1.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
2.
Holy Roman Emperor
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The Holy Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. From an autocracy in Carolingian times the title evolved into an elected monarchy chosen by the Prince-electors, until the Reformation the Emperor elect was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. The title was held in conjunction with the rule of the Kingdom of Germany, in theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares among the other Catholic monarchs, in practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances made him. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, effectively became hereditary holders of the title, after the Reformation many of the subject states and most of those in Germany were Protestant while the Emperor continued to be Catholic. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last Emperor as a result of the collapse of the polity during the Napoleonic wars, from the time of Constantine I the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. In the west, the title of Emperor was revived in 800, as the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was known as the Investiture Controversy. After Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, no pope appointed an emperor again until the coronation of Otto the Great in 962. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, the various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. After Charles Vs coronation, all succeeding emperors were called elected Emperor due to the lack of papal coronation, the term sacrum in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope, the final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empires final dissolution. The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was August Emperor of the Romans, the word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents. In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman Emperor on one hand, the English term Holy Roman Emperor is a modern shorthand for emperor of the Holy Roman Empire not corresponding to the historical style or title. Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors, elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. The Electoral council was set at seven princes by the Golden Bull of 1356, another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire. After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the exception of Charles VII. Maximilian I and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope, Maximilian therefore named himself Elected Roman Emperor in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors, of his successors only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation
3.
Adelaide of Susa
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Adelaide of Susa or Adelaide of Turin was the Marchioness of Turin from 1034 to her death. She was the last of the Arduinici, born in Turin to Ulric Manfred II and Bertha around 1014/1020, Adelaides early life is not well known. Adelaide had two sisters, Immilla and Bertha. She may also have had a brother, whose name is not known, thus, on Ulric Manfreds death, the great margraviate was divided between his three daughters, though the greatest part by far went to Adelaide. She received the property in the counties of Turin, especially in the Susa Valley, Auriate, Adelaide also inherited property, but probably not comital authority, in Albenga, Alba, Bredulo and Ventimiglia. It is likely that Adelaides mother, Bertha, briefly acted as regent for Adelaide after Ulric Manfreds death, since the margravial title primarily had a military purpose at the time, it was thus was not considered suitable for a woman. Emperor Conrad II therefore arranged a marriage between Adelaide and his stepson, Herman IV, in January 1037, Herman was then invested as margrave of Turin. Herman died of the plague while fighting for Conrad II at Naples in July 1038, Adelaide remarried in order to secure her vast march. Probably in 1041, and certainly before 19 January 1042, Adelaide married Henry, Henry died c.1045 and left Adelaide a widow for the second time. Immediately, a marriage was undertaken, this time to Otto of Savoy. With Otto she had three sons, Peter I, Amadeus II, and Otto, the couple also had two daughters, Bertha, who married Henry IV of Germany, and Adelaide, who married Rudolf of Rheinfelden. After the death of her husband Otto, c. 1057/60, Adelaide ruled the march of Turin and it is sometimes said that Adelaide abandoned Turin as a capital and began to reside permanently at Susa. Adelaide is documented far more frequently at the palace in Turin than anywhere else. In 1070 Adelaide captured and burned the city of Asti, which had rebelled against her, in 1069 Henry IV tried to repudiate Adelaides daughter, Bertha, which caused Adelaides relationship with the imperial family to cool. However, through the intervention of Bertha, Henry received Adelaides support when he came to Italy to submit to Pope Gregory VII, in return for allowing him to travel through her lands, Henry gave Bugey to Adelaide. Adelaide and her son Amadeus then accompanied Henry IV and Bertha to Canossa, bishop Benzo of Alba sent several letters to Adelaide between 1080 and 1082, encouraging her to support Henry IV in the Italian wars which formed part of the Investiture Controversy. Adelaides dealings with Henry IV became closer after this and she offered to mediate between him and Matilda and Tuscany, and may even have joined him on campaign. Adelaide made many donations to monasteries in the march of Turin, in 1064 she founded the monastery of Santa Maria at Pinerolo
4.
Kingdom of Burgundy
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Kingdom of Burgundy was a name given to various states located in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. The historical Burgundy correlates with the area of France, Italy and Switzerland and includes the major modern cities of Geneva. As a political entity, Burgundy has existed in a number of forms with different boundaries, notably, two of these entities — the first around the 6th century, the second around the 11th century — have been called the Kingdom of Burgundy. At other times there existed Kingdom of Provence, Duchy of Burgundy, Burgundy is named after a Germanic tribe of Burgundians who originated in mainland Scandinavia, then settled on the island of Bornholm, whose name in Old Norse was Burgundarholmr. From there they migrated south through Germanic lands into Roman Gaul and settled in the part of the Alps and Rhône valley. The first documented, though not historically verified King of the Burgundians was Gjúki, in the course of the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 the Burgundians settled as foederati in the Roman province of Germania Secunda along the Middle Rhine. The remaining Burgundians from 443 onwards settled in the Sapaudia region and their efforts to enlarge their kingdom down the Rhône river brought them into conflict with the Visigothic Kingdom in the south. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, king Gundobad allied with the powerful Frank king Clovis I against the threat of Theoderic the Great and he was then able to organize the Burgundian acquisitions based on the Lex Burgundionum, an Early Germanic law code. The decline of the Kingdom began when they came under attack from their former Frank allies, in 523 the sons of Clovis I campaigned in the Burgundian lands, instigated by their mother Clotilde, whose father king Chilperic II of Burgundy had been killed by Gundobad. In 532 the Burgundians were decisively defeated by the Franks at Autun, whereafter king Godomar was killed and Burgundian lands was annexed by the Frankish Empire in 534. While there no longer was an independent Burgundian kingdom, between 561 and 584 and between 639 and 737 several rulers of the Frankish Merovingian dynasty used the title of King of Burgundy. Partitions of Charlemagnes empire by his immediate Carolingian heirs led to a kingdom of Middle Francia. It included lands from North Sea to southern Italy and was ruled by emperor Lothair I, the northwestern part of the former Burgundian lands as Duchy of Burgundy was included in the kingdom of West Francia. This partition created more conflicts, as older Carolingians who ruled West Francia, as Charles of Provence was too young to rule, the actual power was held by regent, count Girart II of Vienne whose wife was the sister-in-law of emperor Lothar I. Girart was a regent, defending the kingdom from Vikings. Charles uncle, Charles the Bald of West Francia, attempted to intervene in Provence in 861 after receiving an appeal for intervention from the Count of Arles and he invaded Provence as far as Mâcon before being restrained by Hincmar of Rheims. Already in 858 count Girart arranged that should Charles of Provence die without heirs, Upper Burgundy remained under the influence of the East Frankish king Charles the Fat. From 887 these northern territories formed the Kingdom of Upper Burgundy, proclaimed by the Welf noble Rudolph I of Burgundy at Saint-Maurice and it was one of the three kingdoms within the medieval Empire, the others being the Kingdom of Germany and the Kingdom of Italy
5.
