1.
Henry Morgenthau Sr.
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Henry Morgenthau was an American lawyer, businessman and United States ambassador, most famous as the American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. As ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Morgenthau has come to be identified as the most prominent American to speak about the Armenian Genocide, Morgenthau was the father of the politician Henry Morgenthau Jr. His grandchildren included Robert M. Morgenthau, District Attorney of Manhattan for 35 years, Morgenthau was born, the ninth of 11 living children, in Mannheim, Grand Duchy of Baden, in 1856 into an Ashkenazi Jewish family. He was the son of Lazarus and Babette Morgenthau and his father was a successful cigar manufacturer who had cigar factories at Mannheim, Lorsch and Heppenheim, employing as many as 1,000 people. Lazarus Morgenthau was able to stave off failure and stabilize his income by becoming a fundraiser for Jewish houses of worship, Henry attended City College of New York, where he received a BA, and later graduated from Columbia Law School. He began his career as a lawyer, but he made a fortune in real estate investments. He married Josephine Sykes in 1882 and had four children, Helen, Alma, Henry Jr. Morgenthau built a successful career as a lawyer and served as the leader of the Reform Jewish community in New York. Morgenthaus career enabled him to contribute handsomely to President Woodrow Wilsons election campaign in 1912 and he had hoped for a cabinet post as well, but was not successful in gaining one. Though no Zionist himself, Morgenthau cared fervidly about the plight of his coreligionists and he initially rejected the position, but following a trip to Europe, and with the encouragement of his pro-Zionist friend Rabbi Stephen Wise, he reconsidered his decision and accepted Wilsons offer. Appointed as U. S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in 1913, after the outbreak of war in 1914, the U. S. Faced with the evidence, he officially informed the U. S. government of the activities of the Ottoman government. The American government however, not wanting to get dragged into disputes, remained a power in the conflict at the time. Morgenthau held high-level meetings with the leaders of the Ottoman Empire to help alleviate the position of the Armenians and he famously admonished the Ottoman Interior Minister Talaat Pasha, stating, Our people will never forget these massacres. Through his friendship with Adolph Ochs, publisher of the New York Times, Morgenthau also ensured that the continued to receive prominent coverage. Exasperated with his relationship with the Ottoman government, he resigned from the ambassadorship in 1916, looking back on that decision in his The Murder of a Nation, he wrote he had come to see Turkey as a place of horror. I had reached the end of my resources, I found intolerable my further daily association with men, however gracious and accommodating…who were still reeking with the blood of nearly a million human beings. He published his conversations with Ottoman leaders and his account of the Armenian genocide in 1918 under the title Ambassador Morgenthaus Story. In March 1919, as President Woodrow Wilson was leaving for the Conference, congressman Julius Kahn, he and many other prominent Jewish representatives attended the Conference
2.
Memoir
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A memoir is a collection of memories that an individual writes about moments or events, both public or private, that took place in the subjects life. The assertions made in the work are understood to be factual, while memoir has historically been defined as a subcategory of biography or autobiography since the late 20th century, the genre is differentiated in form, presenting a narrowed focus. A biography or autobiography tells the story of a life, while a memoir often tells a story from a life, such as touchstone events, the author of a memoir may be referred to as a memoirist or a memorialist. Memoirs have been written since the ancient times, as shown by Julius Caesars Commentarii de Bello Gallico, in the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, Commentarii de Bello Civili is an account of the events took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate. Over the latter half of the 18th through the mid-20th century and these authors wrote as a way to record and publish their own account of their public exploits. Authors included politicians or people in society and were later joined by military leaders. An exception to these models is Henry David Thoreaus 1854 memoir Walden, twentieth-century war memoirs became a genre of their own, including, from the First World War, Ernst Jünger and Frederic Mannings Her Privates We. With the advent of inexpensive digital book production in the first decade of the 21st century, memoirs written as a way to pass down a personal legacy, rather than as a literary work of art or historical document, are emerging as a personal and family responsibility. With the expressed interest of preserving history through the eyes of those who lived it, the Veterans History Project, for example, compiles the memoirs of those who have served in a branch of the United States Armed Forces – especially those who have seen active combat. Association of Personal Historians Diary Fake memoirs Histoire de ma vie Journal Last will and testament
3.
Doubleday, Page
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Doubleday is an American publishing company founded as Doubleday & McClure Company in 1897 that by 1947 was the largest in the United States. It published the work of mostly U. S. authors under a number of imprints, in 2009 Doubleday was merged with Knopf Publishing Group to form the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. The firm was founded as Doubleday & McClure Company in 1897 by Frank Nelson Doubleday, one of their first bestsellers was The Days Work by Rudyard Kipling. Other authors published by the company in its early years include W. Somerset Maugham, theodore Roosevelt, Jr. later served as a vice-president of the company. In 1900, the company became Doubleday, Page & Company when Walter Hines Page joined as a new partner, in 1922, the founders son, Nelson Doubleday, joined the firm. In 1910, Doubleday, Page, and Co. moved its operations, the Doubleday company purchased much of the land on the east side of Franklin Avenue, and estate homes were built for many of its executives on Fourth Street. In 1916, company co-founder and Garden City resident Walter Hines Page was named Ambassador to Great Britain, in 1927, Doubleday merged with the George H. Doran Company, creating Doubleday, Doran, then the largest publishing business in the English-speaking world. In 1946, the company became Doubleday and Company, Nelson Doubleday, Jr. resigned as president, but continued as chairman of the board until his death on January 11,1949. Douglas Black took over and was president from 1946 to 1963, by 1947, Doubleday was the largest publisher in the US, with annual sales of over 30 million books. In 1980, the company bought the New York Mets baseball team and it defeated the Boston Red Sox to win the World Series in 1986 in a classic 7-game contest. The company had offices in London and Paris and wholly owned subsidiaries in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, with joint ventures in the UK and the Netherlands. Doubleday sold the company to Bertelsmann in 1986, and teamed up with minority owner Fred Wilpon to buy the Mets in his own name. In 1988, portions of the firm part of the Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group. In late 2008 and early 2009, the Doubleday imprint was merged with Knopf Publishing Group to form the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, image Books, Catholic Books—still a Doubleday unit as part of Doubleday Religious Publishing Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, a literary imprint established in 1990. Talese, the publisher and editorial director, is a senior vice president of Doubleday
4.
Hardcover
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A hardcover or hardback book is one bound with rigid protective covers. It has a flexible, sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened, following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk. Hardcover books are printed on acid-free paper, and are much more durable than paperbacks. Hardcover books are more costly to manufacture. If brisk sales are anticipated, an edition of a book is typically released first. Some publishers publish paperback originals if slow hardback sales are anticipated, for very popular books these sales cycles may be extended, and followed by a mass market paperback edition typeset in a more compact size and printed on shallower, less hardy paper. In the past the release of an edition was one year after the hardback. It is very unusual for a book that was first published in paperback to be followed by a hardback, an example is the novel The Judgment of Paris by Gore Vidal, which had its revised edition of 1961 first published in paperback, and later in hardcover. Hardcover books are sold at higher prices than comparable paperbacks. Hardcovers typically consist of a block, two boards, and a cloth or heavy paper covering. The pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, and it too is covered by the cloth, a paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is usually put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is generally a blurb, the back flap is where the biography of the author can be found. Reviews are often placed on the back of the jacket, bookbinding Paperback How to make a simple Hardcover book
5.
