1.
Rumpelstiltskin
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Rumpelstiltskin is a fairy tale popularly associated with Germany. The tale was one collected by the Brothers Grimm in the 1812 edition of Childrens, according to researchers at Durham University and the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, the story originated around 4,000 years ago. In order to make himself appear superior, a miller lies to the king, telling him that his daughter can spin straw into gold. The king calls for the girl, shuts her in a room filled with straw and a spinning wheel. When she has given up all hope, an imp-like creature appears in the room, when next morning the king takes the girl to a larger room filled with straw to repeat the feat, the imp spins in return for the girls ring. He extracts from her a promise that she give him her firstborn child. The king keeps his promise to marry the millers daughter, but when their first child is born, the imp returns to claim his payment, Now give me what you promised. She offers him all the wealth she has to keep the child and he finally consents to give up his claim to the child if she can guess his name within three days. Her many guesses fail, but before the night, she wanders into the woods searching for him and comes across his remote mountain cottage and watches, unseen, as he hops about his fire. In his songs lyrics, tonight tonight, my plans I make, tomorrow tomorrow, the queen will never win the game, for Rumpelstiltskin is my name, he reveals his name. Some versions have the imp limiting the number of daily guesses to three and hence the number of guesses allowed to a maximum of nine. When the imp comes to the queen on the day, after first feigning ignorance, she reveals his name, Rumpelstiltskin. In the 1812 edition of the Brothers Grimm tales, Rumpelstiltskin then ran away angrily, Other versions have Rumpelstiltskin driving his right foot so far into the ground that he creates a chasm and falls into it, never to be seen again. In the oral version originally collected by the Brothers Grimm, Rumpelstiltskin flies out of the window on a cooking ladle, all these tales are Aarne–Thompson type 500, The Name of the Helper. Another of the Grimms tales revolves about a girl trapped by false claims about her spinning abilities, however, the three women who assist that girl do not demand her firstborn, but instead ask that she invite them to her wedding and say that they are relatives of hers. She complies, and when the three appear at the wedding, amazing the king with their ugliness, they tell the king that their various deformities are the result of their years of spinning, the horrified king decrees that the bride will spin no more. In contrast to Rumpelstiltskins self-seeking, therefore, these helpers ask only the payment of extending their benevolence to the heroine, and ensure that she will not need their help again. In one Italian variant, the girl must discover their names, as with Rumpelstiltskin, but not for the reason, she must use their names to invite them
2.
Henry Justice Ford
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Henry Justice Ford was a prolific and successful English artist and illustrator, active from 1886 through to the late 1920s. Sometimes known as H. J. Ford or Henry J, in 1892, Ford began exhibiting paintings of historical subjects and landscapes at the Royal Academy of Art exhibitions. His parents were Katherine Mary Justice and William Augustus Ford, his grandfather was George Samuel Ford. His father, and many of his family were cricketers and his father wrote a number of articles and books on the subject and Fords brother, Francis Ford played for England in an Ashes series in Australia. His love of the game led Henry Justice Ford to play regularly with the playwright JM Barries Allahakbarrie Cricket Club. Fords wide-ranging interests brought him into contact and friendship with many figures of his time, including the writers PG Wodehouse, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. At the age of 61, Ford surprised his friends by marrying a woman some thirty-five years younger and she was Emily Amelia Hoff, a widow whose first husband had been killed in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March 1915. The seated model in Henry Justice Fords painting Remembering Happier Times, now in the collection of the Russell-Cotes Art Gallery, Bournemouth, bears a resemblance to Fords wife. Doing Justice to Henry, a study of Henry Justice Ford, by Caroline Hares-Stryker (Imaginative Book Illustration Society, Studies in Illustration, Number 43
3.
Andrew Lang
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Andrew Lang was a Scottish poet, novelist, literary critic, and contributor to the field of anthropology. He is best known as a collector of folk and fairy tales, the Andrew Lang lectures at the University of St Andrews are named after him. On 17 April 1875, he married Leonora Blanche Alleyne, youngest daughter of C. T. Alleyne of Clifton and she was variously credited as author, collaborator, or translator of Langs Color/Rainbow Fairy Books which he edited. He soon made a reputation as one of the most able and versatile writers of the day as a journalist, poet, critic, in 1906, he was elected FBA. He died of angina pectoris at the Tor-na-Coille Hotel in Banchory, Banchory and he was buried in the cathedral precincts at St Andrews. Lang is now known for his publications on folklore, mythology. The interest in folklore was from early life, he read John Ferguson McLennan before coming to Oxford, the earliest of his publications is Custom and Myth. In Myth, Ritual and Religion he explained the irrational elements of mythology as survivals from more primitive forms and his Blue Fairy Book was a beautifully produced and illustrated edition of fairy tales that has become a classic. This was followed by other collections of fairy tales, collectively known as Andrew Langs Fairy Books. In the preface of the Lilac Fairy Book he credits his wife with translating and transcribing most of the stories in the collections, Lang examined the origins of totemism in Social Origins. Lang was one of the founders of psychical research and his writings on anthropology include The Book of Dreams and Ghosts, Magic and Religion. He served as President of the Society for Psychical Research in 1911. He collaborated with S. H. Butcher in a translation of Homers Odyssey. He was a Homeric scholar of conservative views, Langs writings on Scottish history are characterised by a scholarly care for detail, a piquant literary style, and a gift for disentangling complicated questions. He also wrote monographs on The Portraits and Jewels of Mary Stuart and James VI, the somewhat unfavourable view of John Knox presented in his book John Knox and the Reformation aroused considerable controversy. He gave new information about the career of the Young Pretender in Pickle the Spy, an account of Alestair Ruadh MacDonnell, whom he identified with Pickle. This was followed by The Companions of Pickle and a monograph on Prince Charles Edward, in 1900 he began a History of Scotland from the Roman Occupation. He edited The Poems and Songs of Robert Burns, and was responsible for the Life and Letters of JG Lockhart, and The Life, Letters and Diaries of Sir Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh
4.