Pope Gregory VII
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Gregory VII, born Hildebrand of Sovana, was Pope from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope in centuries to rigorously enforce the Western Churchs ancient policy of celibacy for the clergy. He excommunicated Henry IV three times, consequently, Henry IV would appoint Antipope Clement III to oppose him in the political power struggles between the Catholic Church and his empire. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory VII was, during his own reign and this was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe. Joseph McCabe describes Gregory as a rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the ideal which he embraced. His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a degree the loyalty. Gregory was born as Ildebrando di Soana in Sovana, in the county of Grosseto, now southern Tuscany and he was said to be of humble origins. One finds in Johann Georg Estor the claim that he was the son of a blacksmith. As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine, among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi, and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI. When the latter was deposed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany, according to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregorys death, which occurred in 1048, his declaration to have become a monk at Cluny must not be taken literally. He then accompanied Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome, there, Bruno was elected Pope, choosing the name Leo IX, Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in the wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours. At Leos death, the new Pope, Victor II, confirmed him as legate, while Victors successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from the Empress Agnes de Poitou. With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa, between 1058 and 1059, he was created archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the election of October 1061. The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation. On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica, there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people, Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand the Archdeacon. Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the election in the Liberian Basilica
6.
William I, Count of Burgundy
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William I, called the Great, was Count of Burgundy from 1057 to 1087 and Mâcon from 1078 to 1087. He was a son of Renaud I and Alice of Normandy, daughter of Richard II, william was the father of several notable children, including Pope Callixtus II. In 1057, he succeeded his father and reigned over a larger than that of the Franche-Comté itself. In 1087, he died in Besançon, Prince-Archbishopric of Besançon and he was buried in Besançons Cathedral of St John. William married a woman named Stephanie and she married secondly Godfrey I, Count of Leuven and was possibly the mother of Joscelin of Louvain
7.
Byzantine Empire
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It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
8.
Seljuq dynasty
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The Seljuqs established both the Seljuk Empire and Sultanate of Rum, which at their heights stretched from Anatolia through Iran and were targets of the First Crusade. During the 10th century, due to events, the Oghuz had come into close contact with Muslim cities. Around 985, Seljuq converted to Islam, in the 11th century the Seljuqs migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia, in the province of Khurasan, where they encountered the Ghaznavid empire. In 1025,40,000 families of Oghuz Turks migrated to the area of Caucasian Albania, the Seljuqs defeated the Ghaznavids at the battle of Nasa plains in 1035. Tughril, Chaghri, and Yabghu received the insignias of governor, grants of land, at the battle of Dandanaqan they defeated a Ghaznavid army, and after a successful siege of Isfahan by Tughril in 1050/51, they established an empire later called the Great Seljuk Empire. The Seljuqs mixed with the population and adopted the Persian culture. The Great Seljuqs were heads of the family, in theory their authority extended over all the other Seljuq lines, turkish custom called for the senior member of the family to be the Great Seljuq, although usually the position was associated with the ruler of western Persia. Muhammads son Mahmud II succeeded him in western Persia, but Ahmad Sanjar, the rulers of western Persia, who maintained a very loose grip on the Abbasids of Baghdad. Several Turkic emirs gained a level of influence in the region. Kerman was a province in southern Persia, between 1053 and 1154, the territory also included Umman. Kerman was eventually annexed by the Khwarezmid Empire in 1196, the Empire of the Steppes, a History of Central Asia. Early Seljuq History, A New Interpretation, New York, NY, Routledge,2010 Previté-Orton, C. W
9.
Peter I, Count of Savoy
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Peter I was count of Savoy and margrave of Turin jointly with his brother Amadeus II of Savoy from c.1060 to 1078. He ruled only nominally, as power was in the hands of his mother. Peter presided over court hearings alongside Adelaide and also issued several donation charters with her and his brothers Amadeus II of Savoy, shortly before his death, Peter united with Bishop Cunibert of Turin in an attempt to drive Abbot Benedict II from his abbey of San Michele della Chiusa. Peter married Agnes of Aquitaine, c.1065 and they had two daughters, Agnes, who married Frederick of Montbéliard in 1080. After marrying Agnes, Frederick became margrave of Turin
10.
Bertha of Savoy
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Bertha of Savoy was a daughter of Count Otto I of Savoy and his wife Adelaide of Susa from the Arduinici noble family. She thereby was the sister of Count Peter I of Savoy, Count Amadeus II of Savoy and her maternal grandparents were Margrave Ulric Manfred II of Turin and Bertha of Milan. Still during the lifetime of Emperor Henry III, Bertha at the age of four was betrothed to Henry IIIs son, Bertha was raised in Germany thereafter. When she was fifteen, Bertha was crowned queen in Würzburg in June 1066, if he heard that someone had a young and pretty daughter or wife, he instructed that she be supplied to him by force. His beautiful and noble wife Bertha was in such a manner hated by him that he never saw her after the wedding any more than necessary, despite the insults and humiliations to which she was subjected by her husband, Bertha remained true to him. Nevertheless in 1069, Henry attempted to repudiate her, at an assembly at Worms, he explained publicly, that his relationship with his wife was not good, for a long time he had deceived others, but now he did not want to do so any longer. He could not accuse her of anything that justified a divorce and he asked them for the sake of God to remove him from the bonds of a marriage closed under bad signs. So that the way to a marriage might be opened. And nobody knowing any objection to raise, and his wife being an obstacle to a marriage ceremony, he then swore that she was as he received her, unstained. The German episcopacy dared not submit to the demands. Instead, the German bishops called on Pope Alexander II for assistance, during this time, Bertha retired to Lorsch Abbey. Henry IV reluctantly reconciled with his consort and their first daughter was born in the following year. On 12 February 1074 their son Conrad was born at Hersfeld Abbey, where Bertha stayed while Henry was fighting against the Saxon Rebellion, and was baptised in the abbey three days later. After Henrys victory against the Saxons, he arranged for an Imperial Diet at Goslar on Christmas Day 1075 to swear an oath recognising Conrad as his successor, during the fierce Investiture Controversy, Berthas husband was excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII at the Lenten synod in Rome in 1076. In October, the German princes took the occasion and swore an oath at Trebur that they would no longer recognise Henry as king unless this excommunication was lifted. Henry thus had to cross the Alps and travel to Italy in order to meet with Gregory during the winter of 1076/77, Bertha and their young son, Conrad, accompanied Henry on his dangerous journey. Adelaide was among those who acted an oath-helper to secure Henry’s absolution from excommunication, after the forces of Henry IV had besieged and occupied Rome, he and Bertha were crowned emperor and empress on 31 March 1084 by Antipope Clement III. Bertha was thirty-six years old when she died in Mainz on 27 December 1087 and she was buried in the Salian crypt at Speyer Cathedral
11.
