1.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
2.
Pannonian
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This is a list of ancient tribes in the ancient territory of Illyria. The locations of Illyrian tribes/peoples prior to the Roman conquest are approximate, as sometimes many wholly different locations are given by ancient writers, many tribal names are known from Roman civitates and the number of their decuriae, formed of the dispersed tribes in Illyria. The national ethnonym of the Albanians is derived from this tribe, Ardiaei or Ouardiaei, was an Illyrian tribe, residing inland, that eventually settled on the Adriatic coast. The Ardiaean dynasty ruled over the Illyrian Kingdom, autariatae or Autariates was an Illyrian tribe that became prominent between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. Bylliones was an Illyrian tribe They were affected by a partial cultural Hellenisation, deretini or Derriopes was an Illyrian tribe in Narona conventus with 14 decuriae. They lived close to lake Skodra and they are mentioned rarely by ancient writers. Chelidones was an Illyrian tribe whose name in Greek meant snail-men and they lived in the Mat or Drin valleys. Daorsi or Duersi or Daorsii or Daorsei was an Illyrian tribe, another name of the tribe was Daversi. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae that made them along with Issa seek the aid of the Roman state, the Daorsi fought on the Roman side, providing them with their strong navy abandoning Caravantius. After the Illyrian Wars, the Daorsi were given immunity and their most important city was Daorson. They were located between the Dardani and the Ardiaei, Appian of Alexandria wrote in his Illyrian wars that according to the Ancient Greeks, Illyrius, the ancestor of the Illyrians, had a daughter, Dassaro, from whom sprang the Dassareti. Other possible names are Derrioi and Derbanoi, dyestes or Dyestae was an Illyrian tribe located around the silver mines of Damastion. Only Strabo passingly mentions this tribe, kinambroi was an Illyrian tribe. They surrendered to Octavian in 33 BC. The Enchelei or Sesarethii were an Illyrian tribe and their name, given by the Greeks, meant eel-men. In Greek mythology, Cadmus and Harmonia ruled over them, several locations are hypothesized for the Encheleans, around Lake Ohrid, above Lake Ohrid or the region of Lynkestis south of the Taulantii. Maezaei has been the group of Maezaeis, including 269 decuriae. Melcumani or Merromenoi or Melkomenioi was an Illyrian tribe, narensi or Narensii or Narensioi or Naresioi or Naresii was the name of a newly formed Illyrian tribe from various peoples at the river Naron. Penestae was the name of an Illyrian tribe, Sardeates or Sardiotai was an Illyrian tribe close to Jajce
3.
Illyrian tribe
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This is a list of ancient tribes in the ancient territory of Illyria. The locations of Illyrian tribes/peoples prior to the Roman conquest are approximate, as sometimes many wholly different locations are given by ancient writers, many tribal names are known from Roman civitates and the number of their decuriae, formed of the dispersed tribes in Illyria. The national ethnonym of the Albanians is derived from this tribe, Ardiaei or Ouardiaei, was an Illyrian tribe, residing inland, that eventually settled on the Adriatic coast. The Ardiaean dynasty ruled over the Illyrian Kingdom, autariatae or Autariates was an Illyrian tribe that became prominent between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. Bylliones was an Illyrian tribe They were affected by a partial cultural Hellenisation, deretini or Derriopes was an Illyrian tribe in Narona conventus with 14 decuriae. They lived close to lake Skodra and they are mentioned rarely by ancient writers. Chelidones was an Illyrian tribe whose name in Greek meant snail-men and they lived in the Mat or Drin valleys. Daorsi or Duersi or Daorsii or Daorsei was an Illyrian tribe, another name of the tribe was Daversi. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae that made them along with Issa seek the aid of the Roman state, the Daorsi fought on the Roman side, providing them with their strong navy abandoning Caravantius. After the Illyrian Wars, the Daorsi were given immunity and their most important city was Daorson. They were located between the Dardani and the Ardiaei, Appian of Alexandria wrote in his Illyrian wars that according to the Ancient Greeks, Illyrius, the ancestor of the Illyrians, had a daughter, Dassaro, from whom sprang the Dassareti. Other possible names are Derrioi and Derbanoi, dyestes or Dyestae was an Illyrian tribe located around the silver mines of Damastion. Only Strabo passingly mentions this tribe, kinambroi was an Illyrian tribe. They surrendered to Octavian in 33 BC. The Enchelei or Sesarethii were an Illyrian tribe and their name, given by the Greeks, meant eel-men. In Greek mythology, Cadmus and Harmonia ruled over them, several locations are hypothesized for the Encheleans, around Lake Ohrid, above Lake Ohrid or the region of Lynkestis south of the Taulantii. Maezaei has been the group of Maezaeis, including 269 decuriae. Melcumani or Merromenoi or Melkomenioi was an Illyrian tribe, narensi or Narensii or Narensioi or Naresioi or Naresii was the name of a newly formed Illyrian tribe from various peoples at the river Naron. Penestae was the name of an Illyrian tribe, Sardeates or Sardiotai was an Illyrian tribe close to Jajce
4.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
5.
Sirmium
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Sirmium was a city in the Roman province of Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was proclaimed one of four capitals of the Roman Empire and it was also the capital of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and of Pannonia Secunda. Sirmium was located on the Sava river, on the site of modern Sremska Mitrovica in northern Serbia, ¨The site is protected as an Archaeological Site of Exceptional Importance. The modern region of Syrmia was named after the city, Sirmium had 100,000 inhabitants and was one of the biggest cities of its time. Colin McEvedy, however, put the population at only 7,000, Ammianus Marcellinus called it the glorious mother of cities. Remains of Sirmium stand on the site of the modern-day Sremska Mitrovica,55 km west of Belgrade and 145 km away from Kostolac, archaeologists have found traces of organized human life on the site of Sirmium dating from 5,000 BC. The city was mentioned in the 4th century BC and was originally inhabited by the Illyrians. The Triballi king Syrmus was later considered the founder of Sirmium, but the roots are different. The name Sirmium by itself means flow, flowing water, wetland, with the Celtic tribe of Scordisci as allies, the Roman proconsul Marcus Vinicius took Sirmium in around 14 BC. In the 1st century AD, Sirmium gained the status of a Roman colony, the Roman emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II prepared war expeditions in Sirmium. In 103 Pannonia was split into two provinces, Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, and Sirmium became the city of the latter. In 296 Diocletian reorganized Pannonia into four provinces, Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda and he joined them with Noricum and Dalmatia to establish the Diocese of Pannonia, with Sirmium as its capital also. In 293, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts, Sirmium emerged as one of the four capital cities, the eastern part of Illyricum remained a separate prefecture under the East Roman Empire with its new capital in Thessalonica. From the 4th century, the city was an important Christian center, five church councils, the Councils of Sirmium, took place in Sirmium. The city also had a palace, a horse-racing arena, a mint, an arena theatre. Ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus called it the mother of cities. The mint in Sirmium was connected with the mint in Salona, at the end of the 4th century Sirmium came under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the East Roman Empire. In 441 the Huns conquered Sirmium, it remained for more than a century in the hands of other tribes, such as Eastern Goths
6.
Amantia
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Amantia or Abantia was an ancient Greek polis in Epirus. It occupied an important defensive position above the Aoos river valley to the east, and on the road to the coast, a Greek temple, the Aphrodite temple, a theatre, and a stadium have also been found in the city. The name for an inhabitant was Amantieus, according to Pausanias, the settlement was founded by Locrians from nearby Thronium and Abantes from Euboea. Stephanus Byzantius similarly attributes the foundation to Euboean Abantes returning from the Trojan war, hesychius states that it was an Epirote settlement. One foundation legend had Elpenor, who dies at Troy, acting as a nostos. Their political leaders had titles like prytanis and grammateus, the town was surrounded with a walled enclosure roughly 2, 100m long. A large fort was built two gates and two defensive towers in the north. Its name was mentioned for the first time in the 4th century BC and it is situated on the slope of a high hill and had only its acropolis fortified. By the 3rd century BC, the town was strengthened economically, the tribe itself was called Amantes. The town became part of the Roman province of Epirus Novus, no longer a residential bishopric, Amantia is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. List of ancient cities in Illyria Amantes
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
8.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
9.