Fairy tale
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Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables. The term is used for stories with origins in European tradition and, at least in recent centuries. In less technical contexts, the term is used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness. Colloquially, a tale or fairy story can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale, it is used especially of any story that not only is not true. Legends are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legends, Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form, the name fairy tale was first ascribed to them by Madame dAulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of todays fairy tales have evolved from stories that have appeared, with variations. The history of the tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today. Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways, the Aarne-Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales. It moves in a world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms, a fairy tale with a tragic rather than a happy end is called an anti-fairy tale. Although the fairy tale is a genre within the larger category of folktale. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame DAulnoys conte de fées, Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between fairy tales and animal tales on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Were I asked, what is a fairytale, I should reply, Read Undine, that is a fairytale. of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful. As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face. Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales, davidson and Chaudri identify transformation as the key feature of the genre
5.
Children's literature
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Childrens literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are enjoyed by children. Modern childrens literature is classified in two different ways, genre or the age of the reader. Childrens literature can be traced to stories and songs, part of an oral tradition. The development of childrens literature, before printing was invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became widespread, many childrens tales were originally created for adults. Since the 15th century, a quantity of literature, often with a moral or religious message, has been aimed specifically at children. The late nineteenth and early centuries became known as the Golden Age of Childrens Literature as this period included the publication of many books acknowledged today as classics. There is no single or widely used definition of childrens literature and it can be broadly defined as anything that children read or more specifically defined as fiction, non-fiction, poetry, or drama intended for and used by children and young people. The International Companion Encyclopedia of Childrens Literature notes that the boundaries of genre. are not fixed but blurred, sometimes, no agreement can be reached about whether a given work is best categorized as literature for adults or children. Rowlings Harry Potter series was written and marketed for young adults, the series extreme popularity led The New York Times to create a separate best-seller list for childrens books. Despite the widespread association of childrens literature with picture books, spoken narratives existed before printing, seth Lerer, in the opening of Childrens Literature, A Readers History from Aesop to Harry Potter, says, This book presents a history of what children have heard and read. The history I write of is a history of reception, early childrens literature consisted of spoken stories, songs, and poems that were used to educate, instruct, and entertain children. It was only in the 18th century, with the development of the concept of childhood, that a genre of childrens literature began to emerge, with its own divisions, expectations. French historian Philippe Ariès argues in his 1962 book Centuries of Childhood that the concept of childhood only emerged in recent times. He explains that children were in the past not considered as different from adults and were not given significantly different treatment. Pre-modern childrens literature, therefore, tended to be of a didactic and moralistic nature, with the purpose of conveying conduct-related, educational, during the 17th century, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe. Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection, the English philosopher John Locke developed his theory of the tabula rasa in his 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and he also suggested that picture books be created for children
6.
1889 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1889. February 12 – Henrik Ibsens symbolic drama The Lady from the Sea receives its first performances simultaneously in Oslo, april 24 – The Garrick Theatre in London, financed by playwright W. S. Gilbert, opens with a performance of Pineros The Profligate. May 30 – English publisher Henry Vizetelly is prosecuted for obscenity for the time in London. June – Algernon Methuen begins publishing books in England, the origin of Methuen Publishing, september 3 – Jerome K. Jeromes comic fictional English travelogue set on the River Thames, Three Men in a Boat, is published in Bristol. November – Leo Tolstoys novella The Kreutzer Sonata is circulated in clandestine copies, september 14 – The Volkstheater, Vienna opens with a performance of Der Fleck auf der Ehr by its Dramaturg, Ludwig Anzengruber, who dies on December 10 from blood poisoning. December 12 – English poet Robert Browning dies at Ca Rezzonico in Venice on the day his book Asolando, Fancies and facts is published. Anton Manwel Caruanas Ineż Farruġ is the first novel originated in the Maltese language, marcel Proust begins a years service in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks in Orléans. Theodore Roosevelt publishes the first of four volumes of The Winning of the West in the United States, with three more by 1896. Rider Haggard – Cleopatra Jerome K. Jerome – Three Men in a Boat John Law – In Darkest London George A. Edgar Wallace – The Dark Eyes of London Oscar Wilde – The Portrait of Mr. W. H. C
7.