United States Ambassador to Turkey
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The United States has maintained many high level contacts with Turkey since the 19th century. Elkus The Ottoman Empire severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 20,1917, normal diplomatic relations were reestablished with the Empires successor state, Turkey, in 1927. Joseph Grew Charles Hitchcock Sherrill Robert Peet Skinner John Van Antwerp MacMurray Laurence A. Steinhardt Edwin C. Wilson George Wadsworth George C, mcGhee Avra M. Warren Fletcher Warren Raymond A. Hare Parker T. Hart Robert Komer William J. Handley William B. Spiers James W. Spain Robert Strausz-Hupe Morton I
6.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
7.
Ghostwriter
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Celebrities, executives, participants in timely news stories, and political leaders often hire ghostwriters to draft or edit autobiographies, memoirs, magazine articles, or other written material. In music, ghostwriters are often used to write songs, lyrics, screenplay authors can also use ghostwriters to either edit or rewrite their scripts to improve them. Usually, there is a confidentiality clause in the contract between the ghostwriter and the author that obligates the former to remain anonymous. Ghostwriting also occurs in other creative fields, ghosting also occurs in popular music. A pop music ghostwriter writes lyrics and a melody in the style of the credited musician, in hip hop music, the increasing use of ghostwriters by high-profile hip-hop stars has led to controversy. In the visual arts, it is not uncommon in either fine art or commercial art such as comics for a number of assistants to do work on a piece that is credited to a single artist. However, when credit is established for the writer, the acknowledgement of their contribution is public domain, a consultant or career-switcher may pay a ghostwriter to write a book on a topic in their professional area, to establish or enhance her credibility as an expert in their field. Public officials and politicians employ correspondence officers to respond to the volume of official correspondence. A number of papal encyclicals have been written by ghostwriters, some university and college students hire ghostwriters from essay mills to write entrance essays, term papers, theses, and dissertations. This is largely considered unethical unless the actual ghostwriting work is just light editing, ghostwriters are hired for numerous reasons. In many cases, celebrities or public figures do not have the time, discipline, or writing skills to write and research a several-hundred page autobiography or how-to book. Even if a celebrity or public figure has the skills to pen a short article, they may not know how to structure and edit a several-hundred page book so that it is captivating. Ghostwriters may have varying degrees of involvement in the production of a finished work, some ghostwriters are hired to edit and clean up a rough draft or partially completed work, while others are hired to do most of the writing based on an outline provided by the credited author. For some projects, such as creating an autobiography for a celebrity, ghostwriters are also hired to write fiction in the style of an existing author, often as a way of increasing the number of books that can be published by a popular author. Ghostwriters will often spend a period from several months to a year researching, writing. Ghostwriters are paid either per page, per each word or via total word count, with a fee, with a percentage of the royalties of the sales. The division of work between the ghostwriter and the credited author varies a great deal, in some cases, the ghostwriter is hired to edit a rough draft of a mostly completed manuscript. In this case, the outline, ideas and much of the language in the book or article are those of the credited author
8.
Armenian Genocide
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Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a result of the genocide. Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters, Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in 1915. It has in recent years been faced with repeated calls to them as genocide. To date,29 countries have recognized the mass killings as genocide, as have most genocide scholars. The western portion of historical Armenia, known as Western Armenia, had come under Ottoman rule following the Peace of Amasya, henceforth, the region was also alternatively referred to as Turkish Armenia or Ottoman Armenia. The Armenian community was made up of three denominations, Armenian Catholic, Armenian Protestant, and Armenian Apostolic, the religion of a vast majority of Armenians. Through the millet system, the Armenian community were allowed to rule themselves under their own system of governance with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government, Ottoman census figures clash with the statistics collected by the Armenian Patriarchate. According to the latter, there were almost three million Armenians living in the empire in 1878, in the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the dhimmi system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms. The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar, while the Pact of Umar prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship, it was not enforced in all regions of the Ottoman Empire. Since there were no laws concerning religious ghettos, the prohibition of non-Muslims building new places of worship led to their clustering around existing ones and it did not mean religious persecution, it meant unutterable contempt. They were dogs and pigs, and their nature was to be Christians, to be spat upon, if their shadow darkened a Turk, to be outraged, in addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses and camels. Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, and their religious practices were severely circumscribed, from 1839 to the declaration of a constitution in 1876, the Ottoman government instituted the Tanzimat, a series of reforms designed to improve the status of minorities. Nevertheless, most of the reforms were never implemented because the empires Muslim population rejected the principle of equality for Christians. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, often with the help of the great powers. The Armenians remained, by and large, passive during these years, in the mid-1860s and early 1870s this passivity gave way to new currents of thinking in Armenian society. The Ottoman government considered these grievances and promised to punish those responsible, under growing pressure, the government of Sultan Abdul Hamid II declared itself a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and entered into negotiations with the powers
9.
Greek genocide
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According to various sources, several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period. Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece, some, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire. Thus by the end of the 1919–22 Greco-Turkish War, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor had either fled or had been killed. Those remaining were transferred to Greece under the terms of the later 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which formalized the exodus and barred the return of the refugees, the Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government-sponsored massacres as crimes against humanity. Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the campaign as a genocide, as have the parliaments of Greece, Cyprus, Sweden, Armenia, the Greek presence in Asia Minor has been dated to at least the time of Homer around 800 BCE. Greeks referred to the Black Sea as the Euxinos Pontos or hospitable sea and starting in the eighth century BCE they began navigating its shores, the most notable Greek cities of the Black Sea were Trebizond, Sampsounta, Sinope and Heraclea Pontica. During the Hellenistic period that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture, the resultant Greek culture in Asia Minor flourished during the following millennium under the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, whose citizens were known as Byzantine Greeks. When the Turkic peoples began their late medieval conquest of Asia Minor, according to a German military attaché, the Ottoman minister of war Ismail Enver had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to solve the Greek problem during the war. In the same way he believe he solved the Armenian problem, following similar accords made with Bulgaria and Serbia, the Ottoman Empire signed a small voluntary population exchange agreement with Greece on 14 November 1913. The swap was never completed due to the eruption of World War One, the Ottoman government adopted a dual-track mechanism allowing it to deny responsibility for and prior knowledge of this campaign of intimidation, emptying Christian villages. Responding to international and domestic pressure, Talat Pasha headed a visit in Thrace in April 1914 and later in the Aegean to investigate reports, the policy of persecution and ethnic cleansing was expanded to other regions of the Empire including Pontus, Cappadocia and Cilicia. Venizelos also threatened to undertake a campaign against Muslims that were living in Greece in case that Ottoman policy wouldnt change. Arbitrary violence and extortion of money intensified later, providing ammunition for the Venizelists arguing that Greece should join the Entente, according to George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, by 1918. over 500,000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived. Just how many were scattered in this fashion is not definitely known, despite the shift of policy, the policy of evacuating Greek settlements and relocating the inhabitants was continued, albeit in a limited scale. The policy was targeted to specific regions that were considered militarily vulnerable, state policy towards Ottoman Greeks changed again in the fall of 1916. In January 1917 Talat Pasha sent a cable for the deportation of Greeks from the Samsun district thirty to fifty kilometres inland taking care for no assaults on any persons or property, Talat Pasha ordered an investigation for the looting and destruction of Greek villages by bandits. Later in 1917 instructions were sent to military officials with the control of the operation and to broaden its scope. However, in certain areas Greek populations remained undeported, Greek deportees were sent to live in Greek villages in the inner provinces or, in some case, villages where Armenians were living before being deported
10.
Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)
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The Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire was the government structure added to the Ottoman governing structure during the Second Constitutional Era. The Committee of Union and Progress was in power between 1908 and 1918, in this period, most of the ministers were also from the CUP. The German military mission become the third most important command center for the Ottoman Army, the initial contact was established during the Balkan Wars by Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha and Minister of War Ahmed Izzet Pasha. Kaiser Wilhelm II sent General Goltz’s mission, which served two periods in Turkey within two years, the German mission was accredited from 27 October 1913 to 1918. General Otto Liman von Sanders, previously commander of the 22nd Division, was assigned by the Kaiser to Constantinople, Germany considered an Ottoman-Russian war to be imminent, and Liman von Sanders was a general with excellent knowledge of the Russian armed forces. The Ottoman Empire was undecided about which side to take in a war involving Germany, Britain. The 9th article of the German Military Mission stated that in case of a war the contract would be annulled
11.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
12.
Committee of Union and Progress
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It was transformed into a political organisation by Behaeddin Shakir, aligning itself with the Young Turks in 1906, during the period of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. In the west, members of the CUP were usually called Young Turks while in the Ottoman Empire, begun as a liberal reform movement in the Ottoman Empire, the party was persecuted by the Ottoman imperial government for its calls for democratisation and reform in the empire. A major influence on the committee was Meiji-era Japan, a state that successfully modernised itself without sacrificing its identity. The CUP intended to copy the Japanese example and modernise the Ottoman Empire to end its status as the sick man of Europe. The ultimate aim of the CUP was to return the Ottoman Empire to its status as one of the world’s great powers. At the end of World War I, most of its members were court-martialled by the sultan Mehmed VI, a few members of the organisation were executed in Turkey after trial for the attempted assassination of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1926. Members who survived continued their careers in Turkey as members of the Republican People’s Party. The Committee of Union and Progress was a name for different underground factions. The name was sanctioned to a specific group in 1906 by Behaeddin Shakir. The organisation was based upon the revolutionary Italian Carbonari, in 1902, there occurred a party congress in Paris, in which two factions clashed. Ultimately, Prince Sabahaddin and his followers ended leaving the CUP over disagreements over what sort of state the empire should be after the revolution against Sultan Abdulhamid. To the CUP, for science was something of a religion. Alongside the unbounded faith in science, the CUP embraced social Darwinism, the French racist Arthur de Gobineau whose theories had such a profound impact upon the German völkisch thinkers in the 19th century was also a major influence upon the CUP. All that mattered in the end to the CUP was that the Ottoman Empire become great again, and that the Turks be the dominant group within the empire. A further problem for the CUP was that the majority of the ethnic Turks of the empire did not see themselves as Turks at all, the CUP had built an extensive organisation, having a presence in towns, in the capital, and throughout Europe. Joining the CUP was by only, and those who did join had to keep their membership secret. The penalty for disobeying orders from the Central Committee or attempting to leave the CUP was death, operating as an underground revolutionary group led the CUP to adopt a paranoid mindset with almost everyone outside of the CUP being seen as an enemy. During the early years of the 20th century, and especially from 1906 onwards, the Ottoman region of Macedonia comprised what is now modern northern Greece, Macedonia, southern Serbia, south-western Bulgaria, Kosovo, and Albania
13.
Political boss
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A boss, in politics, is a person who controls a unit of a political party, although he/she may not hold political office. Numerous officeholders in that unit are subordinate to the boss in party affairs. Each party in the ward or city may have its own boss, that is. Reformers sometimes allege that political bosses are likely guilty of corruption, bosses may base their power on control of a large number of votes. When the party wins, they typically control appointments in their unit and they do not necessarily hold public office themselves, most historical bosses did not, at least during the times of their greatest influence. The appearance of bosses has been common since the Roman Republic, in Spanish America, Brazil, Spain, and Portugal political bosses called caciques hold power in many places. One of the most powerful party leaders was James A. Farley who was the chief dispenser of Democratic Party patronage during Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal and he was not a boss because he worked under the direction of Roosevelt himself. Farley handled most mid-level and lower-level appointments in consultation with state, Farley parlayed his position as Democratic National Committee boss into a run for the Democratic nomination for President in 1940. Farley had been elected to public office once, to the New York State Assembly. In the South, charismatic populist politicians like Huey Long commanded large networks of supporters, similar practices existed in the northern cities, particularly New York City, where Boss Tweed wielded control over the powerful Democratic political machine. In Denver, Colorado during the 1890s there was Jefferson Randolph Soapy Smith who operated as the Republican party boss, charles Brayton exercised great influence over the politics of turn of the 20th century Rhode Island. He exemplified rural bossism within the Republican Party, chicago had numerous colorful bosses, such as Democrats Hinky Dink and Bathhouse John. The Republican counterparts included Big Bill Thompson, who became mayor in the 1920s, of course the iconic figure was longtime mayor and chairman of the Cook County Democratic Committee Richard J. Daley. Daley had a voice in state and national Democratic politics. With a few exceptions in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, most large cities of 100,000 or more in the early 20th century had machine organizations, some had a major impact on state politics, such as E. H. Crump in Memphis, Tennessee. A few bosses had reputations as reformers, such as Frank Hague of Jersey City, Boss Tweed was played by Philip Bosco in the 1986 TV movie Liberty, and by Jim Broadbent as a major supporting character in the 2002 film Gangs of New York. Tweed is portrayed as a defender of the rights of minorities and helper of those in need in Pete Hamills 2003 novel Forever
14.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
15.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
17.
