1.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
2.
Pannonian
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This is a list of ancient tribes in the ancient territory of Illyria. The locations of Illyrian tribes/peoples prior to the Roman conquest are approximate, as sometimes many wholly different locations are given by ancient writers, many tribal names are known from Roman civitates and the number of their decuriae, formed of the dispersed tribes in Illyria. The national ethnonym of the Albanians is derived from this tribe, Ardiaei or Ouardiaei, was an Illyrian tribe, residing inland, that eventually settled on the Adriatic coast. The Ardiaean dynasty ruled over the Illyrian Kingdom, autariatae or Autariates was an Illyrian tribe that became prominent between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. Bylliones was an Illyrian tribe They were affected by a partial cultural Hellenisation, deretini or Derriopes was an Illyrian tribe in Narona conventus with 14 decuriae. They lived close to lake Skodra and they are mentioned rarely by ancient writers. Chelidones was an Illyrian tribe whose name in Greek meant snail-men and they lived in the Mat or Drin valleys. Daorsi or Duersi or Daorsii or Daorsei was an Illyrian tribe, another name of the tribe was Daversi. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae that made them along with Issa seek the aid of the Roman state, the Daorsi fought on the Roman side, providing them with their strong navy abandoning Caravantius. After the Illyrian Wars, the Daorsi were given immunity and their most important city was Daorson. They were located between the Dardani and the Ardiaei, Appian of Alexandria wrote in his Illyrian wars that according to the Ancient Greeks, Illyrius, the ancestor of the Illyrians, had a daughter, Dassaro, from whom sprang the Dassareti. Other possible names are Derrioi and Derbanoi, dyestes or Dyestae was an Illyrian tribe located around the silver mines of Damastion. Only Strabo passingly mentions this tribe, kinambroi was an Illyrian tribe. They surrendered to Octavian in 33 BC. The Enchelei or Sesarethii were an Illyrian tribe and their name, given by the Greeks, meant eel-men. In Greek mythology, Cadmus and Harmonia ruled over them, several locations are hypothesized for the Encheleans, around Lake Ohrid, above Lake Ohrid or the region of Lynkestis south of the Taulantii. Maezaei has been the group of Maezaeis, including 269 decuriae. Melcumani or Merromenoi or Melkomenioi was an Illyrian tribe, narensi or Narensii or Narensioi or Naresioi or Naresii was the name of a newly formed Illyrian tribe from various peoples at the river Naron. Penestae was the name of an Illyrian tribe, Sardeates or Sardiotai was an Illyrian tribe close to Jajce
3.
Illyrian tribe
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This is a list of ancient tribes in the ancient territory of Illyria. The locations of Illyrian tribes/peoples prior to the Roman conquest are approximate, as sometimes many wholly different locations are given by ancient writers, many tribal names are known from Roman civitates and the number of their decuriae, formed of the dispersed tribes in Illyria. The national ethnonym of the Albanians is derived from this tribe, Ardiaei or Ouardiaei, was an Illyrian tribe, residing inland, that eventually settled on the Adriatic coast. The Ardiaean dynasty ruled over the Illyrian Kingdom, autariatae or Autariates was an Illyrian tribe that became prominent between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. Bylliones was an Illyrian tribe They were affected by a partial cultural Hellenisation, deretini or Derriopes was an Illyrian tribe in Narona conventus with 14 decuriae. They lived close to lake Skodra and they are mentioned rarely by ancient writers. Chelidones was an Illyrian tribe whose name in Greek meant snail-men and they lived in the Mat or Drin valleys. Daorsi or Duersi or Daorsii or Daorsei was an Illyrian tribe, another name of the tribe was Daversi. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae that made them along with Issa seek the aid of the Roman state, the Daorsi fought on the Roman side, providing them with their strong navy abandoning Caravantius. After the Illyrian Wars, the Daorsi were given immunity and their most important city was Daorson. They were located between the Dardani and the Ardiaei, Appian of Alexandria wrote in his Illyrian wars that according to the Ancient Greeks, Illyrius, the ancestor of the Illyrians, had a daughter, Dassaro, from whom sprang the Dassareti. Other possible names are Derrioi and Derbanoi, dyestes or Dyestae was an Illyrian tribe located around the silver mines of Damastion. Only Strabo passingly mentions this tribe, kinambroi was an Illyrian tribe. They surrendered to Octavian in 33 BC. The Enchelei or Sesarethii were an Illyrian tribe and their name, given by the Greeks, meant eel-men. In Greek mythology, Cadmus and Harmonia ruled over them, several locations are hypothesized for the Encheleans, around Lake Ohrid, above Lake Ohrid or the region of Lynkestis south of the Taulantii. Maezaei has been the group of Maezaeis, including 269 decuriae. Melcumani or Merromenoi or Melkomenioi was an Illyrian tribe, narensi or Narensii or Narensioi or Naresioi or Naresii was the name of a newly formed Illyrian tribe from various peoples at the river Naron. Penestae was the name of an Illyrian tribe, Sardeates or Sardiotai was an Illyrian tribe close to Jajce
4.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
5.