Children's poetry
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Childrens poetry is poetry written for, or appropriate for children. This may include folk poetry, poetry written intentionally for young people, poetry written originally for adults, but appropriate for young people, and poems taken from prose works. Dr. Seuss - Wrote many Childrens poetry books including The Cat in the Hat, Green Eggs and Ham, robert Louis Stevenson - Author of such works as A Childs Garden of Verses. Shel Silverstein - Author of such works as Where the Sidewalk Ends and A Light in the Attic, Silverstein also wrote The Giving Tree. Jack Prelutsky - Author of such works as A Gopher in the Garden and Other Animal Poems, michael Rosen is a broadcaster, childrens novelist and poet and the author of 140 books. He was appointed as the fifth Childrens Laureate in June 2007, succeeding Jacqueline Wilson, roald Dahl is one of the most successful childrens writers in the world, around thirty million of his books have been sold in the UK alone. Dahls collection of poems Revolting Rhymes is a re-interpretation of six fairy tales. Dahls poems and stories are popular among Children because he writes from their point of view - in his books adults are often the villains or are just plain stupid. Brian Moses is one of Britains favourite childrens poets, for both his own poetry and the anthologies he has edited, and he has performed in two thousand schools across the UK and Europe. He is a Reading Champion for the Literacy Trust, roger Stevens is a performance poet, author, musician and artist. His poems have appeared in more than one hundred anthologies, gez Walsh is a performance poet and stand-up comedian best known as the author of the cult classic childrens poetry book The Spot on my Bum. Allan Ahlberg is one of Britains best-loved childrens writers, the author of over a hundred books. Jean Sprackland is an English poet, the author of three collections of poetry published since 1997, shepherd Thorleif Halvorsen - Author of The Bridge Across The River, a collection of poems for children. Index to Poetry for Children and Young People, 1964–1969, Index to Poetry for Children and Young People, 1976–1981. Frizzell Smith, Ardis Sarff O’Hoyt, and Mildred Bakke, subject Index to Poetry for Children and Young People. Chicago, American Library Association,1957, ISBN 0-8389-0242-1
8.
Scottish people
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The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders
9.
Novelist
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A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, Novelists come from a variety of backgrounds and social classes, and frequently this shapes the content of their works. Similarly, some novelists have creative identities derived from their focus on different genres of fiction, such as crime, while many novelists compose fiction to satisfy personal desires, novelists and commentators often ascribe a particular social responsibility or role to novel writers. Many authors use such moral imperatives to justify different approaches to writing, including activism or different approaches to representing reality truthfully. Novelist is a derivative from the term novel describing the writer of novels. However, the OED attributes the primary meaning of a writer of novels as first appearing in the 1633 book East-India Colation by C. The difference between professional and amateur novelists often is the ability to publish. Many people take up writing as a hobby, but the difficulties of completing large scale fictional works of quality prevent the completion of novels. Once authors have completed a novel, they often try to get it published. The publishing industry requires novels to have accessible profitable markets, thus many novelists will self-publish to circumvent the editorial control of publishers, self-publishing has long been an option for writers, with vanity presses printing bound books for a fee paid by the writer. The rise of the Internet and electronic books has made self publishing far less expensive, Novelists apply a number of different methods to writing their novels, relying on a variety of approaches to inspire creativity. Some communities actively encourage amateurs to practice writing novels to develop these unique practices, for example, the internet-based group, National Novel Writing Month, encourages people to write 50, 000-word novels in the month of November, to give novelists practice completing such works. In the 2010 event, over 200,000 people took part – writing a total of over 2.8 billion words, Novelists dont usually publish their first novels until later in life. However, many novelists begin writing at a young age, for example, Iain Banks began writing at eleven, and at sixteen completed his first novel, The Hungarian Lift-Jet, about international arms dealers, in pencil in a larger-than-foolscap log book. However, he was thirty before he published his first novel, the success of this novel enabled Banks to become a full-time novelist. Occasionally, novelists publish as early as their teens, for example, Patrick OBrian published his first novel, Caesar, The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard, at the age of 15, which brought him considerable critical attention. Occasionally, these works will achieve popular success as well, for example, though Christopher Paolinis Eragon, was not a great critical success, but its popularity among readers placed it on the New York Times Childrens Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks. First-time novelists of any age often find themselves unable to get published, because of a number of reasons reflecting the inexperience of the author
10.
Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
11.
Mythology
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Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of such myths. Myths are the people tell to explain nature, history. Myth is a feature of every culture, mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary mythopoeia such as urban legends and the expansive fictional mythoi created by fantasy novels and comics. A cultures collective mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, the study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists, the nineteenth-century comparative mythology reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of science, a disease of language, or a misinterpretation of magical ritual. Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, the term mythology predates the word myth by centuries. It first appeared in the fifteenth-century, borrowed from the Middle French term mythologie, the word mythology, comes from Middle French mythologie, from Late Latin mythologia, from Greek μυθολογία mythología from μῦθος mythos and -λογία -logia. The word mythología appears in Plato, but was used as a term for fiction or story-telling of any kind, combining mỹthos. From Lydgate until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean a moral, fable, from its earliest use in reference to a collection of traditional stories or beliefs, mythology implied the falsehood of the stories being described. It came to be applied by analogy with similar bodies of traditional stories among other cultures around the world. The Greek loanword mythos and Latinate mythus both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830, in present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths. For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures, dundes defined myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Lincoln defined myth as ideology in narrative form, scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways. In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story, due to this pejorative sense, some scholars opted for the term mythos. Its use was similarly pejorative and now commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a plot point or to a collective mythology. The term is distinguished from didactic literature such as fables. Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans, however, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid. Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and are linked to religion or spirituality
12.