Prehistoric sites in Serbia
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The best known cultural archaeological discoveries from the prehistoric period on the territory of modern-day Serbia are the Starčevo and Vinča cultures dating back to 6400–6200 BC. Serbias strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many nations, the territory of present-day Serbia is situated in the central region of Balkan peninsula. It lies on one of the migration routes connecting the Middle East with central Europe. Traces of human population in this area go back to at least to 400000, morava-Vardar corridor has seen regular waves of migrations throughout its history. It is one of probable paths of original human expansion into Europe and this regions was home to several important Mesolithic and Paleolithic cultures. Some of the oldest traces of agriculture in Europe are found in this area and its fertile river valleys are probable conduit through which agriculture has spread from the Middle East and Asia minor to central Europe. Archeological sites in present-day Serbia contain some of the earliest examples of metallurgy, during the Bronze Age this area has seen several large migrations of various Indo-European groups, some of whom become permanently settled. During the Iron Age lower Morava valley become a Celto-Thraco-Illyrian interaction zone, the period of prehistory in this area ends with the advance of reliable Greek and later Roman written sources, especially after the area was incorporated into Roman empire as province of Moesia. Paleolithic archeological evidence from the territory of present-day Serbia remain surprisingly scarce. Two skeletons of Mammoths have been found in Serbia, the first in Kikinda in 1996, a fragment of a human jaw, was found in Sićevo and believed to be up to 525, 000—397,000 years old. Many archaeological sites have been destroyed because of floodings, during the last glacial maximum the territory of Serbia was a part of a large Balkan Refugium. Recent genetic studies show that 30%-40% of Serbian population carry Y-DNA Haplogroup I2 genetic markers, associated with the hunter-gatherer population, Lepenski Vir is a mesolithic archaeological site near Donji Milanovac, dating to 7000 BC with the peak of culture in 5300–4800 BC. Numerous piscine sculptures and peculiar architecture are testimony to a social and religious life led by the inhabitants. It is assumed that the people of Lepenski Vir culture represent the descendants of the early European population of the Brno-Předmost hunter gatherer culture from the end of the last ice age, archeological evidence of human habitation of the surrounding caves dates back to around 20,000 BC. The first settlement on the low plateau dates back to 7000 BC, seven successive settlements were discovered on the Lepenski Vir site, with the remains of 136 residential and sacral buildings dating from 6500 to 5500 BC. Among other finds are the many sculptures, The sculptures can be separated in two distinct categories, one with simple geometric patterns and the other representing humanoid figures. The latter are the most interesting, all of these figural sculptures were modelled in a naturalistic and strongly expressionistic manner. Only the head and face of the figures were modelled realistically, with strong brow arches, an elongated nose
10.
Celts
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The history of pre-Celtic Europe remains very uncertain. According to one theory, the root of the Celtic languages, the Proto-Celtic language, arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe. Thus this area is called the Celtic homeland. The earliest undisputed examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions beginning in the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names, Insular Celtic languages are attested beginning around the 4th century in Ogham inscriptions, although it was clearly being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century, coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge, survive in 12th century recensions. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a cohesive cultural entity. They had a linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from the culture of the surrounding polities. By the 6th century, however, the Continental Celtic languages were no longer in wide use, Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels and the Celtic Britons of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain, Ireland, today, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton are still spoken in parts of their historical territories, and Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival. The first recorded use of the name of Celts – as Κελτοί – to refer to a group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC. In the fifth century BC Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube, the etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *kʲel ‘to hide’, IE *kʲel ‘to heat’ or *kel ‘to impel’, several authors have supposed it to be Celtic in origin, while others view it as a name coined by Greeks. Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the group. Yet he reports Celtic peoples in Iberia, and also uses the ethnic names Celtiberi and Celtici for peoples there, as distinct from Lusitani, pliny the Elder cited the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. Latin Gallus might stem from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name originally and its root may be the Proto-Celtic *galno, meaning “power, strength”, hence Old Irish gal “boldness, ferocity” and Welsh gallu “to be able, power”. The tribal names of Gallaeci and the Greek Γαλάται most probably have the same origin, the suffix -atai might be an Ancient Greek inflection. Proto-Germanic *walha is derived ultimately from the name of the Volcae and this means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin Gallia, though it does refer to the same ancient region
11.
Celegeri
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Celegeri were a Celtic tribe, together with the Dindari a branch of the Scordisci that migrated to Illyria after the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. They inhabited Moesia Superior, and are registered by Pliny as living between the Dardanoi and the Triballi and they appear in north-westernmost Thrace in the 1st century BC. They were replaced by the Romanized Thracio-Celtic Tricornenses, the Municipium Celegerorum is present Ivanjica, Serbia. List of Celtic tribes List of ancient tribes in Illyria
12.
Scordisci
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The Scordisci were a Gallic Iron Age tribe centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Savus, Dravus and Danube rivers. They were historically notable from the beginning of the third century BC until the turn of the common era, the Scordisci consolidated into a tribal state. At their zenith, their territory stretched over regions comprising parts of present-day Serbia, Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania. After the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD, their territories were included into the Roman provinces of Pannonia, Moesia and Dacia. The Scordisci was a Celtic tribe formed after the Gallic invasion of the Balkans and their tribal name may be connected to the Scordus, the Šar mountain. The personal names are noted to have been subsequently Illyricized, having South Pannonian–North Dalmatian influence, according to onomastic evidence, Scordiscan settlements to the east of the Morava river were Thracianized. In parts of Moesia the Scordisci and Thracians lived beside each other, the Scordisci were found during different timelines in Illyria, Thrace and Dacia, sometimes splitting into more than one group like the Scordisci Major and the Scordisci Minor. Extensive La Tène type finds, of production, are noted in Pannonia as well as northern Moesia Superior, attesting to the concentration of Celtic settlements. However, such finds south of the Sava river are scarce, the Scordisci were centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Sava, Drava and Danube rivers. The Scordisci consolidated into a tribal state, at their zenith, their core territory stretched over regions comprising parts of present-day Serbia, Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania, while their influence spread even further. The Romans reported that they had the custom of drinking blood, Celtic expansion reached the Carpathians in the beginning of the 4th century BC. According to a Livy, perhaps based on Celtic legend, the Celts that migrated to Italy, the Celts established themselves in Pannonia, subjugating the Pannonians, and in the end of the 4th century they renewed raids into the Balkans. By the early 3rd century BC, Pannonia had been Celtiziced, the Celts, retreating from Delphi, settled on the mouth of the Sava and called themselves Scordisci. The Scordisci established control to the north of the Dardani, there is no mention of the Scordisci until the reign of Philip V of Macedon, when they emerge as Macedon allies against the Dardani and Rome. The Scordisci, having conquered the important Sava valley, the route to Italy, in the second half of the 3rd century BC. They subjugated a number of tribes in Moesia, including the Dardani, several west Thracian tribes, the Scordisci most likely subdued the Dardani in the mid-2nd century BC, after which there are for long no mention of the Dardani. From 141 BC, the Scordisci were constantly involved in battles against Roman held Macedonia and they were defeated in 135 BC. by Cosconius in Thrace. In 118 BC, according to a stone discovered near Thessalonica, Sextus Pompeius
13.