Allies of World War I
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The Allies of World War I were the countries that opposed the Central Powers in the First World War. The members of the original Triple Entente of 1907 were the French Republic, the British Empire, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were affiliated members of the Entente. The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres defines the Principal Allied Powers as the British Empire, French Republic, Italy, the Allied Powers comprised, together with the Principal Allied Powers, Armenia, Belgium, Greece, Hejaz, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serb-Croat-Slovene state and Czechoslovakia. The U. S. declaration of war on Germany, on 6th April 1917 was on the grounds that Germany had violated its neutrality by attacking international shipping and it declared war on Austria-Hungary in December 1917. The U. S. entered the war as a power, rather than as a formal ally of France. Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, the Dominion governments did control recruiting, and removed personnel from front-line duties as they saw fit. From early 1917, the War Cabinet was superseded by the Imperial War Cabinet, in April 1918, operational control of all Entente forces on the Western Front passed to the new supreme commander, Ferdinand Foch of France. The Austrian Empire followed with an attack on the Serbian ally Montenegro on 8 August, on the Western Front, the two neutral States of Belgium and Luxembourg were immediately occupied by German troops as part of the German Schlieffen Plan. On 23 August Japan joined the Entente, which then counted seven members, the entrance of the British Empire brought Nepal into the war. In 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente, and two nations joined, Portugal and Romania, on 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war. Liberia, Siam and Greece also became allies and this was followed by Romanian cessation of hostilities, however the Balkan State declared war on Central Powers again on 10 November 1918. In response to the Germans invasion of neutral Belgium, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, gibraltar, Cyprus and Malta were British dependencies in Europe. The UK held several colonies, protectorates, and semi-autonomous dependencies at the time of World War I, in Eastern Africa the East Africa Protectorate, Nyasaland, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, the Uganda Protectorate, were involved in conflict with German forces in German East Africa. In Western Africa, the colonies of Gold Coast and Nigeria were involved in actions against German forces from Togoland. In Southwestern Africa, the dominion of South Africa was involved in military actions against German forces in German South-West Africa. Canada and Newfoundland were two autonomous dominions during the war that made major contributions to the British war effort. Other British dependent territories in the Americas included, British Honduras, the Falkland Islands, British Guiana, and Jamaica. The UK held large possessions in Asia, including the Indian Empire which was an assortment of British imperial authorities in the territory now defined as India, Bangladesh, Burma, australia and New Zealand were two autonomous dominions of the UK in Oceania during the war
18.
Defense of Van (1915)
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The Defense of Van (also known as the Siege of Van or Van Resistance to the Armenians was a self-defensive measure by the Armenian population of Van against the Ottoman Empire. Armenian forces fought against the attempts to massacre the Armenian population in the Van Vilayet, the resistance broke out during the Caucasus Campaign, in which the Dashnak militias were supported by the Imperial Russian army to defend the Ottoman Armenian population. Such measures had not been intended or planned by the Armenians, however, the decisions of deportation and extermination were made before the Van resistance. The assessment of witness reports maintained that the Armenian posture at Van was defensive, based mostly in the city of Van, it was one of the few instances during the Armenian Genocide when Armenians fought against the Ottoman Empires armed forces. During the late Ottoman period, Van was an important center of Armenian cultural, social, khrimian Hayrik established a printing press in Van, and thereafter launched Vaspurakan Ardzvi, which was the first periodical publication in Armenia. In 1885, the Armenakan party was established in the city of Van, soon after, the Hnchak and Dashnak parties, whose missions were basically the overthrow of the Ottoman rule in Eastern Anatolia, established branches in the city. Throughout 1895–96 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire suffered a wave of violence known as the Hamidian massacres. While Van largely avoided the massacres in 1895, the Ottomans sent an expedition in June 1896. The Armenians of Van were initially able to defend themselves, but upon agreeing to disarm in exchange for safety, massacres continued, the pre-war demographic values of the Van Province, Ottoman Empire had different values based on different sources. In 1914, Armenians lived on the shores of Lake Van, the major Armenian inhabited localities were the city of Van. Armenians also lived in the district of Erciş which was in the part of the province, as well as the districts of Çatak, Başkale. In an 1890 census, there were 79,998 Armenians living in the province, the 1912 local Patriarch statistic stated that the Armenian population was 110,000. The original 1914 Ottoman census stated that Armenian population was 67,797, however, the 1914 official census was challenged both on Armenian and Muslim population sizes. Population estimates for the city of Van proved more difficult to analyze, extensive population movements in and around the city happened due to the deterioration of the economic and political situation before World War I. Ottoman population count at the time recorded 79,000 Muslims and 34,000 Armenians in the city of Van, the city of Vans Armenian population was estimated to be about 30,000 people in the fall of 1914. Geographic and Demographic maps of the Van Province, Ottoman Empire On 30 October 1914, after an exchange of fire during the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. The province of Van was positioned between Persia and the Caucasus, and the most accessible routes that linked Persia, Russia, Mesopotamia and Anatolia lay through this province, giving Van high strategic value as a consequence of its location. The first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign took place on 2 November 1914 with the Bergmann Offensive, the Russians collected victories along the Kara Kilise – Beyazit line
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Occupation of Western Armenia
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The occupation of Turkish Armenia by the Russian Empire during World War I began in 1915 formally ended by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It was sometimes referred to as the Republic of Van by Armenians, Aram Manukian of Armenian Revolutionary Federation was the de facto head until July 1915. It was briefly referred to as Free Vaspurakan, after a setback beginning in August 1915, it was re-established in June 1916. This provisional government relied on Armenian volunteer units, forming a structure after the Siege of Van around April 1915. Dominant representation was from the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Aram Manukian, or Aram of Van, was the administrations most famous governor. During the Siege of Van, there were between 67,792 and 185,000 Armenians in the Van Vilayet, in the city of Van itself there were around 30,000 Armenians, but more Armenians from surrounding villages joined them during the Ottoman offensive. The conflict began on April 20,1915, with Aram Manukian as the leader of the resistance, in May, the Armenian battalions and Russian regulars entered the city and drove the Ottoman army out of Van. In July, two months of self-government under the leadership of Manougian, the conflict turned against the Armenians. The Ottoman Army, under Pasha Kerim, launched a counterattack in the Lake Van area and defeated the Russians at the Battle of Malazgirt, there were as many as 250,000 Armenians crowded into the city of Van. These people were the escapees from the established by Tehcir Law. Included many who broke away from the columns as they passed the vicinity on their way to Mosul. Armenians from this region retreated to the Russian frontier, during the counterattack, Manougian and Sampson Aroutiounian, president of the Armenian National Council of Tbilisi) helped refugees from the region to reach Echmiadzin. As a result of famine and fatigue, many suffered from disease. On 29 December 1915, the Dragoman of the Vice-Consulate at Van, according to the Armenian Bishop of Erivan, during the winter of 1915, the Ottoman forces retreated one more time. Aram Manukian returned to Van and re-established his post, the governor declared strict measures to prevent pillage and destruction of property in December 1915. Some threshing machines and flour mills resumed work in the district so that bakeries could reopen, at the turn of 1916, Armenian refugees returned to their homes, but the Russian government raised barriers in prevention. During 1916–17,8,000 to 10,000 Armenians were permitted to inhabit Van, one report said, Men are going in large numbers, caravans of those returning to the fatherland enter via Iğdır. Most of the refugees in the Erevan province returned to Van, the government confiscated Russian property, turning it into communal farms and dividing it among Armenian adult males
20.