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Henry IV ascended to King of the Germans in 1056. From 1084 until his abdication in 1105, he was also referred to as the King of the Romans. He was the emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful. His reign was marked by the Investiture Controversy with the Papacy, several civil wars over his throne took place in both Italy and Germany. He died of illness, soon after defeating his sons army near Visé, in Lorraine, in 1056 at Aachen, Henry IV was enthroned as the King of the Germans by Pope Victor II, while his mother, Agnes of Poitou, became regent. In 1062 the young king was kidnapped as a result of the Coup of Kaiserswerth, Agnes retired to a convent, and the government was placed in the hands of Anno. His first action was to back Pope Alexander II against the antipope Honorius II, the education and training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was called his magister, while Adalbert of Hamburg, archbishop of Bremen, was styled Henrys patronus. Henrys education seems to have been neglected, and his willful, the malleable Adalbert of Hamburg soon became the confidante of the ruthless Henry. Eventually, during an absence of Anno from Germany, Henry managed to control of his civil duties. Henrys entire reign was marked by apparent efforts to consolidate Imperial power, in reality, however, he carefully worked to maintain the loyalty of the nobility and the support of the pope. In 1066, he expelled from the Crown Council Adalbert of Hamburg, Henry also adopted urgent military measures against the Slav pagans, who had recently invaded Germany and besieged Hamburg. In June 1066 Henry married Bertha of Savoy/Turin, daughter of Otto, Count of Savoy, in the same year, at the request of the Pope, he assembled an army to fight the Italo-Normans of southern Italy. Henrys troops had reached Augsburg when he received news that Godfrey of Tuscany, husband of the powerful Matilda of Canossa, in 1068, driven by his impetuous character and his infidelities, Henry attempted to divorce Bertha. Henry obeyed and his wife returned to Court, Henry believed that the Papal opposition was less about his marriage than about overthrowing lay power within the Empire, in favour of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. In the late 1060s, Henry demonstrated his determination to reduce any opposition and he led expeditions against the Lutici and the margrave of a district east of Saxony, soon afterwards he had to quell the rebellions of Rudolf of Swabia and Berthold of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henrys struggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria and it was decided that a trial by combat should take place at Goslar, but when Ottos demand for safe conduct to and from the place of meeting was refused, he declined to appear. He was declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estates were plundered, however, he obtained sufficient support to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony and Thuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them
12.
Road to Canossa
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Henry went to Canossa Castle, where Pope Gregory VII stayed as the guest of Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, in order to obtain the revocation of the anathema imposed on him. According to contemporary sources, he was forced to humiliate himself on his knees waiting for three days and three nights before the gate of the castle, while a blizzard raged. The Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor had disputed over the precedence of ecclesiastical or secular power since the spread of the Cluniac Reforms in the 11th century. When Gregory VII, acclaimed Pope by the People of Rome in 1073, attempted to enact reforms to the process by his Dictatus papae decree. The king insisted that he reserve the traditionally established right of previous emperors to invest bishops, abbots and other clergymen, the conflict became increasingly severe, after Henry had been able to suppress the Saxon Rebellion in the Battle of Langensalza in June 1075. In September he installed a new Bishop of Milan, which annoyed Gregory who openly required obedience, shortly afterwards the Pope became the target of an assassination attempt during the 1075 Christmas celebrations. On 24 January 1076, Henry assembled several German bishops in a synod at Worms, the king finally demanded Gregorys abdication, referring to the rules of papal election according to the In nomine Domini bull of 1059. In response, Gregory excommunicated and deposed Henry in the Lenten synod of 1076 at Rome and he stated furthermore that, one year from that day, the loss of kingship would become irrevocable. When in October the Patriarch of Aquileia and the papal legate met with German princes at Trebur, fearing further rebellion among the German aristocracy, Henry felt he had to get rid of his excommunication. He was still popular among the people, but the princes were threatening to elect a new king. He had to secure his position in the church before the approaching deadline given by the pope. On the suggestion of his adversaries, he arranged to meet with the Pope who had set out along the path across the Alps towards Augsburg, Henry commenced his trip in Speyer and, travelling southward down the Rhine, he found his position precarious. As the Swabian nobles refused to open the way to the Alpine passes, according to the chronicles by Lambert of Hersfeld, Henry, his wife Bertha of Savoy, and their young son Conrad risked their lives by crossing the Alpine crest in harsh mid-winter conditions. After a long journey, they reached Gregorys accommodation in Canossa on 25 January 1077, when Henry reached Matildas castle, the Pope ordered that he be refused entry. Waiting at the gates, Henry took on the behavior of penance and he wore a hair-shirt, the traditional clothing of monks at the time, and allegedly walked barefoot. Many of his entourage also supposedly removed their shoes, according to Lambert of Hersfeld and first-hand accounts of the scene, the king waited by the gate for three full days. Throughout this time, he wore only his penitent hair-shirt. Finally, on 28 January, the gates were opened for Henry
13.
Novalesa Abbey
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Novalesa Abbey is a Benedictine monastery in Piedmont, Italy. It was founded in 726, and dedicated to Saint Peter, Novalesa is in the Val di Susa, on the route to the Mont Cenis Pass, and on the former Via Francigena, a major pilgrimage road. The abbey is still in operation as an active Benedictine monastery, the founding monks, Benedictines, are thought to have come from the Grenoble region. It became an important monastery with Charlemagne, who stayed there, in 817 it adopted the Benedictine rule. The first phase of the history, abbot Eldrados era. Most monks moved to Turin, while moved to Lomellina where they founded the monastery of Breme. The abbey was rebuilt in the early 11th century by Gezo, in 1646 the Benedictines were replaced by Cistercian monks, who remained here until 1796, when they were expelled by the Piedmontese provisional government. A third refoundation occurred after the monks of a hospital established by Napoleon at the Mont Cenis moved back to Novalesa after the emperors fall, however, they were again expelled in 1855 and the abbeys building auctioned under the laws of expropriation of the Piedmontese government. The complex was acquired by the province of Turin in 1972 and was revived in 1973 with the return of the Benedictine monks, the complex of Novalesa includes a monastic building proper, and the abbey church. The abbey is accessed through a portal leading to a first court, with a portico with cross-vaults. At the crossing between the two wings is the bell tower, built in 1725-1730, which stands at 22.50 m. The abbey church is dedicated to Sts and it was built in the 18th century above the pre-existing Romanesque church from the 11th century, of which some frescoes, including the Stoning of St. Stephen, remain. The current church is in Baroque style and has a nave with barrel vaults, half of the nave is used as presbytery, and ends in a semi-circular apse. The counterfaçade houses an organ, built in 1725, around the monastery are four chapels, one dedicated to Mary, one to the Holy Saviour, one to St. Michael and one to St. Eldradus. The latter houses a cycle from the late 11th century, depicting stories of the life of St. Eldradus. Its one of the first known Nicholass frescoes in continental Europe
14.
Vienne
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Vienne is a department in the French region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It takes its name from the river Vienne, established on March 4,1790 during the French Revolution, Vienne is one of the original 83 departments. It was created from parts of the provinces of Poitou, Touraine, and Berry. The original Acadians, who settled in and around what is now Nova Scotia, kennedy argues that the emigrants carried to Canada their customs and social structure. They were frontier peoples, who dispersed their settlements based on kinship and they optimized use of farmland and emphasized trading for a profit. They were hierarchical and politically active, Édith Cresson, Frances first woman Prime Minister from 1991-1992, was a deputy for the department. It has three arrondissements, Poitiers, the prefecture, and the subprefectures Châtellerault and Montmorillon, the capital Poitiers is the see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Poitiers, which pastorally serves the department. Goat cheese making is an important industry of Vienne
15.