Travel literature
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The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century AD, in the early modern period, James Boswells Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides helped shape travel memoir as a genre. The travel genre was a common genre in medieval Arabic literature. Travel literature became popular during the Song Dynasty of medieval China, the genre was called travel record literature, and was often written in narrative, prose, essay and diary style. One of the earliest known records of taking pleasure in travel, of travelling for the sake of travel and he states that he went to the mountaintop for the pleasure of seeing the top of the famous height. His companions who stayed at the bottom he called frigida incuriositas and he then wrote about his climb, making allegorical comparisons between climbing the mountain and his own moral progress in life. Antoine de la Sale, author of Petit Jehan de Saintre, climbed to the crater of a volcano in the Lipari Islands in 1407, councils of mad youth were his stated reasons for going. In 1589, Richard Hakluyt published Voyages, a text of the travel literature genre. In the 18th Century, travel literature was commonly known as the book of travels, in 18th century Britain, almost every famous writer worked in the travel literature form. Captain James Cooks diaries were the equivalent of todays best sellers, Other later examples of travel literature include accounts of the Grand Tour. Aristocrats, clergy, and others with money and leisure time travelled Europe to learn about the art, a very popular subgenre of travel literature started to emerge in the form of narratives of exploration, a still unexplored source for colonial and postcolonial studies. Travel books range in style from the documentary to the evocative, from literary to journalistic and they are often associated with tourism and include guide books, meant to educate the reader about destinations, provide advice for visits, and inspire readers to travel. Travel writing may be found on web sites, in periodicals and it has been produced by a variety of writers, such as travelers, military officers, missionaries, explorers, scientists, pilgrims, social and physical scientists, educators, and migrants. Travel literature often intersects with essay writing, as in V. S. Naipauls India, A Wounded Civilization, whose trip became the occasion for extended observations on a nation and this is similarly the case in Rebecca Wests work on Yugoslavia, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon. Sometimes a writer will settle into a locality for an extended period, examples of such writings include Lawrence Durrells Bitter Lemons, Deborah Talls The Island of the White Cow, and Peter Mayles best-selling A Year in Provence and its sequels. Travel and nature writing merge in many of the works by Sally Carrighar, Gerald Durrell and these authors are naturalists, who write in support of their fields of study. Another naturalist, Charles Darwin, wrote his famous account of the journey of HMS Beagle at the intersection of science, natural history, a number of writers famous in another field have written about their travel experiences. H. Lawrences Twilight in Italy and Other Essays, Mornings in Mexico and Other Essays, Rebecca Wests Black Lamb and Grey Falcon, in the world of sailing Joshua Slocums Sailing Alone Around the World is a classic of outdoor adventure literature
13.
Lancelot Speed
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Lancelot Speed was a Victorian illustrator of books, usually of a fantastical or romantic nature. He is probably most well known for his illustrations for Andrew Langs fairy story books, Speed is credited as the designer on the 1916 silent movie version of the novel She by H. Rider Haggard, which he had illustrated. He was also the director of a number of early British silent films, peniakoff earned early notoriety with his-behind-the-lines raids to blow up German petrol dumps, transported there and back, in some exasperation, by the LRDG. In the Pip, Squeak and Wilfred adventures before the start of World War II there were two characters, one was a scheming, plotting, bomb-throwing Bolshevik and the other was his dog. The mad Russian was actually called Professor Wtzkoffski and it was the dog that was called Popski. These cartoon characters in the Daily Mirror were well known to all the soldiers, media related to Lancelot Speed at Wikimedia Commons Works by Lancelot Speed at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Lancelot Speed at Internet Archive
14.
Folklore
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Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
15.
Primary source
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It serves as an original source of information about the topic. Similar definitions can be used in science, and other areas of scholarship. In journalism, a source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on, generally, accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight are secondary. A secondary source may also be a primary source depending on how it is used, Primary and secondary should be understood as relative terms, with sources categorized according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied. In scholarly writing, an important objective of classifying sources is to determine their independence, sreedharan believes that primary sources have the most direct connection to the past and that they speak for themselves in ways that cannot be captured through the filter of secondary sources. In scholarly writing, the objective of classifying sources is to determine the independence, though the terms primary source and secondary source originated in historiography as a way to trace the history of historical ideas, they have been applied to many other fields. For example, these ideas may be used to trace the history of theories, literary elements. In scientific literature, a source is the original publication of a scientists new data, results. In political history, primary sources are documents such as reports, speeches, pamphlets, posters, or letters by participants, official election returns. In religious history, the sources are religious texts and descriptions of religious ceremonies. A study of history could include fictional sources such as novels or plays. In a broader sense primary sources also include artifacts like photographs, newsreels, coins, historians may also take archaeological artifacts and oral reports and interviews into consideration. Written sources may be divided into three types, narrative sources or literary sources tell a story or message. They are not limited to fictional sources but include diaries, films, biographies, leading philosophical works, diplomatic sources include charters and other legal documents which usually follow a set format. Social documents are created by organizations, such as registers of births. In historiography, when the study of history is subject to historical scrutiny, for a biography of a historian, that historians publications would be primary sources. Documentary films can be considered a source or primary source
16.