Aleppo
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Aleppo is a city in Syria, serving as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,132,100, Aleppo was the largest Syrian city before the Syrian Civil War, however, now Aleppo is likely the second-largest city in Syria after the capital Damascus. Aleppo is an ancient city, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, such a long history is attributed to its strategic location as a trading center midway between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia. For centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in the Syrian region, and it was also one of the largest cities in the Levant before the advent of the Syrian Civil War. The citys significance in history has been its location at one end of the Silk Road, when the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was diverted to sea and Aleppo began its slow decline. At the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, Aleppo ceded its northern hinterland to modern Turkey, in the 1940s, it lost its main access to the sea, Antakya and İskenderun, also to Turkey. Finally, the isolation of Syria in the past few decades further exacerbated the situation and this decline may have helped to preserve the old city of Aleppo, its medieval architecture and traditional heritage. It won the title of the Islamic Capital of Culture 2006, during the Battle of Aleppo the city suffered massive destruction, and has been the worst-hit city in the Syrian Civil War. In December 2016, the Syrian government achieved full control of Aleppo following a successful offensive, modern-day English-speakers commonly refer to the city as Aleppo. It was known in antiquity as Khalpe, Khalibon, and to the Greeks, during the Crusades, and again during the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon of 1923–1946, the name Alep was used. Aleppo represents the Italianised version of this, the original ancient name, Halab, has survived as the current Arabic name of the city. Some have proposed that halab means iron or copper in Amorite languages, the modern-day Arabic nickname of the city, ash-Shahbaa, which means the white-colored, also allegedly derives from the famous white marble of Aleppo. From the 11th century it was common usage to apply the term Aram-Zobah to the area of Aleppo. Aleppo has scarcely been touched by archaeologists, since the city occupies its ancient site. The site has been occupied from around 5000 BC, as shown by excavations in Tallet Alsauda, Aleppo appears in historical records as an important city much earlier than Damascus. The first record of Aleppo comes from the third millennium BC, some historians, such as Wayne Horowitz, identify Aleppo with the capital of an independent kingdom closely related to Ebla, known as Armi, although this identification is contested. The main temple of the storm god Hadad was located on the hill in the center of the city. In the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Empire period, Aleppos name appears in its form as Ḥalab for the first time
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Van, Turkey
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Van is a city in eastern Turkeys Van Province, located on the eastern shore of Lake Van. The city has a history as a major urban area. It has been a city since the first millennium BC, initially as the capital of Urartu in the 9th century BC. It remained an important center of Armenian culture until the Armenian Genocide of 1915, today, Van has a Kurdish majority and a sizeable Turkish minority. The Van Central district stretches over 2,289 square kilometres, archaeological excavations and surveys carried out in Van province indicate that the history of human settlement in this region goes back at least as far as 5000 BC. The Tilkitepe Mound, which is on the shores of Lake Van, under the ancient name of Tushpa, Van was the capital of the Urartian kingdom in the 9th century BC. The early settlement was centered on the bluff now known as Van Castle, close to the edge of Lake Van. Here have been found Urartian cuneiform inscriptions dating to the 8th and 7th centuries BC, in the trilingual Behistun inscription, carved in the order of Darius the Great of Persia, the country referred to as Urartu in Babylonian is called Armenia in Old Persian. The name Van comes from the Urartian Biaina, the region came under the control of the Orontids in the 7th century BC and quickly later the Persians in the mid 6th century BC. The inscription survives in perfect condition and is divided into three columns of 27 lines written in Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite. In 331 BC, Van was conquered by Alexander the Great, by the early 2nd century BC it was part of the Kingdom of Armenia. It became an important center during the reign of the Armenian king, Tigranes II, in the early centuries BC, it fell to the emerging Arsacid dynasty of Parthia until the 3rd century AD. However, it fell once to the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia in this timespan. In the History of Armenia attributed to Movses Khorenatsi, the city is called Tosp, following the fall of the Parthians and the emergence of the Neo-Persian Empire, better known as the Sassanian Empire, the town naturally fell into the possession of the latter. During the over 700 years lasting Roman-Persian Wars, some of the wars razed at or around the location of modern-day Van, decline in Arab power eventually allowed local Armenian rulers to re-emerge, with the Artsruni dynasty soon becoming the most powerful. Initially dependent on the rulers of the Kingdom of Ani, they declared their independence in 908, the kingdom had no specific capital, the court would move as the king transferred his residence from place to place, such as Van city, Vostan, Aghtamar, etc. In 1021 the last king of Vaspurakan, John-Senekerim Artsruni, ceded his kingdom to the Byzantine empire. Incursions by the Seljuk Turks into Vaspurakan started in the 1050s, after their victory in 1071 at the battle of Manzikert the entire region fell under their control
22.
Talaat Pasha
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Mehmed Talaat, commonly known as Talaat Pasha, was one of the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas that de facto ruled the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. He was one of the leaders of Young Turks and his career in Ottoman politics began by becoming deputy for Edirne in 1908, then minister of the interior and minister of finance, and finally grand vizier in 1917. He is widely considered the perpetrator of the genocide. On the night of 2–3 November 1918 and with the aid of Ahmed Izzet Pasha, Talaat Pasha, Talaat was assassinated in Berlin in 1921 by Soghomon Tehlirian, a member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, as part of Operation Nemesis. Mehmed Talaat was born in 1874 in Kırcaali town of Edirne Vilayet into a family of Pomak and his father was a junior civil servant working for the government of the Ottoman Empire and was from a village in the mountainous southeastern corner of present-day Bulgaria. Mehmed Talaat had a build and a dark complexion. His manners were gruff, which caused him to leave the civil preparatory school without a certificate after a conflict with his teacher, without earning a degree, he joined the staff of the telegraph company as a postal clerk in Edirne. His salary was not high, so he worked after hours as a Turkish language teacher in the Alliance Israelite School which served the Jewish community of Edirne, at the age of 21 he had a love affair with the daughter of the Jewish headmaster for whom he worked. He was caught sending a telegram saying Things are going well, with two of his friends from the post office, he was charged with tampering with the official telegraph and arrested in 1893. He claimed that the message in question was to his girlfriend, the Jewish girl came forward to defend him. Sentenced to two years in jail, he was pardoned but exiled to Salonica as a postal clerk and he married Hayriye Hanım, a young girl from Ioannina on 19 March 1910. Between 1898 and 1908 he served as a postman on the staff of the Thessaloniki Post Office, eventually, having served 10 years at this postal unit, he became head of the Thessaloniki Post Office. In 1908, he was dismissed from membership in the Committee of Union and Progress, however, after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, he became deputy of Edirne in the Ottoman Parliament, and in July 1909, he was appointed minister of interior affairs. He became minister of post, and then secretary-general of the CUP in 1912, after the assassination of the prime minister, Mahmud Şevket Pasha, in July 1913, Talaat Pasha again became minister of interior affairs. Talaat, with Enver Pasha and Djemal Pasha, formed a group known as the Three Pashas. These men formed the triumvirate that ran the Ottoman government until the end of World War I in October 1918, according to various sources, Talaat Pasha had developed plans to eliminate the Armenians as early as 1910. Danish philologist Johannes Østrup wrote in his memoirs that in the autumn of 1910, according to Østrup, Talaat stated, If I ever come to power in this country, I will use all my might to exterminate the Armenians. In November of that year, a decision to carry out such a plan was made in Thessaloniki where a conference was held by prominent members of the CUP