Investiture Controversy
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The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was a conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of popes challenged the authority of European monarchies, at issue was who, the pope or monarchs, had the authority to appoint local church officials such as bishops of cities and abbots of monasteries. The conflict ended in 1122, when Emperor Henry V and Pope Calixtus II agreed on the Concordat of Worms and it differentiated between the royal and spiritual powers and gave the emperors a limited role in selecting bishops. The outcome seemed mostly a victory for the Pope and his claim that he was Gods chief representative in the world, however, the Emperor did retain considerable power over the Church. The investiture controversy began as a struggle between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. By undercutting the Imperial power established by the Salian emperors, the led to nearly 50 years of civil war in Germany. Imperial power was finally re-established under the Hohenstaufen dynasty, historian Norman Cantor, The age of the investiture controversy may rightly be regarded as the turning-point in medieval civilization. After the decline of the Roman Empire, and prior to the Investiture Controversy, while theoretically a task of the church, many bishops and abbots were themselves usually part of the ruling nobility. Since the eldest son would inherit the title, siblings often found careers in the church and this was particularly true where the family may have established a proprietary church or abbey on their estate. Since Otto the Great the bishops had been princes of the empire, had secured many privileges, the control of these great units of economic and military power was for the king a question of primary importance, affecting as it did imperial authority. It was essential for a ruler or nobleman to appoint someone who would remain loyal. e, the Holy Roman Emperor and placing that power wholly within control of the church. An opportunity came in 1056 when Henry IV became German king at six years of age, the reformers seized the opportunity to take the papacy by force while he was still a child and could not react. Once Rome regained control of the election of the pope, it was ready to attack the practice of investiture, in 1075, Pope Gregory VII composed the Dictatus Papae. One clause asserted that the deposal of an emperor was under the power of the pope. By this time, Henry IV was no longer a child and it called for the election of a new pope. His letter ends, I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all of my Bishops, say to you, come down, and is often quoted with and to be damned throughout the ages. In 1076 Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry, and deposed him as German king, releasing all Christians from their oath of allegiance, enforcing these declarations was a different matter, but the advantage gradually came to be on the side of Gregory VII. German princes and the aristocracy were happy to hear of the kings deposition and they used religious reasons to continue the rebellion started at the First Battle of Langensalza in 1075, and for seizure of royal holdings
16.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
17.
Obituary
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An obituary is a news article that reports the recent death of a person, typically along with an account of the persons life and information about the upcoming funeral. In large cities and larger newspapers, obituaries are written only for people considered significant, in local newspapers, an obituary may be published for any local resident upon death. A necrology is a register or list of records of the deaths of people related to an organization, group or field. Historical necrologies can be important sources of information, two types of paid advertisements are related to obituaries. One, known as a notice, omits most biographical details. The other type, a paid advertisement, is usually written by family members or friends. Both types of advertisements are usually run as classified advertisements. A premature obituary is a false reporting of the death of a person who is still alive and it may occur due to unexpected survival of someone who was close to death. Other reasons for such publication might be miscommunication between newspapers, family members, and the home, often resulting in embarrassment for everyone involved. Irish author Brendan Behan said that there is no such thing as bad publicity except dying in a toilet. In this regard, some people will seek to have a newspaper editor publish a premature death notice or obituary as a malicious hoax. To that end, nearly all now have policies requiring that death notices come from a reliable source. The Los Angeles Times obituary of Elizabeth Taylor, for example, was written in 1999 after three months of research, then often updated before the actress 2011 death. Sometimes the prewritten obituarys subject outlives its author, an example is The New York Times obituary of Taylor, written by the theater critic Mel Gussow. Obituaries are a feature of The Economist, which publishes one full-page obituary per week, reflecting on the subjects life. Past subjects have ranged from Ray Charles to Uday Hussein, the British Medical Journal encourages doctors to write their own obituaries for publication after their death. For numerous summer seasons, CBC Radio One has run The Late Show, eulogy Funeral List of premature obituaries Lists of deaths by year Lists of people by cause of death Baranick, Alana, Sheeler, Jim, Miller, Stephen. Life on the Death Beat, A Handbook for Obituary Writers, the Dead Beat, Lost Souls, Lucky Stiffs, And The Perverse Pleasure of Obituaries
18.
Genevois
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Franco-Provençal, Arpitan or Romand is a Gallo-Romance language spoken in east-central France, western Switzerland, northwestern Italy, and in enclaves in the Province of Foggia in Apulia, Italy. Franco-Provençal has several dialects and is separate from but closely related to neighboring Romance languages, Oïl languages, Occitan, Gallo-Italian. The name Franco-Provençal was given to the language by G. I, Ascoli in the 19th century because it shared features with French and Provençal without belonging to either. Arpitan, a neologism, is becoming a name for the language. This name was popularized due to the lands where the Arpitan language is spoken or used to be the prevalent idiom, the name for the region comes from the term Arpes, meaning Alps in Arpitan. Today, the largest number of Franco-Provençal speakers reside in the Aosta Valley, the language is also spoken in alpine valleys in the province of Turin, two isolated towns in Foggia, and rural areas of the Romandie region of Switzerland. It is one of the three Gallo-Romance language families of France and is recognized as a regional language of France. Organizations are attempting to preserve it through cultural events, education, scholarly research, aside from regional French dialects, it is the most closely related language to French. The number of speakers of Franco-Provençal has been declining significantly, according to UNESCO, Franco-Provençal is a potentially endangered language in Italy and an endangered language in Switzerland and France. Franco-Provençal emerged as a Gallo-Romance variety of Latin, the linguistic region comprises east-central France, western portions of Switzerland, and the Aosta Valley of Italy with the adjacent alpine valleys of the Piedmont. This area covers territories once occupied by pre-Roman Celts, including the Allobroges, Sequani, Helvetii, Ceutrones, by the 5th century, the region was controlled by the Burgundians. Franco-Provençal is first attested in manuscripts from the 12th century, possibly diverging from the langues doïl as early as the 8th–9th centuries, one writer has detected the influence of Basque by analyzing fossil words from toponymy and the dialect in the Aosta Valley Valdôtain patois. However, Franco-Provençal is consistently typified by a strict, myopic comparison to French, and so is characterized as conservative. Thus, commentators, like Désormaux, consider medieval the terms for many nouns and verbs, including pâta rag, bayâ to give, moussâ to lie down, all of which are conservative only relative to French. As an example, Désormaux, writing on this point in the foreword of his Savoyard dialect dictionary, states, one can note it not only in phonetics and morphology, but also in the vocabulary, where one finds numerous words and directions that clearly disappeared from French. Franco-Provençal failed to garner the prestige of its three more widely spoken neighbors, French, Occitan, and Italian. Communities where speakers lived were generally mountainous and isolated from one another, the internal boundaries of the entire speech area were divided by wars and religious conflicts. France, Switzerland, the Franche-Comté, and the duchy, later kingdom, the edict explicitly replaced Latin with French as the language of law and the courts
19.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Asti
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The Diocese of Asti is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical territory in Piedmont, northern Italy. It is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Turin, the first known bishop of Asti was Pastor in 451. After him, were Majoranus in 465, Benenatus in 680, from 800 begins the regular list of bishops, though the seat was vacant from 1857 to 1867. There has been controversy as to the beginning of the Diocese of Asti. Nowadays it is suggested that more than one historical figure came to melt into the tale of St. Evasius, thus making it extremely difficult to use the existing material as an historical source. The situation is so confused that some historians got to him into 5 different people. Erected, 3rd CenturyLatin Name, AstensisMetropolitan, Archdiocese of Turin Alric of Asti, vasino Malabayla Fernando de Gerona, O. S. A. Ambrogio Talento Agostino Trivulzio Scipione Roero Agostino Trivulzio Bernardino della Croce, gaspare Capris Domenico della Rovere, O. P. Franciscus Panicarola, O. F. M. Caesar Benzio Giovanni Stefano Ajazza Isidoro Pentorio, B, ottavio Broglia Paolo Vincenzo Roveria, B. Marco Antonio Tomati Innocenzo Migliavacca, O. Cist, Giovanni Todone Giuseppe Filippo Felissano Giovanni Filippo Antonio San Martino Paolo Maurizio Caissotti, C. O. The majority are in the Province of Asti, while the rest are divided between the provinces of Alessandria and Turin. Annunziata Azzano d’Asti S. Giacomo Apostolo Baldichieri d’Asti S. Secondo Belveglio Natività di Maria Calosso Cuore Immacolato di Maria S. Martino Camerano Casasco Santi Lorenzo e Paolo Cantarana S, annunziata Castelnuovo Calcea S. Stefano Castelnuovo Don Bosco Santi Maria e Domenico Savio Cellarengo S. Giovanni Battista Celle Enomondo S. Antonio Abate Cerreto d’Asti S. Andrea Cerro Tanaro S, Giovanni Battista Montafia S. Dionigi Montaldo Scarampi SS
20.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire
21.