Madame d'Aulnoy
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Marie-Catherine Le Jumel de Barneville, Baroness dAulnoy, also known as Countess dAulnoy, was a French writer known for her fairy tales. When she termed her works contes de fées, she originated the term that is now used for the genre. DAulnoy was born in Barneville-la-Bertran, Calvados, as a member of the family of Le Jumel de Barneville. In 1666, she was given at the age of fifteen in a marriage to a Parisian thirty years older—François de la Motte, Baron dAulnoy. The baron was a freethinker and a known gambler, over the next three years, the couple had three children. In 1669, the Baron dAulnoy was accused of treason but the accusations, in which Mme dAulnoy appeared to be involved, proved to be false, and two men implicated in the accusation were executed. Marie-Catherines mother fled the country as she was allegedly involved. She had three children and discontinued involvement in the Paris social scene for twenty years. During this period, she said that she had traveled to Spain, with her mother, who remained in Madrid, and England. Much of this time was spent writing stories inspired by these destinations. Madame dAulnoy was a permanent resident of Paris again by 1690, over the next thirteen years she published twelve books including three pseudo-memoirs, two fairy tale collections and three historical novels. Gaining the reputation as a historian and recorder of tales from outside France, however, at this time the idea of history was a much looser term which included her fictional accounts. In 150 years, the more strictly documented form of the led to her accounts being declared fraudulent. However, in France and England at the time her works were considered as mere entertainment and her truly accurate attempts at historical accounts telling of the Dutch wars of Louis XIV were less successful. Her most popular works were her fairy tales and adventure stories as told in Les Contes des Fees and Contes Nouveaux, ou Les Fées à la Mode. Unlike the folk tales of the Grimm Brothers, who were born some 135 years later than dAulnoy, she told her stories in a conversational style. These stories were far from suitable for children and many English adaptations are very dissimilar to the original
17.
Anglo-Scottish border
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The Anglo-Scottish border, or the English-Scottish border, is the official border and mark of entry between England and Scotland. It runs for 96 miles between Marshall Meadows Bay on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west and it is Scotlands only land border. England shares a border with Wales. The Firth of Forth was the border between the Picto-Gaelic Kingdom of Alba and the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria in the early 10th century and it became the first Anglo-Scottish border with the annexation of Northumbria by Anglo-Saxon England in the mid 10th century. Lothian was taken by the Scots at the Battle of Carham in 1018, the Solway-Tweed line was legally established in 1237 by the Treaty of York between England and Scotland. It remains the border today, with the exception of the Debatable Lands, north of Carlisle, and an area around Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is thus one of the oldest extant borders in the world, for centuries until the Union of the Crowns the region on either side of the boundary was a lawless territory suffering from the repeated raids in each direction of the Border Reivers. The age of legal capacity under Scots law is 16, while it was previously 18 under English law, the border settlements of Gretna Green, Coldstream and Lamberton were convenient for elopers from England who wanted to marry under Scottish laws, and marry without publicity. The border is marked by signposts welcoming travellers both into Scotland and into England and it is a hilly area, with the Scottish Southern Uplands to the north, and the Cheviot Hills forming the border between the two countries to the south. A 16th-century Act of the Scottish Parliament talks about the chiefs of the clans. Although Lowland aristocrats may have liked to refer to themselves as families. For a time a local clan dominated a region on the border between England and Scotland. It was known as the Debatable Lands and neither monarchs writ was heeded, King James VI & I decreed that the Borders should be renamed the Middle Shires. In 1605 he established a commission of ten drawn equally from Scotland and England to bring law. Reivers could no longer escape justice by crossing from England to Scotland or vice versa, the rough-and-ready Border Laws were abolished and the folk of the middle shires found they had to obey the law of the land like all other subjects. In 1603 the King placed George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar in charge of pacification of the borders, courts were set up in the towns of the Middle Shires and known reivers were arrested. The more troublesome and lower classes were executed without trial, known as Jeddart justice, mass hanging soon became a common occurrence. In 1607 James felt he could boast that the Middle Shires had become the navel or umbilic of both kingdoms, planted and peopled with civility and riches, after ten years King James had succeeded, the Middle Shires had been brought under central law and order
18.