Dacians
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The Dacians were an Indo-European people, part of or related to the Thracians. Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia, located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and this area includes the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Ukraine, Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary and Southern Poland. The Dacians were known as Geta in Ancient Greek writings, and as Dacus or Getae in Roman documents and it was Herodotus who first used the ethnonym Getae in his Histories. In Greek and Latin, in the writings of Julius Caesar, Strabo, and Pliny the Elder, Getae and Dacians were interchangeable terms, or used with some confusion by the Greeks. Latin poets often used the name Getae, vergil called them Getae four times, and Daci once, Lucian Getae three times and Daci twice, Horace named them Getae twice and Daci five times, while Juvenal one time Getae and two times Daci. In AD113, Hadrian used the poetic term Getae for the Dacians, modern historians prefer to use the name Geto-Dacians. Strabo describes the Getae and Dacians as distinct but cognate tribes and this distinction refers to the regions they occupied. Strabo and Pliny the Elder also state that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language, by contrast, the name of Dacians, whatever the origin of the name, was used by the more western tribes who adjoined the Pannonians and therefore first became known to the Romans. According to Strabos Geographica, the name of the Dacians was Δάοι Daoi. The name Daoi was certainly adopted by foreign observers to designate all the inhabitants of the north of Danube that had not yet been conquered by Greece or Rome. The ethnographic name Daci is found under various forms within ancient sources, Greeks used the forms Δάκοι Dakoi and Δάοι Daoi. The form Δάοι Daoi was frequently used according to Stephan of Byzantium, latins used the forms Davus, Dacus, and a derived form Dacisci. There are similarities between the ethnonyms of the Dacians and those of Dahae, an Indo-European people located east of the Caspian Sea, scholars have suggested that there were links between the two peoples since ancient times. The historian David Gordon White has, moreover, stated that the Dacians, appear to be related to the Dahae. The name Daci, or Dacians is a collective ethnonym, Dio Cassius reported that the Dacians themselves used that name, and the Romans so called them, while the Greeks called them Getae. Opinions on the origins of the name Daci are divided, one hypothesis is that the name Getae originates in the Indo-European *guet- to utter, to talk. Another hypothesis is that Getae and Daci are Iranian names of two Iranian-speaking Scythian groups that had assimilated into the larger Thracian-speaking population of the later Dacia. In the 1st century AD, Strabo suggested that its stem formed a name borne by slaves, Greek Daos
14.
Illyrians
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The Illyrians were a group of Indo-European tribes in antiquity, who inhabited part of the western Balkans and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula. The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, the Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as Illyrians, and it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature for themselves. The term Illyrians last appears in the record in the 7th century. In later Greek mythology, Illyrius was the son of Cadmus and Harmonia who eventually ruled Illyria, Illyrius had multiple sons and daughters. From these, sprang the Taulantii, Parthini, Dardani, Encheleae, Autariates, Dassaretae, autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sons Scordiscus and Triballus. Even before the advent of post-modernism, scholars recognized a difficulty in producing a single theory on the ethnogenesis of the Illyrians given their heterogeneous nature, nevertheless, scholars traditionally looked for the origins of the Illyrian peoples centuries, even millennia, before their first historical attestation. Following the theories of Gustaf Kossinna, scholars sought to equate tribes mentioned by later Greco-Roman historians with preceding Bronze, in particular, scholars such as Julian Pokorny and Richard Pittioni placed the Illyrian homeland within the Luzatian culture, itself an offshoot of the trans-Central European Urnfield culture. From c.1200 BC, the bearers of the Lausitz culture are said to have engaged in widespread migrations throughout Europe. With regard to the Balkans, their movement south in turn initiated the Dorian migrations into southern Greece and these Pan-Illyrian theories have since been dismissed by scholars, based as they were on racialistic notions of Nordicism and Aryanism. The above theories have found little archaeological corroboration, as no convincing evidence for significant migratory movements from the Luzatian culture into the west Balkans have ever been found. Rather, archaeologists from the former Yugoslavia highlighted the continuity between the Bronze and succeeding Iron Age, ultimately developing the so-called autochthonous theory of Illyrian genesis, the autochthonous model was most elaborated upon by Alojz Benac and B. They argued that the proto-Illyrians had arrived earlier, during the Bronze Age as nomadic Indo-Europeans from the steppe. From that point, there was a gradual Illyrianization of the western Balkans leading to historic Illyrians and he did not deny a minor cultural impact from the northern Urnfield cultures, however these movements had neither a profound influence on the stability. Of the Balkans, nor did they affect the ethnogenesis of the Illyrian ethnos, aleksandar Stipčević raised concerns regarding Benacs all-encompassing scenario of autochthonous ethnogenesis. They rather see the emergence of historic Illyrians tribes as a recent phenomenon - just prior to their first attestation. The exception to this are the communities in Glasinac and Mati, the impetus behind the emergence of larger regional groups, such as Iapodes, Liburnians, Pannonians etc. is traced to increased contacts with the Mediterranean and La Tène global worlds. This catalyzed the development of complex political institutions and the increase in differences between individual communities. Emerging local elites selectively adopted either La Tène or Hellenistic and, later, Roman cultural templates in order to legitimise and they were competing fiercely through either alliance or conflict and resistance to Roman expansion
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Autariatae
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The Autariatae or Autariates were an ancient people that eventually became the most powerful Illyrian tribe. Greek mythology attributes a progenitor to the Autariatae, son of Illyrius called Autarieus, the Autariatae communities unified into a single political entity during the late 6th century BC. They began to expand eastward into territories controlled by the Triballi, moreover, they expanded southward where they defeated the Ardiaei, their old rivals, in struggles for control over pastures and salty springs. Activities of the Autariatae at the turn of the 6th and 5th centuries BC profoundly influenced the peoples who were affected by their expansion. The Ardiaei were moved toward the coasts and the Triballi to the east, the expansion of the Autariatae enabled them to achieve hegemonic control over one part of the interior of the Balkan Peninsula. Strabo’s comment on the Autariatae as the once greatest and most powerful Illyrian people most likely refers to this period and their peak of development was followed by the gradual decline of the Autariatae ending in 310 BC with their sudden disappearance due to Celtic migrations. Appian writes that the Ardiaei were destroyed by the Autariatae and that in contrast to the Autariatae had maritime power, the ancient geographer, Strabo, lists the Autariatae as one of the three strongest tribes - the other two being the Ardiaei and the Dardanii. A standard practice of the Autariatae entailed killing their weak and wounded and this was meant to prevent meek individuals from falling into the hands of enemy tribes. The Autariatae left a legacy of material wealth, so far, more than 100 castle ruins were identified to have been inhabited by the Autariatae, as well as thousands of tumuli in which they had been buried. Movable materials reveal all specific features associated with the originality of the Autariatae. The Autariatae established a tradition of manufacturing metal and ceramic products. Artifacts consisting of sheets with luxurious golden and silver belts of Mramorac type indicate the complexity of this tradition. The Autariatae are an example of a highland people who also show all the characteristics of a highland mentality. Case in point, the Autariatae have strongly maintained their customs of burning the dead in tumuli. Archaeological remains indicate that the life of the Autariatae was influenced by both their ancestor cult and the cult of their solar god. One can find the evidence of the solar cult throughout the territories once controlled by the Autariatae. The Autariatae economy was based on breeding, metalwork, handicraft. List of ancient tribes in Illyria
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Dardani