County of Savoy
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The County of Savoy was a State of the Holy Roman Empire which emerged, along with the free communes of Switzerland, from the collapse of the Burgundian Kingdom in the 11th century. It was the cradle of the future Savoyard state, sapaudia, stretching south of Lake Geneva from the Rhône River to the Western Alps, had been part of Upper Burgundy ruled by the Bosonid duke Hucbert from the mid 9th century. Together with the neighboring Free County of Burgundy it became part of the larger Kingdom of Burgundy under King Rudolph II in 933, humbert the White-Handed was raised to count by the last King of Burgundy, Rudolph III, in 1003. He backed the claims of the emperor Henry II and in turn was permitted to usurp the county of Aosta from its bishops at the death of Anselm. While the Arelat remained a kingdom of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1046, his younger son Otto married Adelaide, daughter of Ulric Manfred II, when she inherited her fathers lands in preference to other, male, relatives, he thereby acquired control of the extensive March of Turin. This was then united with Savoy upon his inheritance from his elder brother, the counts further enlarged their territory when, in 1218, they inherited the Vaud lands north of the Lake Geneva from the extinct House of Zähringen. In 1220, Count Thomas I occupied the towns of Pinerolo and Chambéry, in 1240, his younger son Peter II was invited to England by King Henry III, who had married Peters niece Eleanor of Provence. He was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and Earl of Richmond and had the Savoy Palace erected at London, in 1313, Count Amadeus V the Great officially gained the status of Imperial immediacy from the hands of Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg. The Red Count Amadeus VII gained access to the Mediterranean Sea by the acquisition of the County of Nice in 1388, the extended Savoy lands were finally raised to a duchy in 1416 by the German king Sigismund of Luxembourg. In 1416 Amadeus VIII was raised to the status of Duke of Savoy, savoie Haute-Savoie Taylor, A. J. and Lewis is Savoy. A Letter from Lewis of Savoy to Edward I The English Historical Review, Vol.68, No
22.
Humbert I, Count of Savoy
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Humbert I, better known as Humbert the White-Handed or Humbert Whitehand was the founder of the House of Savoy. Humbert was the son of Amadeus, who may or may not have preceded him as count of Maurienne and his brother was Bishop Otto of Belley. Humbert is the progenitor of the dynasty known as the House of Savoy, the origins of this dynasty are unknown, but Humberts ancestors are variously said to have come from Saxony, Burgundy or Provence. Humbert initially held lands around Belley and in the county of Sermorens, before gaining lands in Aosta, after Rudolf III’s death, Humbert I swore fealty to Emperor Conrad II. He supported Conrad II in his campaigns against Odo II, Count of Blois, in return, Conrad II appointed Humbert count of Savoy and granted him Maurienne, Chablais and perhaps Tarentaise. These imperial grants to a loyal supporter secured key passes through the Alps and she may have been Ancilla of Lenzburg, the daughter of the master of ceremonies of Burgundy. Alternatively, Ancilla may have been a daughter of Anselm and Aldiud, Humbert is often said to have died c. 1047/8 at Hermillon, a town in the Maurienne region of present-day Savoie, France. More recently, it has suggested that he died by 1042. Humbert was buried in Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne Cathedral, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. Ducourthial, ‘Géographie du pouvoir en pays de Savoie au tournant de l’an Mil, guilleré, J- M. Poisson, L. Ripart and C. Le royaume de Bourgogne autour de l’an mil, pp. 207–246, history of House of Savoy Humbert Weißhand, Graf von Savoyen Humbert Biancamano, Conte di Savoia
23.
Amadeus III, Count of Savoy
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Amadeus III of Savoy was Count of Savoy and Maurienne from 1103 until his death. He was also known as a Crusader and he was born in Carignano, Piedmont, the son of Humbert II of Savoy and Gisela of Burgundy, the daughter of William I of Burgundy. He succeeded as count of Savoy upon the death of his father and he helped restore the Abbey of St. Maurice of Agaune, in which the former kings of Burgundy had been crowned, and of which he himself was abbot until 1147. He also founded the Abbey of St. Sulpicius in Bugey, Tamié Abbey in the Bauges, despite his marriage to Mahaut, he still fought against his brother-in-law Guy, who was killed at the Battle of Montmélian. Following this, King Louis VI of France, married to Amadeus sister Adélaide de Maurienne, Amadeus was saved by the intercession of Peter the Hermit, and by his promise to participate in Louis planned crusade. In 1147, he accompanied his nephew Louis VII of France and he financed his expedition with help from a loan from the Abbey of St. Maurice. Amadeus travelled south through Italy to Brindisi, where he crossed over to Durazzo, after crossing into Anatolia, Amadeus, who was leading the vanguard, became separated from Louis near Laodicea, and Louis forces were almost entirely destroyed. Marching on to Adalia, Louis, Amadeus, and other barons decided to continue to Antioch by ship, on the journey, Amadeus fell ill on Cyprus, and died at Nicosia in April 1148. He was buried in the Church of St. Croix in Nicosia, in Savoy, his son Humbert III succeeded him, under the regency of bishop Amadeus of Lausanne. The Early History of the House of Savoy, 1000-1233, cawley, Charles, Medieval Lands Project on Amadeus III of Savoy, Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy
24.