Dinah Craik
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Dinah Maria Craik was an English novelist and poet. Mulock was born at Stoke-on-Trent to Dinah and Thomas Mulock and raised in Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire and her childhood and early youth were much affected by his unsettled fortunes, but she obtained a good education from various quarters and felt called to be a writer. She came to London about 1846, much at the time as two friends, Alexander Macmillan and Charles Edward Mudie. Introduced by Camilla Toulmin to Westland Marston, she made friends in London. In 1865 she married George Lillie Craik a partner with Alexander Macmillan in the house of Macmillan & Company. They adopted a baby girl, Dorothy, in 1869. At Shortlands, near Bromley, Kent, while in a period of preparation for Dorothys wedding, she died of heart failure on 12 October 1887 and her last words were reported to have been, Oh, if I could live four weeks longer. Her final book, An Unknown Country, was published by Macmillan in 1887, Dorothy married Alexander Pilkington in 1887 but they divorced in 1911 and she went on to marry Captain Richards of Macmine Castle. She and Alexander had just one son John Mulock Pilkington, John married Freda Roskelly and they had a son and daughter. Mulocks early success began with the novel Cola Monti, and in the year she produced her first three-volume novel, The Ogilvies. It was followed in 1850 by Olive, then by The Head of the Family in 1851 and Agathas Husband in 1853, Mulock published the fairy story Alice Learmont in 1852, and collected numerous short stories from periodicals under the title of Avillion and other Tales in 1853. A similar collection appeared in 1857 under the title of Nothing New, thoroughly established in public favour as a successful author, Mulock took a cottage at Wildwood, North End, Hampstead, and joined an extensive social circle. Her personal attractions were at this period of her life considerable, and people kindly judged her simple cordiality, staunch friendliness, in 1857 she published the work by which she will be principally remembered, John Halifax, Gentleman, a presentation of the ideals of English middle-class life. Another collection, titled The Unkind Word and Other Stories, included a criticism of Benjamin Heath Malkin for overworking his son Thomas. Later on, Craik returned to more fanciful tales and achieved a success with The Little Lame Prince. Richard Garnett holds that the passion that filled her early works of fiction had not unnaturally faded out of middle life, replaced by didacticism. Garnett judges Craiks poetry as a womans poems, tender, domestic, and sometimes enthusiastic, always genuine song, a comprehensive bibliography appears in Dinah Mulock Craik by Sally Mitchell. This is reproduced more concisely in the Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, additional contributions to periodicals, The Man in Green
19.
Joseph Jacobs
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Joseph Jacobs was an Australian folklorist, literary critic, social scientist, historian and writer of English literature who became a notable collector and publisher of English folklore. He also edited editions of The Thousand and One Nights and he went on to join The Folklore Society in England and became an editor of the society journal Folklore. Joseph Jacobs also contributed to The Jewish Encyclopedia and he was the sixth surviving son of John Jacobs, a publican who had emigrated from London around 1837, and his wife Sarah, née Myers. Jacobs was educated at Sydney Grammar School and at the University of Sydney and he did not complete his studies in Sydney, but left for England at the age of 18 and entered St Johns College, Cambridge. He graduated with a B. A. in 1876, and in 1877, Jacobs married Georgina Horne and fathered two sons and a daughter. In 1900, when he became revising editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia, based in New York and he died on 30 January 1916 at his home in Yonkers, New York. Jacobs was secretary of the Society of Hebrew Literature from 1878 to 1884 and this led to the formation of the mansion house fund and committee, of which Jacobs was secretary from 1882 to 1900. He was a student of anthropology at the Statistical Laboratory at University College London in the 1880s under Francis Galton and his Studies in Jewish Statistics, Social, Vital and Anthropometric made his reputation as the first proponent of Jewish race science. He wrote many articles for the Athenaeum, which published in 1891 the collection, George Eliot, Matthew Arnold, Browning, Newman, Essays. In the same year appeared his Studies in Jewish Statistics, in 1892, Tennyson and In Memoriam, and in 1893, his important book on The Jews of Angevin England. His historical novel dealing with the life of Jesus, As Others Saw Him, A Retrospective A. D.54, was published anonymously in 1895, in the year his Jewish Ideals. In this year, he was invited to the United States of America to give a course of lectures on the Philosophy of Jewish History, the Story of Geographical Discovery was published towards the end of 1898 and ran into several editions. He had been compiling and editing the Jewish Year Book since 1896, in 1900, he accepted an invitation to become revising editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia, which was then being prepared at New York. He settled permanently in the United States, where he wrote articles for the Jewish Encyclopedia. He then became registrar and professor of English at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York, in 1908, he was appointed a member of the board of seven, which made a new English translation of the Bible for the Jewish Publication Society of America. In 1913, he resigned his positions at the seminary to become editor of the American Hebrew, in 1920, Book I of his Jewish Contributions to Civilization, which was practically finished at the time of his death, was published at Philadelphia. Jacobs was also a contributor to the Encyclopædia Britannica, and James Hastings Encyclopaedia of Religion, although he collected many tales under the name of fairy tales, many of them are unusual sorts of tales. Binnorie and Tamlane are prose versions of ballads, The Old Woman and Her Pig is a rhyme, Henny-Penny is a fable
20.