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Their territory itself was not considered part of Illyria by Strabo. The term used for their territory was, while other areas had more unspecified terms, such as. Other than that, little to no data exists on the territory of the Dardani prior to Roman conquest, the Dardani/Dardanoi derived their name from Dardanus, the mythical founder of Dardania, an ancient city in the Troad. In Greek mythology, Dardanus was a son of Zeus and Electra, Dardanus Pronunciation of Dardanus as a name for boys has its root in Greek. Dardanus is a spelling of Dardanos. The Dardani are first mentioned in the 4th century BC, when their king Bardylis succeeded into bringing various tribes into a single organization, under his leadership the Dardani defeated the Macedonians and Molossians several times. At this time they were enough to rule Macedonia through a puppet king in 392-391 BC. In 385-384 they allied with Dionysius I of Syracuse and defeated the Molossians, killing up to 15,000 of their soldiers and their continuous invasions forced the Macedonian king to pay them a tribute in 372 BC. They returned raiding the Molossians in 360, in 359 BC Bardylis won a decisive battle against Macedonian king Perdiccas III, whom he killed himself, while 4,000 Macedonian soldiers fell, and the cities of upper Macedonia were occupied. The time of marriage is somewhat disputed while some historians maintain that the marriage happened after the defeat of Bardylis. In 334 BC, under the leadership of Cleitus, the son of Bardylis, the Dardani managed to capture some cities but were eventually defeated by Alexanders forces. Celts were present in Dardania in 279 BC, the Dardanian king offered to help the Macedonians with 20,000 soldiers against the Celts, but this was refused by Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos. Dardani were a constant threat to the Macedonian kingdom, in 230 under Longarus they captured Bylazora from the Paionians and in 229 they again attacked Macedonia, defeating Demetrius II in an important battle. In this period their influence on the region grew and some other Illyrian tribes defected Teuta joining the Dardani under Longarus, when Philip V rose to the Macedonian throne, skirmishing with Dardani began in 220-219 BC and he managed to capture Bylazora from them in 217 BC. In 201 Bato of Dardania along with Pleuratus the Illyrian and Amynander king of Athamania, a joint campaign of the Bastarnae and Macedonians against the Dardanians was organized, but Philip V died and his son Perseus of Macedon withdrew his forces from the campaign. The Bastarnae crossed the Danube in huge numbers and although they didnt meet the Macedonians, some 30,000 Bastarnae under the command of Clondicus seem to have defeated the Dardani. In 179 BC, the Bastarnae conquered the Dardani, who later in 174 pushed them out, in a war which proved catastrophic, with a few later, in 170 BC. Macedonia and Illyria became Roman protectorates in 168 BC, the Scordisci, a tribe of Celtic origin, most likely subdued the Dardani in the mid-2nd century BC, after which there are for long no mention of the Dardani
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Thracians
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The Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting a large area in southeastern Europe. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family, the study of Thracians and Thracian culture is known as Thracology. Thracians are one of the three primary groups of modern Bulgarians. The first historical record about the Thracians is found in the Iliad, the ethnonym Thracian comes from Ancient Greek Θρᾷξ or Θρᾴκιος/Ionic, Θρηίκιος, and the toponym Thrace comes from Θρᾴκη/Ion. These forms are all exonyms as applied by the Greeks, in Greek mythology, Thrax was regarded as one of the reputed sons of the god Ares. In the Alcestis, Euripides mentions that one of the names of Ares himself was Thrax since he was regarded as the patron of Thrace, the origins of the Thracians remain obscure, in the absence of written historical records. Evidence of proto-Thracians in the period depends on artifacts of material culture. Leo Klejn identifies proto-Thracians with the multi-cordoned ware culture that was pushed away from Ukraine by the advancing timber grave culture and we speak of proto-Thracians from which during the Iron Age Dacians and Thracians begin developing. Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not manage to form a political organization until the Odrysian state was founded in the fifth century BC. A strong Dacian state appeared in the first century BC, during the reign of King Burebista, including the Illyrians, the mountainous regions were home to various peoples regarded as warlike and ferocious Thracian tribes, while the plains peoples were apparently regarded as more peaceable. Thracians inhabited parts of the ancient provinces of Thrace, Moesia, Macedonia, Dacia, Scythia Minor, Sarmatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Pannonia, and other regions of the Balkans and Anatolia. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Panonia in the west. Aligning themselves in kingdoms and tribes, they never displayed any form of unity beyond short. Similar to the Celtic and Slavic tribes, most people are thought to have lived simply in small fortified villages, although the concept of an urban center was not developed until the Roman period, various larger fortifications which also served as regional market centers were numerous. Yet, in general, despite Greek colonization in such areas as Byzantium, Apollonia and other cities, the first Greek colonies in Thrace were founded in the eighth century BC. Thrace south of the Danube was ruled for half a century by the Persians under Darius the Great. In the first decade of the sixth century BC, the Persians invaded Thrace, Thracians were forced to join the invasions of European Scythia and Greece. According to Herodotus, the Bithynian Thracians also had to contribute a large contingent to Xerxes invasion of Greece in 480 BC, Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named Megabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans
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Agrianes
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In the times of Philip II, the territory of the Agrianes was administered by Pella. They were crack javelin throwers and a unit of Alexander the Greats light infantry. Their name in Ancient Greek was Ἀγρίανες, the ethnonym is of Indo-European origin, from *agro- field. An early name of the Rhodopes was Achrida, which may be a cognate, herodotus described them as a tribe of Paeonia, together with the Odomanti and Doberes in the vicinity of Pangaeum. The only writer who describes the Agrianes as Thracians is Theopompus and their country was centered at Upper Strymon, in present-day westernmost Bulgaria, and also held areas of southeasternmost Serbia, at the time situated north of the Dentheletae. In the times of Philip II, the territory of the Agrianes was administered by Pella, an ethnocultural region called Graovo remains in Pernik Province, along with a group of Pomaks with a similar name. They fought light, they carried a bundle of javelins into battle and wore no armor or helmets, Alexander made heavy use of them and every time he dispatched a flying column, the Agrianians were always included. They were expert fighters in mountainous terrain where the phalanx was impracticable and mobile enough to use when speed was essential, being an elite unit of the light infantry, they often formed up with the hypaspists battalion and the companion cavalry on the right wing of the army. They are first mentioned regarding the Megabazos campaign in 511 BC, in 429 BC they were subject to the Odrysian kingdom and later, as early as 352 BC, they became allies of Philip of Macedonia. At the Battle of Gaugamela, they numbered 1,000 men, during the time of the Seleucid Empire, a crack unit of Antiochus Agrianes was brigaded together with Persians at Raphia. Contingents from the Agrianes and the Penestae, numbering 800 and 2,000 men respectively, were a part of the garrison of Cassandreia at the time of the Third Macedonian War
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Triballi