Sirmium
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Sirmium was a city in the Roman province of Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was proclaimed one of four capitals of the Roman Empire and it was also the capital of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and of Pannonia Secunda. Sirmium was located on the Sava river, on the site of modern Sremska Mitrovica in northern Serbia, ¨The site is protected as an Archaeological Site of Exceptional Importance. The modern region of Syrmia was named after the city, Sirmium had 100,000 inhabitants and was one of the biggest cities of its time. Colin McEvedy, however, put the population at only 7,000, Ammianus Marcellinus called it the glorious mother of cities. Remains of Sirmium stand on the site of the modern-day Sremska Mitrovica,55 km west of Belgrade and 145 km away from Kostolac, archaeologists have found traces of organized human life on the site of Sirmium dating from 5,000 BC. The city was mentioned in the 4th century BC and was originally inhabited by the Illyrians. The Triballi king Syrmus was later considered the founder of Sirmium, but the roots are different. The name Sirmium by itself means flow, flowing water, wetland, with the Celtic tribe of Scordisci as allies, the Roman proconsul Marcus Vinicius took Sirmium in around 14 BC. In the 1st century AD, Sirmium gained the status of a Roman colony, the Roman emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II prepared war expeditions in Sirmium. In 103 Pannonia was split into two provinces, Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, and Sirmium became the city of the latter. In 296 Diocletian reorganized Pannonia into four provinces, Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda and he joined them with Noricum and Dalmatia to establish the Diocese of Pannonia, with Sirmium as its capital also. In 293, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts, Sirmium emerged as one of the four capital cities, the eastern part of Illyricum remained a separate prefecture under the East Roman Empire with its new capital in Thessalonica. From the 4th century, the city was an important Christian center, five church councils, the Councils of Sirmium, took place in Sirmium. The city also had a palace, a horse-racing arena, a mint, an arena theatre. Ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus called it the mother of cities. The mint in Sirmium was connected with the mint in Salona, at the end of the 4th century Sirmium came under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the East Roman Empire. In 441 the Huns conquered Sirmium, it remained for more than a century in the hands of other tribes, such as Eastern Goths
6.
Amantia
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Amantia or Abantia was an ancient Greek polis in Epirus. It occupied an important defensive position above the Aoos river valley to the east, and on the road to the coast, a Greek temple, the Aphrodite temple, a theatre, and a stadium have also been found in the city. The name for an inhabitant was Amantieus, according to Pausanias, the settlement was founded by Locrians from nearby Thronium and Abantes from Euboea. Stephanus Byzantius similarly attributes the foundation to Euboean Abantes returning from the Trojan war, hesychius states that it was an Epirote settlement. One foundation legend had Elpenor, who dies at Troy, acting as a nostos. Their political leaders had titles like prytanis and grammateus, the town was surrounded with a walled enclosure roughly 2, 100m long. A large fort was built two gates and two defensive towers in the north. Its name was mentioned for the first time in the 4th century BC and it is situated on the slope of a high hill and had only its acropolis fortified. By the 3rd century BC, the town was strengthened economically, the tribe itself was called Amantes. The town became part of the Roman province of Epirus Novus, no longer a residential bishopric, Amantia is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. List of ancient cities in Illyria Amantes
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
8.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
9.
Prehistoric sites in Serbia
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The best known cultural archaeological discoveries from the prehistoric period on the territory of modern-day Serbia are the Starčevo and Vinča cultures dating back to 6400–6200 BC. Serbias strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many nations, the territory of present-day Serbia is situated in the central region of Balkan peninsula. It lies on one of the migration routes connecting the Middle East with central Europe. Traces of human population in this area go back to at least to 400000, morava-Vardar corridor has seen regular waves of migrations throughout its history. It is one of probable paths of original human expansion into Europe and this regions was home to several important Mesolithic and Paleolithic cultures. Some of the oldest traces of agriculture in Europe are found in this area and its fertile river valleys are probable conduit through which agriculture has spread from the Middle East and Asia minor to central Europe. Archeological sites in present-day Serbia contain some of the earliest examples of metallurgy, during the Bronze Age this area has seen several large migrations of various Indo-European groups, some of whom become permanently settled. During the Iron Age lower Morava valley become a Celto-Thraco-Illyrian interaction zone, the period of prehistory in this area ends with the advance of reliable Greek and later Roman written sources, especially after the area was incorporated into Roman empire as province of Moesia. Paleolithic archeological evidence from the territory of present-day Serbia remain surprisingly scarce. Two skeletons of Mammoths have been found in Serbia, the first in Kikinda in 1996, a fragment of a human jaw, was found in Sićevo and believed to be up to 525, 000—397,000 years old. Many archaeological sites have been destroyed because of floodings, during the last glacial maximum the territory of Serbia was a part of a large Balkan Refugium. Recent genetic studies show that 30%-40% of Serbian population carry Y-DNA Haplogroup I2 genetic markers, associated with the hunter-gatherer population, Lepenski Vir is a mesolithic archaeological site near Donji Milanovac, dating to 7000 BC with the peak of culture in 5300–4800 BC. Numerous piscine sculptures and peculiar architecture are testimony to a social and religious life led by the inhabitants. It is assumed that the people of Lepenski Vir culture represent the descendants of the early European population of the Brno-Předmost hunter gatherer culture from the end of the last ice age, archeological evidence of human habitation of the surrounding caves dates back to around 20,000 BC. The first settlement on the low plateau dates back to 7000 BC, seven successive settlements were discovered on the Lepenski Vir site, with the remains of 136 residential and sacral buildings dating from 6500 to 5500 BC. Among other finds are the many sculptures, The sculptures can be separated in two distinct categories, one with simple geometric patterns and the other representing humanoid figures. The latter are the most interesting, all of these figural sculptures were modelled in a naturalistic and strongly expressionistic manner. Only the head and face of the figures were modelled realistically, with strong brow arches, an elongated nose
Tribes of ancient Serbia by cultural group