Kate Douglas Wiggin
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Kate Douglas Wiggin was an American educator and author of childrens stories, most notably the classic childrens novel Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. She started the first free kindergarten in San Francisco in 1878, with her sister during the 1880s, she also established a training school for kindergarten teachers. Kate Wiggin devoted her life to the welfare of children in an era when children were commonly thought of as cheap labor. Kate Douglas Smith Wiggin was born in Philadelphia, the daughter of lawyer Robert N. Smith, Kate herself experienced a happy childhood, even though it was coloured by the American Civil War and her fathers death. There Kate matured in rural surroundings, with her sister and her new baby brother, from a literary point of view her childhood was most distinctive for her encounter with the novelist Charles Dickens. Her mother and another relative had gone to hear Dickens read in Portland, although rather casual, this was more education than most women received at the time. In 1873, hoping to ease Albion Bradburys lung disease, Kates family moved to Santa Barbara, California, a kindergarten training class was opening in Los Angeles under Emma Marwedel, and Kate enrolled. After graduation, in 1878, she headed the first free kindergarten in California, the children were street Arabs of the wildest type, but Kate had a loving personality and dramatic flair. By 1880 she was forming a school in conjunction with the Silver Street kindergarten. In 1881, Kate married Bradley Wiggin, a San Francisco lawyer, according to the customs of the time, she was required to resign her teaching job. Still devoted to her school, she began to raise money for it through writing, first The Story of Patsy, both privately printed books were issued commercially by Houghton Mifflin in 1889, with enormous success. She moved to New York City in 1888, when her husband died suddenly in 1889, Kate relocated to Maine. In 1895, Kate Wiggin married a New York City businessman, George Christopher Riggs, who became her staunch supporter as her success grew. Her literary output included books for adults, with her sister, Nora A. Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm became an immediate bestseller. Houghton Mifflin collected her writings in ten volumes in 1917, for a time, she lived at Quillcote, her summer home in Hollis, Maine. Quillcote is around the corner from the library, the Salmon Falls Library. Wiggin founded the Dorcas Society of Hollis & Buxton, Maine in 1897, the Tory Hill Meeting House in the adjacent town of Buxton inspired her book, The Old Peabody Pew. During the spring of 1923 Kate Wiggin traveled to England as a New York delegate to the Dickens Fellowship, there she became ill and died, at age 66, of bronchial pneumonia
21.
Brothers Grimm
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Their first collection of folk tales, Childrens and Household Tales, was published in 1812. The brothers spent their formative years in the German town of Hanau and their fathers death in 1796 caused great poverty for the family and affected the brothers for many years after. They both attended the University of Marburg where they developed a curiosity about German folklore, which grew into a dedication to collecting German folk tales. The rise of romanticism during the 19th century revived interest in folk stories. With the goal of researching a scholarly treatise on folk tales, between 1812 and 1857, their first collection was revised and republished many times, growing from 86 stories to more than 200. The popularity of the Grimms best folk tales has endured well, Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was born on 4 January 1785 and his brother Wilhelm Carl Grimm on 24 February 1786. They were the second- and third-eldest surviving siblings in a family of nine children, in 1791, the family moved to the countryside town of Steinau, when Philipp was employed there as district magistrate. The family became prominent members of the community, residing in a home surrounded by fields. Biographer Jack Zipes writes that the brothers were happy in Steinau, the children were educated at home by private tutors, receiving strict instruction as Lutherans that instilled in both a lifelong religious faith. In 1796, Philipp Grimm died of pneumonia, plunging his family into poverty, Dorothea depended on financial support from her father and sister, first lady-in-waiting at the court of William I, Elector of Hesse. Jacob was the eldest living son, and he was forced at age 11 to assume adult responsibilities for the two years. The two boys adhered to the advice of their grandfather, who continually exhorted them to be industrious, the brothers left Steinau and their family in 1798 to attend the Friedrichsgymnasium in Kassel, which had been arranged and paid for by their aunt. By then, they were without a provider, forcing them to rely entirely on each other. The two brothers differed in temperament, Jacob was introspective and Wilhelm was outgoing, sharing a strong work ethic, they excelled in their studies. In Kassel, they became aware of their inferior social status relative to high-born students who received more attention. Still, each brother graduated at the head of his class, Jacob in 1803, after graduation from the Friedrichsgymnasium, the brothers attended the University of Marburg. The university was small with about 200 students and there they became aware that students of lower social status were not treated equally. They were disqualified from admission because of their standing and had to request dispensation to study law
22.
Karelian language
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Karelian language is a Finnic language spoken mainly in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as karjalaismurteet in Finland. There is no single standard Karelian language, each writer writes in Karelian according to their own dialectal form. Three main written standards have developed, for North Karelian, Olonets Karelian. All variants are written with the Latin-based Karelian alphabet, though the Cyrillic script has been used in the past, the Karelian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, and it is closely related to Finnish. Earlier some Finnish linguists classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, sometimes known in older Finnish literature as Raja-Karjalan murteet, besides Karelian and Finnish, the Finnic subgroup also includes Estonian and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea. Karelian is spoken by about 100,000 people, mainly in the Republic of Karelia, Russia although notable Karelian-speaking communities can also be found in the Tver region northwest of Moscow. Previously, it was estimated there were 5,000 speakers in Finland, mainly belonging to the older generations. Due to post-World War II mobility and internal migration, Karelians now live scattered throughout Finland, Karelians in Tver Oblast have a national-cultural autonomy which guarantees the use of the Karelian language in schools and mass media. In Finland, Karelian has official status as a national minority language within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The Karelian language has two varieties, which can be considered as dialects or separate languages, Karelian Proper, which comprises North Karelian and South Karelian. These varieties constitute a continuum of dialects, the ends of which are no longer mutually intelligible. The original Proto-Finnic long mid and open vowels have been diphthongized, *ee, *öö, *oo > /ie/, /yö/, /uo/, *aa, *ää > /oa/, /eä/ or /ua/, Karelian is today written using a Latin alphabet consisting of 29 characters. It extends the ISO basic Latin alphabet with the additional letters Č, Š, Ž, Ä, Ö and ʼ and this unified alphabet is used to write all Karelian varieties except Tver Karelian. The very few texts that were published in Karelian from medieval times through the 19th century used the Cyrillic alphabet, with the establishment of the Soviet Union, Finnish, written with the Latin alphabet, became official. However, from 1937–39 Karelian written in Cyrillic replaced Finnish as a language of the Karelian ASSR. Karelian is written with similar to Finnish orthography. However, some features of the Karelian language and thus orthography are different from Finnish, The Karelian system of sibilants is extensive, in Finnish, there is only one, Karelian retains palatalization, usually denoted with an apostrophe The letter ü may replace y in some texts
23.