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Enver Pasha
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Ismail Enver Pasha was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He became the leader of the Ottoman Empire in both the Balkan Wars and in World War I. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire and he decided to involve the Empire in World War I on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide. Prior to World War I, he was hailed at home as the hero of the revolution, Enver was born in Istanbul on 22 November 1881. Envers father, Ahmed, was an Albanian either a bridge-keeper in Monastir or a town public prosecutor in the Balkans. Enver had two brothers, Nuri and Mehmed Kamil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He studied for different degrees in military schools in the empire and he became a major in 1906. He was sent to the Third Army, which was stationed in Salonica, during his service in the city, he became a member of the Committee of Union and Progress. In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution broke out in Salonica, the successful revolt brought the CUP to power, ushering in the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. During the course of the year, a reactionary conspiracy to organize a countercoup culminated in the 31 March Incident. Enver Bey took a role in the suppression of the countercoup. In 1911, Italy launched an invasion of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania, Enver decided to join the defense of the province and left Berlin for Libya. There, he assumed the command after successfully mobilizing 20,000 troops. Because of the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, however, Enver and other Ottoman generals in Libya were called back to Istanbul and this allowed Italy to take control of Libya. In 1912, thanks to his role in the war. However, the loss of Libya cost the CUP in popularity, the defeated CUP assumed an ideology favoring more centralization under Enver. In October 1912, the First Balkan War broke out, where the Ottoman armies suffered defeats at the hands of the Balkan League
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Urfa
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Şanlıurfa, pronounced, often simply known as Urfa or Al-Ruha, in ancient times Edessa, is a city with 561,465 inhabitants in south-eastern Turkey, and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. It is a city with a primarily Arabic, Kurdish and Turkmen population, Urfa is situated on a plain about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River. Urfas climate features hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters. The city has been known by names in history, Ուռհա Uṙha in Armenian, ܐܘܪܗܝ Urhai in Syriac, الرها Ar-Ruhā in Arabic and Ορρα. For a while during the rule of Antiochus IV Epiphanes it was named Callirrhoe or Antiochia on the Callirhoe, during Byzantine rule it was named Justinopolis. Prior to Turkish rule, it was often best known by the name given it by the Seleucids, Ἔδεσσα, the title was achieved following repeated requests by the citys members of parliament, desirous to earn a title similar to those of neighbouring cities Gazi Antep and Kahraman Maraş. The history of Şanlıurfa is recorded from the 4th century BC, but may date back at least to 9000 BC, the city was one of several in the upper Euphrates-Tigris basin, the fertile crescent where agriculture began. According to Jewish and Muslim tradition, Urfa is Ur Kasdim and this identification was disputed by Leonard Woolley, the excavator of the Sumerian city of Ur in 1927 and scholars remain divided on the issue. Urfa is also one of cities that have traditions associated with Job. For the Armenians, Urfa is considered a place since it is believed that the Armenian alphabet was invented there. Although the site of Urfa has been inhabited since prehistoric times, islam had first arrived in Urfa around 638 AD, when the region surrendered to the Rashidun army without resisting, and had become a significant presence under the Ayyubids, Seljuks. Subsequently, Urfa was ruled by Zengids, Ayyubids, Sultanate of Rum, Ilkhanids, Memluks, Akkoyunlu, under the Ottomans Urfa was part of the Aleppo Vilayet. The area became a centre of trade in cotton, leather, there was a small but ancient Jewish community in Urfa, with a population of about 1,000 by the 19th century. Most of the Jews emigrated in 1896, fleeing the Hamidian massacres, there were three Christian communities, Syriac, Armenian, and Latin. According to Lord Kinross,8,000 Armenians were massacred in Urfa in 1895, the last Neo-Aramaic Christians left in 1924 and went to Aleppo. In 1914 Urfa was estimated to have 75,000 inhabitants,45,000 Muslims,25,000 Armenians and 5,000 Syriac/Assyrian Christians, there was also a Jewish presence in the town. During the First World War, Urfa was a site of the Armenian and Assyrian Genocides, by the end of the war, the entire Christian population had been killed, had fled, or was in hiding. The British occupation of the city of Urfa started de facto on 7 March 1919 and officially de jure as of 24 March 1919, and lasted until 30 October 1919
25.
Near East Foundation
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Founded in 1915, it is the United States’ oldest nonsectarian international development organization and the second American humanitarian organization to be chartered by an act of Congress. Near East Relief organized the worlds first large-scale, modern humanitarian project in response to the Armenian Genocide, known as the Near East Foundation since 1930, NEF pioneered many of the strategies employed by the world’s leading development organizations. In the past 100 years NEF has worked with communities in more than 40 countries. The foundation had organised the world’s first great humanitarian project of the United States, every member of the NEF field staff is from the region in which they work. NEF is an operational NGO with projects in nine countries, Armenia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Mali, Morocco, Palestine, Senegal and Sudan. In these countries, NEF works with disadvantaged social groups including people coping with conflict and climate change, facing exclusion from civic life, the organization has four core program areas, Peacebuilding, Civic Engagement and Education, Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management, and Microenterprise Development. NEF activities are rooted in its Knowledge, Voice, and Enterprise framework, project partners include local and international non-governmental organizations, bilateral and multilateral donors, foundations, financial institutions, and government ministries. The Near East Foundation was founded in 1915 in response to Ambassador Henry Morgenthau Sr. s reports of atrocities against Ottoman Armenians. Morgenthau referenced the deportations of intellectuals and requested urgent and immediate assistance, former missionary and educator James L. Barton and philanthropist Cleveland H. Dodge led a group of prominent New Yorkers in forming the American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, the Committee raised $60,000 for direct relief at its first meeting on September 16,1915. The money was wired to Ambassador Morgenthau for distribution, Cleveland H. Dodge personally financed the Committees operating expenses in order to ensure that all funds went to direct relief. ACASR then embarked upon an unprecedented grassroots campaign to raise money, the campaign combined striking imagery, passionate celebrity spokespeople, and captivating stories from the field to inspire Americans from all economic backgrounds to become citizen philanthropists. The organization also used the name American Committee for Relief in the Near East in 1918 -1919. In August 1919, the Committee received a Congressional charter and was renamed Near East Relief, from 1915 to 1930, Near East Relief saved the lives of over a million refugees, including 132,000 orphans who were cared for and educated in Near East Relief orphanages. Near East Relief also mobilized the American people to raise over $116 million for direct relief, nearly 1,000 U. S. citizens volunteered to travel overseas. Near East Relief workers built hundreds of orphanages, vocational schools, overseas relief workers were responsible for the direct care of orphans and refugees, including the organization of vast feeding and educational programs. Thousands of Americans volunteered throughout the U. S. by donating money or supplies, the organization created the International Near East Association, which then dedicated Sunday, December 2,1923, as an International Sunday of the Golden Rule. The Sunday of the Golden Rule was celebrated in parts of Europe, Australia