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The Triballi were a Thracian tribe that received influences from Celts, Scythians and Illyrians. In 424 BC, they were attacked by Sitalkes, king of the Odrysae and they were pushed to the east by the invading Autariatae, an Illyrian tribe, the date of this event is uncertain. In 339 BC, when Philip II of Macedon was returning from his expedition against the Scythians, hostilities took place, in which Philip was defeated and wounded by a spear in his right thigh, but the Triballi appear to have been subsequently subdued by him. 3,000 Triballi were killed, the rest fled and their king Syrmus took refuge on the Danubian island of Peukê, where most of the remnants of the defeated Thracians were exiled. They were attacked by Autariatae and Celts in 295 BC, the punishment inflicted by Ptolemy Keraunos on the Getae, however, induced the Triballi to sue for peace. About 279 BC, a host of Gauls under Cerethrius defeated the Triballi with an army of 3,000 horsemen and 15,000 foot soldiers, the defeat pushed the Triballi further to the east. Nevertheless, they continued to cause trouble to the Roman governors of Macedonia for fifty years, the Illyrian Dardani tribe settled in the southwest of the Triballi area in 87 BC. The Thracian place names survives the Romanization of the region Pliny the Elder registers them as one of the tribes of Moesia. In the time of Ptolemy, their territory was limited to the district between the Ciabrus and Utus rivers, part of what is now Bulgaria, their town was Oescus. Under Tiberius, mention is made of Triballia in Moesia, the name occurs for the last time during the reign of Diocletian, who dates a letter from Triballis. The Triballi were often described as a wild and warlike people, and in Aristophanes, the term Triballians appears frequently in Byzantine and other European works of the Middle Ages, referring exclusively to Serbs. Some of these authors clearly explain that Triballian is synonym to Serbian, for example, Niketas Choniates in his history about Emperor Ioannes Komnenos. Shortly after this, he campaigned against the nation of Triballians, or the much later Demetrios Chalkondyles, referring to an Islamized Christian noble. This Mahmud, son of Michael, is Triballian, which means Serbian, by his mother, or Mehmed the Conqueror when referring to the plundering of Serbia. In the 15th century, a coat of arms of Tribalia, depicting a boar with an arrow pierced through the head. The motif had, in 1415, been used as the Coat of Arms of the Serbian Despotate and is recalled in one of Stefan Lazarevićs personal Seals, pavao Ritter Vitezović also depicts Triballia with the same motif in 1701 and Hristofor Zhefarovich again in 1741. With the beginning of the First Serbian Uprising, the Parliament adopted the Serbian Coat of Arms in 1805, a male grave at Vratsa, with a female thracian suttee Archeological findings prove that the Triballi inhabited the Morava valley region in the Iron Age. In 2005, several possibly Triballi graves were found at the Hisar Hill in Leskovac, in June 2008, a Triballi grave was found together with ceramics in Požarevac, Central-Eastern Serbia
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Roman heritage in Serbia
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The territory of what is today the Republic of Serbia was under Roman rule for about 600 years, from the 1st century BC until the Slavic invasions of the 6th century. It was administratively divided into Moesia, Many authors and explorers wrote about traces of the Roman Empire on the Danube coast. One of the localities, Felix Romuliana, was ranked on the list of heritage of UNESCO in July 2007. The location has been invaded by many peoples over the centuries, the northern Serbian city of Sirmium was among the top 4 cities of the late Roman Empire, serving as its capital during the Tetrarchy. Contemporary Serbia comprises the regions of Moesia, Pannonia, parts of Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia. The Roman Republic conquered the region of Illyria in 168 BC in the aftermath of the Illyrian Wars, the later province of Illyricum was to the west of what is now Serbia. The Romans conquered parts of Serbia in 167 BC and established the province of Illyricum, what is now central Serbia was conquered in 75 BC when the province of Moesia was established. Srem is conquered by 9 BC and Backa and Banat in 106 AD after the Dacian wars, the city of Sirmium was among the top 4 cities of the late Roman Empire, serving as its capital during the Tetrarchy. Contemporary Serbia comprises the regions of Moesia, Pannonia, parts of Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia. Around the 6th century, Slavs appeared on the Byzantine borders in great numbers, the chief towns of Upper Moesia in the Principate were, Naissus, Viminacium, Singidunum, Remesiana Many Roman noblemen and statesmen were born in present-day Serbia, including 17 Roman Emperors. The Byzantine era of Serbia refers to a period of the Early Middle Ages with the Eastern Roman Empire being in several wars in the territory of Serbia, justiniana Prima is a Cultural Heritage of Serbia-listed archeological site of the city founded by Emperor Justinian I. During the Byzantine period, the territory of Serbia was included into two themata, the Theme of Servia and the Theme of Sirmium, the Byzantines broadly grouped the numerous Slav tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes. Apparently, the Sklavenoi group were based along the middle Danube, whereas the Antes were at the lower Danube, some, such as Bulgarian scholar Zlatarsky, suggest that the first group settled the western Balkans, whilst offshoots of the Antes settled the eastern regions. From the Danube, they commenced raiding the Byzantine Empire from the 520s and they spread about destruction, taking loot and herds of cattle, seizing prisoners and taking fortresses. Often, the Byzantine Empire was stretched defending its rich Asian provinces from Arabs, Persians and this meant that even numerically small, disorganised early Slavic raids were capable of causing much disruption, but could not capture the larger, fortified cities on the Aegean coast. The Slavs invaded Balkans during Justinian I rule, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica, the Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes. The Sklavenoi plundered Thrace in 545, in 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, but ended up in Dalmatia. During the 6th and 7th century, Slavic tribes made eight attempts to take Niš, menander Protector mentions a King of the Sklavenoi, Daurentius that slayed an Avar envoy of Khagan Bayan I
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Cornacates
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This is a list of ancient tribes in the ancient territory of Illyria. The locations of Illyrian tribes/peoples prior to the Roman conquest are approximate, as sometimes many wholly different locations are given by ancient writers, many tribal names are known from Roman civitates and the number of their decuriae, formed of the dispersed tribes in Illyria. The national ethnonym of the Albanians is derived from this tribe, Ardiaei or Ouardiaei, was an Illyrian tribe, residing inland, that eventually settled on the Adriatic coast. The Ardiaean dynasty ruled over the Illyrian Kingdom, autariatae or Autariates was an Illyrian tribe that became prominent between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. Bylliones was an Illyrian tribe They were affected by a partial cultural Hellenisation, deretini or Derriopes was an Illyrian tribe in Narona conventus with 14 decuriae. They lived close to lake Skodra and they are mentioned rarely by ancient writers. Chelidones was an Illyrian tribe whose name in Greek meant snail-men and they lived in the Mat or Drin valleys. Daorsi or Duersi or Daorsii or Daorsei was an Illyrian tribe, another name of the tribe was Daversi. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae that made them along with Issa seek the aid of the Roman state, the Daorsi fought on the Roman side, providing them with their strong navy abandoning Caravantius. After the Illyrian Wars, the Daorsi were given immunity and their most important city was Daorson. They were located between the Dardani and the Ardiaei, Appian of Alexandria wrote in his Illyrian wars that according to the Ancient Greeks, Illyrius, the ancestor of the Illyrians, had a daughter, Dassaro, from whom sprang the Dassareti. Other possible names are Derrioi and Derbanoi, dyestes or Dyestae was an Illyrian tribe located around the silver mines of Damastion. Only Strabo passingly mentions this tribe, kinambroi was an Illyrian tribe. They surrendered to Octavian in 33 BC. The Enchelei or Sesarethii were an Illyrian tribe and their name, given by the Greeks, meant eel-men. In Greek mythology, Cadmus and Harmonia ruled over them, several locations are hypothesized for the Encheleans, around Lake Ohrid, above Lake Ohrid or the region of Lynkestis south of the Taulantii. Maezaei has been the group of Maezaeis, including 269 decuriae. Melcumani or Merromenoi or Melkomenioi was an Illyrian tribe, narensi or Narensii or Narensioi or Naresioi or Naresii was the name of a newly formed Illyrian tribe from various peoples at the river Naron. Penestae was the name of an Illyrian tribe, Sardeates or Sardiotai was an Illyrian tribe close to Jajce
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Tricornenses
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The Tricornenses of Tricornum were a Romanized Thraco-Celtic artificially created community by the Romans that replaced the Celtic Celegeri. The inhabitants of Tricornum were Celtic and Thracian, attested by epigraphic sources, after 6 AD, the Tricornenses were one of the four units of Upper Moesia alongside the Dardani, Moesi and Picenses. The ceremonial parade armour found at Ritopek belonged to a Tricornian soldier of Legio VII Claudia, List of Celtic tribes List of ancient tribes in Illyria
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Albania