Humbert III, Count of Savoy
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Umberto III, surnamed the Blessed, was Count of Savoy from 1148 to 1188. His parents were Amadeus III of Savoy and Mathilde dAlbon the daughter of Guigues III of Albon and he ceded rights and benefits to monasteries and played a decisive role in the organization of Hautecombe Abbey. It is said that he would rather have been monk than a sovereign, on the death of his third wife he retired to Hautecombe, but then changed his mind and, by his fourth wife finally had son, Thomas. He sided with the Guelph party of Pope Alexander III against the Ghibelline Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and he died at Chambéry in 1189. He was the first prince buried at Hautecombe and his memorial day is March 4. Umberto III, Count of Savoy, beatified in the Catholic Church, was born around 1136 in the castle of Avigliana, near Turin, to Count Amadeus III and Mathilde dAlbon, Countess of Albon and Vienne. He is an important figure in society, as attested in the history of House of Savoy. In his efforts he was supported by Frederick I Barbarossa, like his father, Umberto II, who died young when he was still a minor, Amadeus III entrusted the education of his son, Umberto III to St. To better achieve his lofty goals, he frequently withdrew Hautecombe Abbey, on the banks of Lake Bourget in Savoy and he always left the abbey with regret, every time the family and the Savoyard nobility called him back for occupy himself with political matters. Amadeus III was a pilgrim in the Holy Land in 1122, although still at an early age, in 1151 Umberto was bethrothed to Faidiva, daughter of Alphonse Jourdain, Count of Toulouse. She would soon die without issue and he later married Gertrude, daughter of Thierry, Count of Flanders and Sibylla of Anjou. This second marriage was annulled by reason of infertility, in 1164, Umberto married Clementia of Zähringen, by whom he had two daughters, Alice and Sofia. She died in 1173, and he decided to retire to Hautecombe, in 1177, the nobility in 1177 convinced him marry for the fourth time. As wife, he took Beatrice of Mâcon, daughter Géraud I of Mâcon, at last he had a male heir, Thomas, to continue the dynasty. Beatrice also bore him a daughter who died at the age of seven and it lasted forty years, and was characterized by struggles with the Holy Roman Emperor, various lords and count-bishops. The main reason for conflict consisted in the patronage of the Bishop of Turin by Frederick Barbarossa and this led to a gradual reduction of the possessions and authority of Umberto III on the Italian side, leaving him with the rump territories of the valleys of Susa and Aosta. In 1187, he was banished from the Holy Roman Empire by Henry VI and he did not retire, as has been said, to his Alpine domains, devoting himself in particular to the practice of personal virtues and fraternal charity. Also he promoted the foundation of Precettoria of St. Anthony of Ranverso at Buttigliera Alta, not far from the town of Avigliana, entrusting it to Antoniani from Vienne, France
25.
Thomas, Count of Savoy
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Thomas was Count of Savoy from 1189 to 1233. He is sometimes numbered Thomas I to distinguish him from his son of the same name, Thomas was born in Aiguebelle, the son of Humbert III of Savoy and Beatrice of Viennois. His birth was seen as miraculous, his father had despaired of having a male heir after three wives. Count Humbert sought counsel from St. Anthelm, who blessed Humbert three times, and it was seen as a prophecy come true when Thomas was born shortly before Anthelm himself died on 26 June 1178 and he was named in honour of Saint Thomas Becket. He had reached his majority by August 1191, Thomas possessed the martial abilities, energy, and brilliance that his father lacked, and Savoy enjoyed a golden age under his leadership. Despite his youth he began the push northwest into new territories, in the same year he granted Aosta Valley the Charte des Franchises, recognising the right to administrative and political autonomy. This right was maintained until the eve of the French Revolution, later he conquered Vaud, Bugey, and Carignano. He supported the Hohenstaufens, and was known as Thomas the Ghibelline because of his career as Imperial Vicar of Lombardy, Thomas worked throughout his career to expand the control and influence of the County of Savoy. One of the key tools that he used was his number of children. In part, this was done by getting many of his sons into episcopal offices in surrounding territories, in addition to Guglielmo and Bonifacio, who made their careers in the clergy, their brother Thomas started out as a canon at Lausanne and became prévôt of Valence by 1226. Pietro was also a canon at Lausanne and served as acting bishop there until he was replaced in 1231, in 1219 he worked to get his daughter Beatrice married to the fourteen-year-old Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence. This established a relationship between the two adjoining counties which would help cement Savoy control over trade between Italy and France. Thomas also fought battles to expand his control. In 1215, his troops fought in an alliance with Milan against Monferrato, Thomas also worked through diplomatic and economic means to expand his control. The county of Savoy long enjoyed control over critical passes through the Alps, in his quest to gain more control over Turin, Thomas made an agreement with their rival Asti to reroute their French trade around Turin through Savoyard lands in a treaty on 15 September 1224. In 1226, Emperor Frederick II came to northern Italy and named Thomas Imperial Vicar of Lombardy, in this role, he mediated in a Genoese rebellion and a dispute between the town of Marseille and their bishop. Thomas also made a policy of granting franchises and charters to towns on key trade routes which enabled the merchant class to develop more wealth and built support for his rule. In 1195 he ambushed the party of Count William I of Geneva, Thomas carried off Marguerite and married her himself, producing some eight sons and six daughters
26.
Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy
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Amadeus IV was Count of Savoy from 1233 to 1253. Amadeus was born in Montmélian, Savoie, the legitimate heir of Thomas I of Savoy and Margaret of Geneva, he had however to fight with his brothers for the inheritance of Savoy lands after their fathers death. Together with his brother, Thomas, he fought against the communes of Turin and Pinerolo and he was succeeded by his young son Boniface. As the eldest son of Thomas I of Savoy, Amadeus inherited the County, however, his brothers Peter and Aymon demanded that he divide the territories and give them their share. In July 1234, he and his brother William convened a meeting at Château de Chillon. While both sides arrived with armed troops, William was able to negotiate a treaty between the brothers and this treaty kept the lands intact, but recognized the authority of the younger brothers within certain regions under Amadeus. These territories were on the frontiers of Savoy lands, designed to encourage the brothers to expand the county rather than diminish it, when his brother Thomas left his career in the church in 1235, Amadeus granted him similar territories. Before he had a son, Amadeus changed his mind many times regarding his will, initially, he had made his sons-in-law his heirs, but in 1235, he rewrote his will in favour of his brother Thomas. In December of that year, it went back to having his sons-in-law as heirs, then he rewrote the will in favour of Thomas. In March 1239, his daughters convinced him to return it to their favour, on 4 November 1240, Thomas returned and persuaded him to rewrite the will in his brothers favour again. When Thomas left, once again the will was reversed and his final will was written in 1252, leaving the title and nearly everything to his son, Boniface, and naming his brother Thomas as regent and second in line for the title. Amadeus faced many challenges in balancing the demands of the powers in Europe at that time. Then with his brothers, he led troops as part of the siege of Brescia, in July 1243, Amadeus and his brother Thomas were ordered by Enzo of Sardinia to join him in a siege of Vercelli, which had recently switched allegiances from the Empire to the Pope. Not only was the attack on the city unsuccessful, but Amadeus, when the brothers wrote to the new Pope Innocent IV to appeal the excommunication, he granted their request. However, Amadeus was then willing to open the same passes to the imperial army and he also signed a treaty with Henry III on 16 January 1246 which gave rights of passage through the passes to the English in exchange for an annual payment of 200 marks. He had gathered his army in Turin, and ordered those still loyal to him in the kingdoms of Arles, however, the revolt of Parma pulled Frederick back from this plan. That same summer, Amadeus blocked an attempt by the Pope to send 1500 soldiers to the Lombard League, on 8 November 1248, Frederick asked Amadeus and his brother Thomas to go to Lyon and start negotiations for peace. However, their efforts were unsuccessful and war continued until the death of Frederick and he married twice, and each marriage produced children c
27.