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Erzincan
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Erzincan is the capital of Erzincan Province in northeastern Turkey. Nearby cities include Erzurum, Sivas, Tunceli, Bingöl, Elâzığ, Malatya, Gümüşhane, Bayburt, located at an altitude of 1,185 meters above sea level, the citys climate produces snowy winters and warm summers. The city is notable for handcrafted copper goods and a cheese called tulum peyniri in Turkish. It is a significant road and rail junction and was noted for its silverware. Current industries include sugar refining and textile industries, the city is home to the headquarters of the Turkish Third Army. This is the name by which it is called by Strabo in his Geography,11.4.14, the etymological origin of the word is disputed, but it is agreed that the city was once called Erez. For a while it was called Justinianopolis in honour of Emperor Justinian, a text of Agathangelos reports that during the first year of his reign, King Trdat of Armenia went to Erez and visited Anahits temple to offer sacrifice. He ordered Gregory the Illuminator, who was secretly a Christian, when Gregory refused, he was taken captive and tortured, starting the events that would end with Trdats conversion to Christianity some 14 years later. After that conversion, during the Christianisation of Armenia, the temple at Erez was destroyed and its property and it later became known for its extensive monasteries. It is hard to tell when Acilisene became a bishopric, the first whose name is known is of the mid-5th century, Ioannes, who in 459 signed the decree of Patriarch Gennadius I of Constantinople against the simoniacs. Georgius or Gregorius was one of the Fathers of the Second Council of Constantinople, theodorus was at the Third Council of Constantinople in 681, signing as bishop of Justinianopolis or the region of Ecclenzine. Georgius was at the Photian Council of Constantinople, until the 10th century, the diocese itself appears in none of the Notitiae Episcopatuum. At the end of century, they present it as an autocephalous archdiocese. This was the time of greatest splendour of Acilisene, which ended with the defeat of the Byzantines by the Seljuq Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. After the 13th century there is no mention of bishops of Acilisene. No longer a residential bishopric, Acilisene is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see, in 1071 Erzincan was absorbed into the Mengüçoğlu under the Seljuk Sulëiman Kutalmish. Marco Polo, who wrote about his visit to Erzincan, said that the people of the country are Armenians, in 1243 it was destroyed in fighting between the Seljuks under Kaykhusraw II and the Mongols. However, by 1254 its population had recovered enough that William of Rubruck was able to say an earthquake had killed more than 10,000 people, during this period, the city reached a level of semi-independence under the rule of Armenian princes
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Wayne State University
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Wayne State University is an American public research university located in the Midtown Cultural Center Historic District of Detroit, Michigan. Founded in 1868, WSU consists of 13 schools and colleges offering more than 380 programs to nearly 28,000 graduate and undergraduate students and it is currently Michigans third-largest university and one of the 100 largest universities in the United States. The WSU main campus encompasses 203 acres linking more than 100 education and it also has six extension centers in the metro Detroit area providing access to a limited selection of courses. The first component of the modern Wayne State University was established in 1868 as the Detroit Medical College, in 1881, the Detroit Normal Training School was established, now known as the College of Education. Old Main Hall was built in 1896 as Central High School and those classes evolved into the Detroit Junior College in 1917, the Colleges of the City of Detroit in 1923 and now WSUs College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. With Mackenzie at the helm, Detroit Junior College grew to become the third-largest institution of learning in Michigan. The college was granted four-year degree status in 1923, becoming the College of the City of Detroit, Mackenzie continued as dean until his death in 1926. In 1920, the Merrill-Palmer Institute for Child Development was founded and it is now known as the Merrill-Palmer Skillman Institute. In 1927, the Detroit Board of Education dedicated its newest high school to the memory of Mackenzie, the three-story structure stood on the citys west side at 9275 Wyoming Avenue, Mackenzie High School closed its doors in June 2007 and was demolished in 2012. A new pre-kingergarten-to-eighth-grade Mackenzie School opened near the school site in 2012. In 1933, the Detroit Board of Education organized the six colleges it ran — liberal arts, medical, education, pharmacy, engineering, in January 1934, that institution was officially named Wayne University, taking its name from the county in which it is located. Wayne University continued to grow, adding its Law School in 1927, its School of Social Work in 1935, Wayne University was renamed Wayne State University in 1956 and the institution became a constitutionally established university by a popularly adopted amendment to the Michigan Constitution in 1959. The Wayne State University Board of Governors created the Institute of Gerontology in 1965 in response to a State of Michigan mandate, the primary mission in that era was to engage in research, education and service in the field of aging. The university libraries have grown to seven, including desks at the universitys extension centers in Oakland. More than 500 researchers, staff and principal investigators work out of the building, on June 5,2013, the Board of Governors unanimously elected M. Roy Wilson as Wayne States 12th president. He was sworn in on August 1,2013, in 2015, WSU bestowed its first posthumous honorary doctorate degree on Viola Liuzzo. In 2015, the School of Business administration was renamed the Mike Ilitch School of Business, the name was changed in recognition of a $40 million grant from Mike and Marian Ilitch. In gift will go toward building a new, state-of-the-art business school facility in Detroit, Wayne States campus is located in the heart of Detroits Cultural Center Historic District, home of renowned museums, galleries and theatres
29.
Peter Balakian
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Peter Balakian is an Armenian American poet, writer and academic, the Donald M. and Constance H. Rebar Professor of Humanities at Colgate University. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 2016, Balakian was born in 1951, in Teaneck, New Jersey to an Armenian family and was raised in Teaneck and Tenafly, New Jersey. After attending the Tenafly Public Schools, he graduated from Englewood School for Boys and he earned a B. A. from Bucknell University, and M. A. from New York University, and a PhD, in American Civilization, from Brown University. He has taught at Colgate University since 1980 and he is the Donald M. and Constance H. Rebar Professor of the Humanities in the Department of English and director of Colgates creative writing program. He was the first director of Colgates Center for Ethics and World Societies, Balakian is the author of seven books of poems, including, most recently, Ozone Journal. His other books are Father Fisheye, Sad Days of Light, Reply From Wilderness Island, Dyers Thistle, June-tree, New and Selected Poems 1974–2000, Ziggurat, Balakians memoir Black Dog of Fate was winner of the PEN/Albrand Prize for memoir and a New York Times Notable Book. The Burning Tigris, The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response received the 2005 Raphael Lemkin Prize and was a New York Times Notable Book and New York Times, Balakian is also the author of Theodore Roethke’s Far Fields. Balakian was co-founder and co-editor of the poetry magazine Graham House Review and he is the translator of Bloody News From My Friend by the Armenian poet Siamanto. According to the Pulitzer board, Balakians work bear witness to the old losses and tragedies that undergird a global age of danger and he is also a recipient of the Khorenatsi medal. 2016 he was awarded Armenias 2015 Presidential Award for significant contribution to the process of the recognition of the Armenian Genocide, four fine limited editions of Balakians poems have been published by The Press of Appletree Alley. Translations and editions of Balakians books appear in Armenian, Bulgarian, Dutch, German, Greek, Russian, Balakian has lectured widely in the United States and abroad and has appeared often on national television and radio
30.