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Albania, officially the Republic of Albania, is a country in Southeastern Europe. It has a population of 3.03 million as of 2016, Tirana is the nations capital and largest city, followed by Durrës and Vlorë. The country has a coastline on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea to the west. Albania is less than 72 km from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which connects the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea. In antiquity, the area of Albania was home to several Illyrian, Thracian. After the Illyrian Wars, it part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. In 1190, the first Albanian state, the Principality of Arbanon was established by archon Progon in the region of Krujë, the territory of Albania was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, of which it remained part of for the next five centuries. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, following the Balkan Wars, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy in 1939, which formed Greater Albania, before becoming a Nazi German protectorate in 1943. The following year, a socialist Peoples Republic was established under the leadership of Enver Hoxha, Albania experienced widespread social and political transformations in the communist era, as well as isolation from much of the international community. In 1991, the Socialist Republic was dissolved and the Republic of Albania was established, Albania is a democratic and developing country with an upper-middle income economy. The service sector dominates the economy, followed by the industrial. After the fall of communism in Albania, Free-market reforms have opened the country to foreign investment, especially in the development of energy, Albania has a high HDI and provides universal health care system and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the Council of Europe, the OSCE and it is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union. Albania is one of the members of the Energy Community, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. It is home to the largest lake in Southern Europe and one of the oldest lakes in Europe, Albania is the Medieval Latin name of the country. The name may have a continuation in the name of a settlement called Albanon and Arbanon. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country Arbëri or Arbëni, Albanians today call their country Shqipëri. As early as the 17th century the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria, the two terms are popularly interpreted as Land of the Eagles and Children of the Eagles
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History of Albania
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The History of Albania emerges from the pre-history of the Balkan states from the 4th century BC, with early records of Illyria in Greco-Roman historiography. The modern territory of Albania had no counterpart in the political divisions of classical antiquity. Rather, its boundaries correspond to parts of the ancient Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia. The territory remained under Roman and Byzantine control until the Slavic migrations of the 7th century and it was integrated into the Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century. The territorial nucleus of the Albanian state was formed in the Middle Ages as the Principality of Arbër, the area was part of the Serbian Empire, but passed to the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. The formation of an Albanian national consciousness dates to the later 19th century and is part of the phenomenon of the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire. A short-lived monarchical state known as the Principality of Albania was succeeded by an even shorter-lived first Albanian Republic, another monarchy, the Kingdom of Albania, replaced the republic. The country endured an occupation by Italy just prior to World War II, after the collapse of the Axis powers, Albania became a communist state, the Socialist Peoples Republic of Albania, which for most of its duration was dominated by Enver Hoxha. Hoxhas political heir Ramiz Alia oversaw the disintegration of the Hoxhaist state during the collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the later 1980s. The communist regime collapsed in 1990, and the former communist Party of Labour of Albania was routed in elections in March 1992, amid economic collapse and social unrest. The unstable economic situation led to an Albanian diaspora, mostly to Italy, Greece, Switzerland, Germany, the crisis peaked in the Albanian Turmoil of 1997. An amelioration of the economic and political conditions in the years of the 21st century enabled Albania to become a full member of NATO in 2009. The country is applying to join the European Union, the first traces of human presence in Albania, dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic eras, were found in the village of Xarrë, near Sarandë and Mount Dajt near Tiranë. The Paleolithic finds of Albania show great similarities with objects of the same era found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro, several Bronze Age artefacts from tumulus burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania that show close connection with sites in south-western Macedonia and Lefkada, Greece. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by Indo-European people who spoke a Proto-Greek language, a part of this population later moved to Mycenae around 1600 BC and founded the Mycenaean civilisation there. Another population group, the Illirii, probably the southernmost Illyrian tribe of that time lived on the border of Albania and Montenegro. The latter derived from early an Indo-European presence in the western Balkan Peninsula, the movement of the Illyrian tribes can be assumed to coincide with the beginning Iron Age in the Balkans during the early 1st millennium BC. Archaeologists associate the Illyrians with the Hallstatt culture, an Iron Age people noted for production of iron, bronze swords with winged-shaped handles, the Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited the Western Balkans during classical antiquity
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Albanoi
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Albanoi or Albani were an Illyrian tribe whose first historical account appears in a work of Ptolemy in addition to a town called Albanopolis located east of the Ionian sea, in modern-day Albania. Ptolemys mention in 150 AD places them in the Roman province of Macedon, specifically in Epirus Nova and it is believed that they are related to the modern nation of the Albanians. The first mention of Albanopolis in an inscription is on an ancient funerary stele at Scupi, Albanoi were later mentioned in the History of Michael Attaliates around AD1080. The revolt of the Albanoi against Constantinople also dates the first written mention in Byzantine history, the much later mentioned Arbanon is likely to be the name of a district – the plain of the Mat has been suggested – rather than a particular place. It is not certain if the ancient city of Albanopolis corresponds with the Arbanon of the 11th cAD, list of ancient tribes in Illyria Albania History of Albania Origin of Albanians Illyrians
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Principality of Arbanon
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Arbanon or Albanon, was an autonomous principality, the first Albanian entity during the Middle Ages, initially part of the Byzantine Empire and later of the Despotate of Epirus. The state was established by archon Progon in the region of Kruja, Progon was succeeded by his sons Gjin and then Demetrius, who attained the height of the realm. After the death of Demetrius, the last of the Progon family, the principality came under Gregory Kamonas, according to some scholars, Progons realm was the first Albanian state during the Middle Ages. Pipa and Repishti conclude that Arbanon was the first sketch of an Albanian state, the rulers were titled archon by the Byzantines. Before 1204, Arbanon was a principality of the Byzantine Empire. The titles archon and panhypersebastos is a sign of Byzantine dependence, after 1204, the Albanians naturally followed the Despotate of Epirus, successor of the Byzantine Empire. The Gëziq inscription mention the Progon family as judices, and notes their dependence on Vladin and Đorđe Nemanjić, the rulers were connected to the Serbian Nemanjić dynasty, through marriage and alliances. In 1252, Golem submitted to the Empire of Nicaea, in the beginning the name Arbanon was applied to a region in the mountainous area to the west of Ohrid Lake and the upper valley of the river Shkumbin in the 11th century AD. There are scarce sources about Arbanon, in 1166, prior Arbanensis Andrea and episcopis Arbanensis Lazarus participated in a ceremony held in Kotor. After some resistance from officials, the bishopric of Arbanon was put under the direct dependence of the Pope. Little is known about archon Progon who was the first ruler of Kruja and its surroundings, the Kruja fortress stayed in the possession of the Progon family, and Progon was succeeded by his sons Gjin, and later Dhimitër. Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja conquered Pilot from the Arbanas during his southern campaign, Demetrius was the third and last lord of the Progon family, ruling between 1207 or 1208 and 1216. He succeeded his brother Gjin and brought the principality to its climax and he styled himself panhypersebastos and megas archon. He maintained international relations, with the Republic of Ragusa, Republic of Venice and he issued significant commercial benefits in his territory to the Republic of Ragusa, as is found in a Ragusan document. In 1208, Demetrius married Komnena Nemanjić, the daughter of Serbian Grand Prince, a brief alliance was established between the two countries amidst conflicts with the Republic of Venice. Demetrius marriage with Komnena did not rule out the risk of Serbian expansion toward the Albanian domains, however, in 1204, the most serious threat came from the Venetian Duchy of Dyrrhachium, a Latin entity formed after the Fourth Crusade in the former territories of the Byzantine Empire. In search for allies, Demetrius signed a treaty with the Republic of Ragusa in 1209 and this is considered a tactful move, which Demetrius undertook to establish ties with Western Europe against Venice. The friendship with the pope was of short duration, and soon turned into ill-feeling, according to K. Frashëri, Kamonas was elected