Boniface, Count of Savoy
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Boniface was Count of Savoy from 1253 to 1263, succeeding his father Amadeus IV. He never married and thus no heir. Since he became Count of Savoy at the age of nine, the uncles were, however granted compensation in return, receiving more properties within the County. When Thomas died in 1259, Cecile continued as regent in Savoy, under her regency, Philip and Peter continued their previous work of expanding the control and influence of the County of Savoy. Bonifaces campaigns in Flanders and Piedmont were not successful, in September 1262, Rudolf of Geneva offered homage to cousin Boniface after yet another round of the war between Peter and their kin in Geneva. In 1263, Boniface was mortally wounded in battle and died, la Maison de Savoie, Les Origines, Le Comte Vert, Le Comte Rouge
28.
Peter II, Count of Savoy
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Peter II, called the Little Charlemagne, held the Honour of Richmond, Yorkshire from April 1240 until his death and was Count of Savoy from 1263 until his death. He built the Savoy Palace in London, Peter was the seventh of nine sons of Thomas I of Savoy and Marguerite of Geneva, and the uncle of Eleanor of Provence, queen-consort of Henry III of England. He was born in Suze in the French County of Albon, at that point, Peter had already been growing restless with church life. Upon the death of his father, Peter demanded substantial portions of the County from his eldest brother Amadeus, the brothers all got together in 1234 at Chillon, where they negotiated a settlement which recognized Amadeus as the head of the house. From this, Peter received control of key castles which helped him to expand his control in the area of Geneva. His brother William negotiated a marriage for him with Agnes of Faucigny and his desire to further extend his territory led him into conflict with his uncle, William II of Geneva. Around 1236, Peter was ambushed and captured by his cousin Rudolf, when the resulting conflict was concluded in 1237, Amadeus forced William to sign a treaty which required Geneva to pay 20,000 marks and the castle of Arlod. He continued to use money and force to take further control of lands surrounding Savoy. On 29 May 1244 Cossonay similarly surrendered significant territories to Peter and Amadeus and he continued to gain control of key towns and trade routes throughout the Pays de Vaud, often by enfeofing them to the younger sons of the previous rulers. He was responsible for the significant renovations of the Château de Chillon, one scholar suggests that French is the language of western Switzerland due partly to Peters extensive conquests in the region. In January 1236, Eleanor of Provence, Peters niece, married King Henry III, in February 1246 he was granted land between the Strand and the Thames, where Peter built the Savoy Palace in 1263, on the site of the present Savoy Hotel. It was destroyed during the Peasants Revolt of 1381, by his will, the Honour of Richmond was left to his niece queen Eleanor, who transferred it to the crown. In 1241, Henry sent Peter to gather support for an invasion of Poitou. He travelled to Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy, Theobald I of Navarre, his brother Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy, in February 1242, Peter was sent into Poitou to see what support existed there for Henry. He was nearly captured there, but managed to escape and he then travelled to Provence to negotiate the marriage of his niece Sanchia of Provence to Henrys brother Richard. In 1246, Peter went back to Savoy, in part to seal a deal with Amadeus. In February 1247, he returned to England with Alice of Saluzzo and she was married to Edmund de Lacy, Baron of Pontefract that May. Boston, on the river Witham, had many years become an important port for Lincoln
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Philip I, Count of Savoy
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Philip I was the Count of Savoy from 1268 to 1285. Before this, he was the Bishop of Valence, Dean of Vienne, Isère, Philip was born in Aiguebelle, Savoie, the eighth son of Thomas I of Savoy and Marguerite of Geneva. His family prepared him for a clerical career, in 1236, his brother William was able to use his influence with Henry III of England to get Philip positions in the churches of Hillingdon, Oxney, and Geddington. In 1240, he was a candidate for Bishop of Lausanne, instead, he became Bishop of Valence in 1241. His brother Thomas had Philip installed as chancellor of Flanders and prévôt of St-Donatien-de-Bruges, in 1243, while Henry was fighting in Gascony, Philip escorted his sister Beatrice of Savoy and niece Sanchia of Provence to visit Eleanor, Henry, and their new baby Beatrice. This so cheered the besieged king that he lavished further gifts on the bishop, in 1244, Pope Innocent IV fled from Rome, and Philip convinced his brother, Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy, to let the pope pass through Savoy. Philip escorted the Pope to Lyon, and then remained with him to ensure his safety, Pope Innocent ensured Philips election as Archbishop of Lyon in 1245. While there, Philip continued his familys policies of governing through trade, when, against expectations, Philip became the next heir for the County of Savoy, he gave his church offices up and married Adelaide, Countess Palatine of Burgundy, on 12 June 1267. He became Count of Savoy in 1268, and in 1272 he also acquired the County of Bresse. While he was at first successful in extending the power of Savoy, in 1282 he was opposed by a coalition of King Rudolph I, Charles of Anjou, the Dauphin, and the Counts of Geneva. He appointed his nephew, Amadeus, as his successor, monier, R. Les Institutions financières du comté de Flandre du XI siècle à1384
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Amadeus V, Count of Savoy
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Amadeus V, surnamed the Great for his wisdom and success as a ruler, was the Count of Savoy from 1285 to 1323. He established Chambéry as his seat and he was the son of Thomas II of Savoy and Beatrice Fieschi. Amadeus succeeded his childless paternal uncle Philip I as Count of Savoy in 1285, Amadeus was a younger brother of Thomas III of Piedmont, who had died in 1282. Thomas had been succeeded by his eldest son Philip I of Piedmont who had a claim to the County than Amadeus. However Philip was about seven years old and at the time unable to press a claim, Amadeus managed to secure the support of his nephew by offering Philip control of Turin and Pinerolo. Amadeus also secured the loyalty of his younger brother Louis by offering him Vaud as an hereditary barony, through his marriage to Sybilla, Countess of Bugey and Bresse, he was able to incorporate these Burgundian districts into his states. Later expansion saw his dominions further increased, on 1 October 1285, Amadeus was declared protector of Geneva after negotiations with the Bishop of Geneva. The hereditary title belonged to Amadeus II, Count of Geneva who was in conflict with the Bishop, in 1287 Amadeus besieged the castle of Ile in the Rhône near Geneva, and captured it after fourteen weeks. In 1295, Amadeus acquired the fortress at Chambéry from its previous owner Hugh of La Rochette and he brought Georges de Aquila, a student of Giotto from Florence, to his court. Georges decorated the castle with paintings, carved wood, and frescoes and he worked there for the Savoyards until he died in 1348. Among his successes was the Treaty of Annemasse which the Count of Geneva, the treaty was the result of military victories over the both of them. In 1301, Amadeus also settled his dispute over control of Valais with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sion and his reign, however, also saw friction between the County of Savoy and the Duchy of Austria. He pursued an alliance with the Kingdom of France and received Maulévrier in Normandy as a result of good relations. The eventual recovery of Lyon by the Kings of France alerted Amadeus to their tendencies towards the regions by the Alps. He sought an ally against potential hostility in Henry VII. Henry was married to Margaret of Brabant, sister-in-law of Amadeus, the relation through marriage probably helped the alliance. Henry awarded Amadeus with the title of vicar of Lombardy. Henry also elevated Aosta and Chablais to duchies, though remained a part of the realm of Savoy
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Aymon, Count of Savoy