Robert Jay Lifton
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Robert Jay Lifton is an American psychiatrist and author, chiefly known for his studies of the psychological causes and effects of war and political violence and for his theory of thought reform. He was a proponent of the techniques of psychohistory. Lifton was born in 1926, in Brooklyn, New York, in 1942, he enrolled at Cornell University at the age of 16 and was admitted to New York Medical College in 1944, graduating in 1948. He interned at the Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn in 1948-49, and had his psychiatric training at the Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn. From 1951 to 1953 he served as an Air Force psychiatrist in Japan and Korea, to which he attributed his interest in war. He married the childrens writer Betty Jean Kirschner in 1952 and has two children and she died in Boston on November 19,2010, from complications of pneumonia. Lifton calls cartooning his avocation, he has published two books of cartoons about birds. During the 1960s, Robert Jay Lifton, together with his mentor Erik Erikson and MIT historian Bruce Mazlish, formed a group to apply psychology, meetings were held at Liftons home in Wellfleet, Massachusetts. The Wellfleet Psychohistory Group, as it known, focused mainly on psychological motivations for war, terrorism. In 1965, they received sponsorship from the American Academy of Arts, a collection of research papers by the group was published in 1975, Explorations in Psychohistory, The Wellfleet Papers. In addition to interviews with 25 Americans and Europeans, Lifton interviewed 15 Chinese who had fled after having been subjected to indoctrination in Chinese universities, the term thought-terminating cliché was popularized in this book. Lifton found that when the POWs returned to the United States their thinking soon returned to normal, a 1989 reprint edition was published by University of North Carolina Press. His book on Hiroshima survivors won the 1969 National Book Award in Science, totalism, a word first used in Thought Reform, is Liftons term for the characteristics of ideological movements and organizations that desire total control over human behavior and thought. Liftons usage differs from theories of totalitarianism in that it can be applied to the ideology of groups that do not wield governmental power, in Liftons opinion, though such attempts always fail, they follow a common pattern and cause predictable types of psychological damage in individuals and societies. In his later work, Lifton has focused on defining the type of change to which totalism is opposed, following his work with Hiroshima survivors, Lifton became a vocal opponent of nuclear weapons, arguing that nuclear strategy and warfighting doctrine made even mass genocide banal and conceivable. In 1993 he said, Whats happening there merits the use of the word genocide, there is an effort to systematically destroy an entire group. Its even been conceptualized by Serbian nationalists as so-called ethnic cleansing and that term signifies mass killing, mass relocation, and that does constitute genocide. Lifton regards terrorism as a serious threat due to the proliferation of nuclear and chemical weapons
31.
Henry Morgenthau III
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Henry Morgenthau III is an American author and television producer, and scion of the famous Morgenthau dynasty and member of the Lehman family. Henry Morgenthau III is the son of Elinor, granddaughter of Mayer Lehman and he is also the grandson of US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Sr. and grandnephew of New York Governor and Senator Herbert H. Lehman. Henry Morgenthau III is brother of former New York County District Attorney Robert M and his cousin is eminent American historian Barbara Tuchman. Henry Morgenthau III graduated from Princeton University in 1939, during his time at university, he ran on the cross country team, worked on Theatre Intime, and was an editorial-board member of the Princetonian. Despite his familys social stature, Morgenthau was frozen out of bicker in 1937, during World War II, Morgenthau served in the US Army. From 1945 he was involved in the business, at various times working as an author, producer and manager for the larger national institutions like NBC, CBS. From 1955 to 1977, Morgenthau was a producer of WGBH. His shows at WGBH won Peabody, Emmy, UPI, Educational Film Library Association, also he was the acting program manager at WYNC. Morgenthau served as a president of the Eleanor Roosevelt Institute. He also was a manager of the Morse Communication Center at the Brandeis University, Morgenthau III was producer of Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt, The Negro and the American Promise, and Conversation with Svetlana Alliluyeva. He was a contributor to Screamers and story editor of A Tale of Two Christmases, waiting in line at city hall in the predawn, he looked at the damp ground and decided to call himself Morgen Tau. His and Brunhilda Morgenthaus son, Lazarus was making nicotine-free cigars, candy from pine needles, tongue scrapers, financially overextended, Lazarus moved to New York in 1866, where his fortunes plummeted further. Lazaruss ninth child, Henry Sr. saw his mission as restoring the family to its rightful position, as Wilsons ambassador to Turkey during the crucial years before and during World War I, he supported the Jews in Palestine and heroically rescued Armenians persecuted by the Turks. Henry Jr. was a friend of both Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt, FDRs Secretary of the Treasury and leader of U. S. efforts on behalf of Holocaust survivors. Henry Morgenthau III is an observant Jew who rediscovered his religion after his marriage to Ruth S. Morgenthau in 1962 and they had three children together, Henry Morgenthau, cinematographer Kramer Morgenthau and Sarah Elinor Morgenthau Wessel. Morgenthau turned 100 on January 11,2017, He celebrated the occasion in Washington DC with 35 relatives, dynasty Morgenthau Family Tree Henry Morgenthau III at the Internet Movie Database Henry Morgenthau III on Goodreads U. S. Roosevelt Presidential Library & Museum Henry Morgenthau III on Geni
32.
John Marshall Evans
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John Marshall Evans served as United States ambassador to the Republic of Armenia. He was confirmed to this position by the U. S. Senate on June 25,2004, Evans began his service on August 8,2004, but, as confirmed by President George W. Bush on May 24,2006, was terminated for undisclosed reasons. Born in Virginia, Evans studied Russian history at Yale University and he pursued doctoral studies at Columbia University but does not hold a Ph. D. He served for the US foreign service in various capacities in Iran, Czechoslovakia, the former Soviet Union and he studied languages and became fluent in Russian and several other foreign languages. Armenian sources have suggested that the dismissal of Evans was due to his strong support for the cause of the recognition of the Armenian Genocide. ”It has been suggested that Turkey. The Bush Administration re-nominated Hoagland when the 110th session of the United States Congress convened, a new nominee, Marie L. Yovanovitch, came up for the post in 2008 and served till 2011. Currently Richard M. Mills, Jr. serves in the position as ambassador to Armenia, truth Held Hostage, America and the Armenian Genocide – What Then. Sixteen Talks Given on Armenian Issues
33.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
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LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
Ambassador Morgenthau's Story public domain audiobook at LibriVox