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Kingdom of Albania (medieval)
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The Kingdom of Albania was established by Charles of Anjou in the Albanian territories he conquered from the Byzantine Empire in 1271. The Kingdom of Albania was declared in late February 1272, the kingdom extended from the region of Durazzo south along the coast to Butrint. A major attempt to further in direction of Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat. A Byzantine counteroffensive soon ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281, the Sicilian Vespers further weakened the position of Charles, and the Kingdom was soon reduced by the Byzantines to a small area around Durazzo. The Angevins held out here, however, until 1368, when the city was captured by Karl Thopia, in 1392 Karl Thopias son surrendered the city and his domains to the Republic of Venice. During the conflict between the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Nicaea in 1253, lord Golem of Kruja was initially allied with Epirus, Golems troops had occupied the Kostur area trying to prevent the Nicaean forces of John Vatatzes from entering Devoll. Vatatzes managed to convince Golem to switch sides and a new treaty was signed between the parties where Vatatzes promised to guarantee Golems autonomy, the same year Despot of Epirus Michael II signed a peace treaty with Nicaea acknowledging their authority over west Macedonia and Albania. The fortress of Krujë was surrendered to Nicaea, while the Nicean emperor acknowledged the old privileges, the same privileges were confirmed later by his successor Theodore II Laskaris. The Nicaeans took control of Durrës from Michael II in 1256, during the winter of 1256–57, George Akropolites tried to reinstall Byzantine authority in the area of Arbanon. Autonomy was thus banished and a new administration was imposed and this was in contrast to what the Nicaeans had promised before. The local Albanian leaders revolted and on hearing the news, Michael II also denounced the treaty with the Nicaea. With the support of Albanian forces he attacked the cities of Dibra, Ohrid, in the meantime Manfred of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philip Chinardi, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza and their surroundings, facing a war in two fronts, despot Michael II came to terms with Manfred and became his ally. He recognized Manfreds authority over the regions which were ceded as a dowry gift following the marriage of his daughter Helena to Manfred. However, in September 1261, Manfred organized a new expedition and managed to capture all his dominions in Albania, Manfred respected the old autonomy and privileges of the local nobility and their regions. He also integrated Albanian nobles into his administration, as was the case with Andrea Vrana who was the captain and governor of Durrës. Albanian troops were used by Manfred in his campaigns in Italy. Manfred appointed Philippe Chinard as the general-governor of his dominions in Albania, initially based in Corfu, Chinard moved his headquarters to Kanina, the dominant center of the Vlorë region
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Despotate of Arta
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Not to be confused with the Despotate of Epirus. The Despotate of Arta was a despotate established by Albanian rulers during the 14th century, in the late spring of 1359, Nikephoros II Orsini, the last despot of Epirus of the Orsini dynasty, fought against the Albanians near river Acheloos, Aetolia. The Albanians won the battle and managed to create two new states in the territories of the Despotate of Epirus. The two Albanian lead states were, the first with its capital in Arta was under the Albanian nobleman Peter Losha, after the death of Peter Losha in 1374, the Albanian despotates of Arta and Angelocastron were united under the rule of Gjin Bua Spata. At April 1378 the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller, Juan Fernández de Heredia set about to take Arta, herendia was sold by Spata to the Ottoman Turks for a huge prize. Thomas II Preljubović, the Despot of Epirus offered valuable help during the battle, the Despotate of Epirus managed to control in this period only the eastern part of Epirus, with its capital in Ioannina. During this period the Despot of Epirus Thomas II Preljubović was in a conflict with Gjin Spata. In 1375, Gjin Bua Spata started an offensive in Ioannina, although Spata married with Thomas sister, Helena, their war did not stop. After the death of Gjin Bua Spata in 1399, the Despotate of Arta weakened continuously, among the animosities with the rulers of Ioannina Gjin’s successor, Maurice Spata, had to deal with the intentions of the Venetians and of Count Carlo I Tocco of Cefalonia. Meanwhile, Ottoman incursions were intensified as they were called by despot Esau de Buondelmonti of the Despotate of Epirus. After the death of de Buondelmonti in 1411, the throne was offered to his nephew, even though his gain was accompanied by a great loss that the forces of John Zenevisi’s inflicted upon his army, he would later subject the leaders of southern Albania. In spite of Maurices victory over Carlo in 1412, the Albanians failed to take Ioannina, on the contrary, not long after killing Maurice in battle in 1414/5, Carlo advanced on Arta. In 1416, he defeated Yaqub Spata and conquered Arta thus annexing the Despotate, the city of Arta was relatively unknown during the period of the Albanian rule. The Albanian leaders, not accustomed to living in cities, as mountaineers, acquired legally Byzantine titles, although no architectural activity has been reported for this period, little seems to have changed in Arta and the Albanian and Greek population coexisted peacefully in the city. Peter Losha Gjin Bua Spata Sgouros Spata Maurice Spata Yaqub Spata Albanian principalities History of Albania
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House of Kastrioti
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The House of Kastrioti was an Albanian royal and noble family active in the 14th and 15th centuries as the rulers of the Principality of Kastrioti. The first Kastrioti mentioned in documents was a kephale of Kanina in 1368. At the beginning of the 15th century the family controlled the region around Debar at the end of the 14th, the most notable member was Skanderbeg, a magnate and general, regarded an Albanian national hero. Kastrioti, who was a kephale of Kanina in 1368, was the first member of the Kastrioti family mentioned in historical documents. In the 14th century, Kastrioti family was one of the powerful noble families in Albania, whose power and influence was far less than those of Thopia, Dukagjini. According to Kabashi, the Kastrioti were first mentioned in 1394, Kabashi explains that Turkish sources say that the family originated from Kastrat in north Albania. According to Malcolm, they originate from western Kosovo, according to several historians, their surname has its origin in the Greek word kastro. The Kastrioti, unlike the Thopia and the Arianiti, did not have a history as nobility. The first nobleman was either Pal Kastrioti, the lord of Sinë and Lower Gardi, or a Kastrioti, Pal Kastrioti had three sons, Konstantin, Alexius and Gjon Kastrioti who was Skanderbegs father. Konstantin Kastrioti was protovestiar of Sina near Durrazo, according to Venetian document discovered by Karl Hopf his title was Lord of Cerüja castle. Pal held an area of Sinja and Lower Gardi. His son, John Kastrioti, became the lord of Matia and he managed to expand his territory but was ultimately subdued by the invading Ottomans. The most notable member was George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, declared an Albanian national hero, renowned in Albanian folklore for his fight against the Ottoman forces
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Albania under the Ottoman Empire
