This metabolite is still psychoactive and is oxidized to 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC. In humans and animals, more than 100 metabolites could be identified, metabolism occurs mainly in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4. More than 55% of THC is excreted in the feces and ~20% in the urine, the main metabolite in urine is the ester of glucuronic acid and THC-COOH and free THC-COOH. In the feces, mainly 11-OH-THC was detected, the discovery of THC, by a team of researchers from Hebrew University Pharmacy School, was first reported in 1964, with substantial later work reported by Raphael Mechoulam in June 1970
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Effects of cannabis
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Cannabis has various psychological and physiological effects on the human body. Acute effects while under the influence can include euphoria and anxiety, cannabidiol, another cannabinoid found in cannabis in varying amounts, has been shown to alleviate the adverse effects of THC that some consumers experience. With very high doses, THC can induce auditory and visual hallucinations, Research about medical benefits of cannabis has been hindered by United States federal law. Smoking any substance will carry the risk as smoking marijuana due to carcinogens in all smoke. Cannabis use disorder is defined as a diagnosis in the fifth revision of the Diagnostic. The most prevalent psychoactive substances in cannabis are cannabinoids, most notably THC, some varieties, having undergone careful selection and growing techniques, can yield as much as 29% THC. Another psychoactive cannabinoid present in Cannabis sativa is tetrahydrocannabivarin, but it is found in small amounts and is a cannabinoid antagonist. How these other compounds interact with THC is not fully understood, some clinical studies have proposed that CBD acts as a balancing force to regulate the strength of the psychoactive agent THC. CBD is also believed to regulate the metabolism of THC by inactivating cytochrome P450. Cannabis cofactor compounds have also linked to lowering body temperature, modulating immune functioning. The essential oil of cannabis contains many fragrant terpenoids which may synergize with the cannabinoids to produce their unique effects, THC is converted rapidly to 11-hydroxy-THC, which is also pharmacologically active, so the drug effect outlasts measurable THC levels in blood. THC and cannabidiol are also neuroprotective antioxidants, Research in rats has indicated that THC prevented hydroperoxide-induced oxidative damage as well as or better than other antioxidants in a chemical system and neuronal cultures. Cannabidiol was significantly more protective than either vitamin E or vitamin C, the cannabinoid receptor is a typical member of the largest known family of receptors called a G protein-coupled receptor. A signature of this type of receptor is the pattern of how the receptor molecule spans the cell membrane seven times. The location of cannabinoid receptors exists on the membrane. CB1 receptors, the bigger of the two, are abundant in the brain,10 times more plentiful than μ-opioid receptors. CB2 receptors are structurally different, found only on cells of the immune system, CB2 receptors are most commonly prevalent on B-cells, natural killer cells, and monocytes, but can also be found on polymorphonuclear neutrophil cells, T8 cells, and T4 cells. In the tonsils the CB2 receptors appear to be restricted to B-lymphocyte-enriched areas, THC and its endogenous equivalent anandamide additionally interact with glycine receptors