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Aymon, nicknamed the Peaceful, was Count of Savoy from 1329 to 1343. His father was Amadeus V, Count of Savoy, and he was the brother of Edward. In 1321, Aymon oversaw the siege engines at the siege of Corbières, on the death of Amadeus V in 1323, Aymon was lord of Bresse under Edward. As a younger son of a family, Aymon had planned on a life in the church. When Edward died in 1329, Aymon was in Avignon at the court of Pope John XXII, in 1329, shortly after becoming count, Aymon established a committee to settle the territorial disputes with his cousin, Amadeus III of Geneva. These disputes had been a feud between the families for generations, but they were able to resolve them through years of negotiations without resorting back to war. This was how Aymon earned his nickname of The Peaceful and he contested the title Count of Savoy with his niece, Joan of Savoy since Savoy operated under Salic law and had never had a female ruler. Joan with the support of her husband, John III, Duke of Brittany defended Joans claim, John and Joan had no issue. Eventually a settlement was reached whereby Aymon obtained the Countship in return for providing a payment to Joan. He spent much of his first few years as count at war with the Dauphin, Guigues VIII of Viennois, continuing a feud which went back for generations in their families. After Guigues was killed besieging La Perrière in 1333, Philip VI of France was able to broker a truce between Aymon and the new Dauphin, Humbert II of Viennois, brother of Guigues. In August 1334, in the buildup to the Hundred Years War, Aymon declined to commit, as he held lands both in England and in Normandy, so was technically a subject of both kings. In April 1337, Philip sent similar messages on the other side, Aymon replied that he could not go abroad to fight as he still had territorial disputes with the Dauphiné. Philip quickly settled a more lasting peace, as Humbert was trying to sell the Dauphiné, Aymon then led his forces as part of the French war effort from 1339 to 1342. He often fought alongside Amadeus III of Geneva, in 1330, Aymon established a chancellors office to manage official documents. He financed the expansion of a chapel at the Hautecombe Abbey which was constructed from 1331 to 1342. In 1340, he set up judges to handle appeals at a level between the castellans and himself, to ease his workload in such cases. Prior to his marriage, Aymon also fathered illegitimate children
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Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy
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Amadeus VI, nicknamed the Green Count was Count of Savoy from 1343 to 1383. He was the eldest son of Aymon, Count of Savoy, though he started under a regency, he showed himself to be a forceful leader, continuing Savoys emergence as a power in Europe politically and militarily. He participated in a crusade against the Turks who were moving into Europe, when his father died in 1343, Amadeus inherited the County of Savoy. Since he was nine years old, his fathers will left two cousins as co-regents, Amadeus III of Geneva and Louis II of Vaud. The two agreed to a document limiting their power as regents, neither could make any significant decision without the other, and the decisions of both were subject to review by the resident council of nobles representing all bailis in the county. Though she died the year, in her will she left the county to Philip. In 1345, he negotiated a settlement to the one Joan reached with Aymon. Amadeus was educated both physically and mentally and he enjoyed learning to fight and ride. His education included classic works such as De Re Militari and more modern texts including De Regimine Principum and he also showed religious devotion, requesting a portable altar and the right for his chaplain to say mass for him every morning wherever he may be. He took vows to fast more often than was healthy for him, the pope agreed, asking him instead to feed twelve of the poor weekly. When the young Angevin queen Joanna I of Naples took the throne, several in northern Italy sought to take advantage of her inexperience, John II, Marquess of Montferrat led the first attacks, while James of Piedmont, a cousin and vassal of Amadeus, backed the queen. After her first army was defeated in 1345, the attackers moved next into the territory ruled by James, in 1347, James asked Amadeus for help, and Amadeus sent an army. That army swept the attackers back through July of that year, John then recruited the help of Humbert II, Dauphin of Viennois, an old enemy of the Savoyards, and Thomas II, Marquess of Saluzzo. Together, they conquered the Angevin lands, Pope Clement VI spent 1348 negotiating a truce to end the fighting, which none of the combatants were satisfied with. From 1348 through 1351, the Black Death ravaged the lands of Savoy, in 1348, many of the peasants thought that it was caused by Jews poisoning wells and fountains. Though the castellans in some places tried to protect them, quite a few were killed, in Chambéry, the Jews were locked in the castle for their protection, but a mob broke in and killed several. Court officers were pressured into finding the remainder guilty of poisoning, executing eleven. In 1349, Amadeus agreed to a treaty between himself, Amadeus of Geneva, James of Piedmont, and the House of Visconti, rulers of Milan and this treaty included provisions for Galeazzo II Visconti to marry Bianca of Savoy, sister of the count
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Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy
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Amadeus VII, known as the Red Count, was Count of Savoy from 1383 to 1391. Amadeus was the son of Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy, Amadeus VII was known for his hospitality, for he would entertain people of all stations and never turned a person from his table without a meal. He married Bonne of Berry, daughter of John, Duke of Berry, upon his death at age 29 from tetanus, controversy arose because of his will. It took three months of negotiations to restore peace in the family, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. A Distant Mirror, The Calamitous 14th Century, philip the Bold, The Formation of the Burgundian State
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Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy
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Amadeus VIII was an Savoyard nobleman, the son of Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy and Bonne of Berry. After the death of his father in 1391, his mother acted as a regent, born at Chambéry, he was the Count of Savoy from 1391 to 1416 and was elevated by Emperor Sigismund to Duke of Savoy in 1416. Amadeus increased his dominions and encouraged several attempts to negotiate an end to the Hundred Years War, after the death of his wife, he founded the Order of Saint Maurice with six other knights. They lived alone in the castle of Ripaille, near Geneva, Amadeus was elected at Basel as pope Felix V in opposition to Pope Eugene IV, by the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence and reigned from November 1439 to April 1449. He resigned as duke in favour of his son in 1440 and he stepped down to accept a Cardinals hat. He is now regarded as an antipope, Amadeus image in history is marred by the account of him as a pontiff concerned with money, to avoid disadvantaging his heirs, found in the Commentaries of Pius II. Nor is there evidence that he intrigued to obtain the papal office and he married Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and granddaughter of John II of France. They had nine children, Margaret of Savoy, marie of Savoy, married Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. Amadeus of Savoy, Prince of Piemonte, Philip of Savoy, Count of Genève. Margaret of Savoy, married firstly Louis III, titular king of Naples, secondly Louis IV, Count Palatine of the Rhine and thirdly Ulrich V, Count of Württemberg. According to James H. Guill, Margarida de Sabuya, the wife of Willem van der Hagen, was the daughter of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy. Der letzte Gegenpapst, Felix V. Studien zu Herrschaftspraxis und Legitimationsstrategien, Papsttum im mittelalterlichen Europa,3, Köln, guillaume Huin dEstaing Louis Aleman Catholic Encyclopedia entry Felix V. in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland. In, Salvador Miranda, The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, online at fiu. edu, Website of Florida International University, retrieved 5 November 2011