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Ottoman Albania comprised Albania during the period it was part of the Ottoman Empire, from 1385 to 1912. Ottoman rule in Albania began after the Battle of Savra in 1385 when most of the local chieftains became Ottoman vassals, the Ottomans erected their garrisons throughout southern Albania by 1415 and established formal jurisdiction over most of Albania by 1431. Independence for some Albanian regions was gained during 1443-1479, with the uprising under the lead of George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the last towns captured by the Ottomans were Shkodër in 1479 and Durrës in 1501. The territory which today belongs to the Republic of Albania remained part of the Ottoman Empire until declaring independence in 1912 during the Balkan Wars, the Ottomans expanded their empire from Anatolia to the Balkans in the 14th century. They crossed the Bosporus in 1352, and they crushed a Serbian army in the Battle of Maritsa in 1371 and Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Europe gained a respite from Ottoman pressure in 1402 when the Mongol leader, Tamerlane, attacked Anatolia from the east, killed the Turks absolute ruler, the Sultan. When order was restored, the Ottomans renewed their westward progress, in 1453, Sultan Mehmed IIs forces overran Constantinople and killed the last Byzantine emperor. The division of the Albanian-populated lands into small, quarreling fiefdoms ruled by independent feudal lords, in 1385, the Albanian ruler of Durrës, Karl Thopia, appealed to the sultan for support against his rivals, the Balšić noble family. An Ottoman force quickly marched into Albania along the Via Egnatia, the principal Albanian clans soon swore fealty to the Ottoman Empire. Gjirokastra became the county town of the Sanjak of Albania in 1419, Sultan Murad II launched the major Ottoman onslaught in the Balkans in 1423, and the Turks took Ioannina in 1431 and Arta, on the Ionian coast, in 1449. The Albanians resistance to the Turks in the century won them acclaim all over Europe. Gjon Kastrioti of Krujë was one of the Albanian clan leaders who submitted to Turkish suzerainty and he was compelled to send his four sons to the Ottoman capital to be trained for military service. The youngest, George Kastrioti, who would become the Albanians national hero, renamed Iskander when he converted to Islam, the young man participated in military expeditions to Asia Minor and Europe. When appointed to administer a Balkan district, Iskander became known as Skanderbeg, Skanderbeg then embraced Roman Catholicism and declared a holy war against the Turks. On 1 March 1444, Albanian chieftains gathered in the cathedral of Lezhë with the prince of Montenegro and delegates from Venice, all of Albania, accepted his leadership against the Ottomans, but local leaders kept control of their own districts. Under a red flag bearing Skanderbegs heraldic emblem, an Albanian force of about 10, three times the Albanians overcame sieges of Krujë. In 1450, the Albanians routed Sultan Murad II himself, later, they repulsed attacks led by Sultan Mehmed II in 1466 and 1467. In 1461, Skanderbeg went to the aid of his suzerain, King Alfonso I of Naples, the government under Skanderbeg was unstable, however, and at times local Albanian rulers cooperated with the Ottomans against him
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Albanian Pashaliks
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The Albanian Pashaliks were three Ottoman pashaliks ruled by Albanian pashas from about 1760 to 1831 and covering roughly the territory of modern Albania, Kosovo, and Northwestern Greece. The weakening of Ottoman central authority and the system brought anarchy to the Albanian-populated lands. In the late 18th century, two Albanian centers of power emerged, Shkodër, under the Bushati family, and Janina, when it suited their goals, both places cooperated with the Sublime Porte, and when it was expedient to defy the central government, each acted independently. In 1757, Mehmed Bey Bushati proclaimed himself Pasha of Shkodër and his son and successor Kara Mahmoud pursued a policy of military expansion, he established his control over northern Albania and over Kosovo. He launched two attacks on Montenegro and defeated resp. outlasted several Ottoman expeditions dispatched to subdue him, Kara Mahmouds autonomous pashalik did receive the attention of the Austrian and Russian foreign office, both regarding him a potential ally against the Sublime Porte. In 1796, Kara Mahmoud was killed when he suffered defeat at the hands of the Montenegrins and he was succeeded by his brother Ibrahim Pasha, a less warlike personality loyal to the Ottoman Empire. The Bushati Dynasti continued to hold on to the Pashalik until an Ottoman army under Mehmet Reshid Pasha besieged Rozafat Castle at Shkodër in 1831, the pashalik was dissolved, the Vilayets of Shkodër and of Kosovo established. An uprising in Shkodër in 1833-1836 failed in reestablishing the autonomy enjoyed under the Bushati, the latter established the Bushati Library in the 1840es, which played an important role in the cultural awakening of northern Albania. In 1787 Ali Pasha was awarded the pashaluk of Trikala in reward for his support for the war against Austria. This was not enough to satisfy his ambitions, shortly afterwards, he seized control of Ioánnina, Alis policy as ruler of Ioánnina was governed by little more than simple expediency, he operated as a semi-independent despot and allied himself with whoever offered the most advantage at the time. In order to gain a seaport on the Albanian coast Ali formed an alliance with Napoleon I of France who had established Francois Pouqueville as his general consul in Ioánnina. After the Treaty of Tilsitt where Napoleon granted the Czar his plan to dismantle the Ottoman Empire, Ali switched sides and allied with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1807. The poet George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron visited Alis court in Ioánnina in 1809, but as barbarous as he is successful, roasting rebels, etc, etc. In 1820, Ali ordered the assassination of an opponent in Constantinople. The reformist Sultan Mahmud II, who sought to restore the authority of the Sublime Porte, in January 1822, however, Ottoman agents assassinated Ali Pasha and sent his head to the Sultan. After his death the pashalik ceased to exist and this pashalik was one of the three pashaliks created by Albanians in the period of Albanian Pashaliks. The Pashalik of Berat was created after Ahmet Kurt Pasha managed to complot with the Sublime Porte against Mehmed Pasha Bushati in 1774, for his service, the sultan gave him territories in central Albania. Ahmet Kurt Pasha was the grandfather of Ali Pasha, and father of Alis mother, after the death of Ahmet Kurt Pasha, the territory of the pashalik was ruled by a close ally of him, Ibrahim Pasha of Berat
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Albanian National Awakening
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The Albanian National Awakening or the National Renaissance or the National Revival refers to the period in the history of Albania from 1870 until the Albanian Declaration of Independence in 1912. On December 20,1912 the Conference of Ambassadors in London recognized an independent Albania within its present-day borders, after the fall of the Yanina Pashalik, the power and influence of the Albanian beys had faded. The remaining beys thus attempted to restore their rule, an assembly was held in Berat in 1828. In this Convention, the leaders were Ismail Bey Qemali, Zylyftar Poda, the Ottoman Empire tried to prevent the rise of local beys, which presented a menace to centralized power. In 1830, the Sublime Porte sent a force under the command of Reşid Mehmed Pasha to suppress the local Albanian beys. The beys however, were all killed along with their guards, the last Albanian pashalik to fall was the Scutari Pashalik. The Bushati dynasty rule ended when an Ottoman army under Mehmed Reshid Pasha besieged the Rozafa Castle, the Albanian defeat ended a planned alliance between the Albanians and the Bosnians, who were similarly seeking autonomy. Instead of the pashalik, the vilayets of Scutari and that of Kosovo were created, the 1844 revolt was led by Dervish Cara while 1847 revolt was led by three main leaders, Zenel Gjoleka, Rrapo Hekali and Hodo Nivica. All these uprisings failed, however, they increased the national identity, only from the 1870s and onwards did a movement of ‘national awakening‘ evolve among them - greatly delayed, compared to the Greeks and the Serbs. The 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War dealt a blow to Ottoman power in the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, the first postwar treaty, the abortive Treaty of San Stefano signed on March 3,1878, assigned Albanian-populated lands to Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom blocked the arrangement because it awarded Russia a predominant position in the Balkans, a peace conference to settle the dispute was held later in the year in Berlin. The Treaty of San Stefano triggered profound anxiety among the Albanians meanwhile, in May the group called for a general meeting of representatives from all the Albanian-populated lands. On June 10,1878, about eighty delegates, mostly Muslim religious leaders, clan chiefs, the delegates declared the formation of the League of Prizren which consisted of two branches, the Prizren branch and the southern branch. The Prizren branch was led by Iljas Dibra and it had representatives from the areas of Kirçova, Kalkandelen, Pristine, Mitroviça, Viçitirin, Üsküp, Gilan, Manastir, Debar and Gostivar. The League of Prizren was set under the direction of a committee that had the power to impose taxes. The League of Prizren worked to gain autonomy for the Albanians and to thwart implementation of the Treaty of San Stefano, among other things the League requested an official status for the Albanian language in the Albanian-inhabited territories and the foundation of Albanian schools. At first the Ottoman authorities supported the League of Prizren, some delegates supported this position and advocated emphasizing Muslim solidarity and the defense of Muslim lands, including present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina
Tribes of ancient Serbia by cultural group