Primula
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Primula /ˈprɪmjʊlə/ is a genus of mainly herbaceous flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. They include the familiar wildflower of banks and verges, the primrose, other common species are P. auricula, P. veris and P. elatior. These species and many others are valued for their ornamental flowers and they have been extensively cultivated and hybridised - in the case of the primrose, for many hundreds of years. Primula are native to the northern hemisphere, south into tropical mountains in Ethiopia, Indonesia and New Guinea. Almost half of the species are from the Himalayas. Primula has about 500 species in traditional treatments, and more if certain related genera are included within its circumscription, Primula is a complex and varied genus, with a range of habitats from alpine slopes to boggy meadows. Some species show a white mealy bloom on various parts of the plant, many species are adapted to alpine climates. The word primula is the Latin feminine diminutive of primus, meaning first, Primula species have been extensively cultivated and hybridised, mainly derived from P. elatior, P. juliae, P. veris and P. vulgaris. Polyanthus is one group of plants, which has produced a large variety of strains in all colours, usually grown as annuals. The classification of the genus Primula has been investigated by botanists for over a century, as the genus is both large and diverse, botanists have organized the species in various sub-generic groups. The most common is division into a series of thirty sections, some of these sections contain many species, others contain only one
24.
Gardenia
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Gardenia is a genus of flowering plants in the coffee family, Rubiaceae, native to the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Madagascar and Pacific Islands. The genus was named by Carl Linnaeus and John Ellis after Dr. Alexander Garden and they are evergreen shrubs and small trees growing to 1–15 metres tall. The leaves are opposite or in whorls of three or four, 5–50 centimetres long and 3–25 centimetres broad, dark green and glossy with a leathery texture. The flowers are solitary or in clusters, white, or pale yellow. Flowering is from about mid-spring to mid-summer, and many species are strongly scented, as of March 2014 The Plant List recognises 140 accepted species, Gardenia plants are prized for the strong sweet scent of their flowers, which can be very large in size in some species. Gardenia jasminoides is cultivated as a house plant and this species can be difficult to grow because it originated in warm humid tropical areas. It demands high humidity to thrive, and bright light and it flourishes in acidic soils with good drainage and thrives on during the day and 60 F in the evening. Potting soils developed especially for gardenias are available, G. jasminoides grows no larger than 18 inches in height and width when grown indoors. In climates where it can be outdoors, it can attain a height of 6 feet. If water touches the flowers, they turn brown. In China and Japan, Gardenia jasminoides is called zhīzi and kuchinashi and its fruit is used as a yellow dye, used on fabric and food. Its fruits are used in traditional Chinese medicine for their clearing, calming. In France, gardenias are the traditionally worn by men as boutonnière when in evening dress. In The Age of Innocence, Edith Wharton suggests it was customary for men from New York City to wear a gardenia in their buttonhole during the Gilded Age. Sigmund Freud remarked to the poet H. D. that gardenias were his favorite flower, several species occur in Hawaii, where gardenias are known as naʻu or nānū. Crocetin is a compound usually obtained from Crocus sativus, which can also be obtained from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides. Genipin Crocin World Checklist of Rubiaceae
25.
Expurgation
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Expurgation, also known as bowdlerization, is a form of censorship which involves purging anything deemed noxious or offensive from an artistic work, or other type of writing of media. The term bowdlerization is a term for the practice, particularly the expurgation of lewd material from books. The term derives from Thomas Bowdlers 1818 edition of William Shakespeares plays and he similarly edited Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. A fig-leaf edition is such a text, deriving from the practice of covering the genitals of nudes in classical and Renaissance statues. In 1264, Clement IV ordered the Jews of Aragon to submit their books to Dominican censors for expurgation, for instance, Children, children, bring the looking glass / Come and see the crayfish that bit your mothers a-face. The 1925 Harvard Press edition of Montaignes essays was published without the essays pertaining to sex, a Boston-area ban on Upton Sinclairs novel Oil. – owing to a short motel sex scene – prompted the author to assemble a 150-copy fig-leaf edition with the nine offending pages blacked out as a publicity stunt. Recent editions of many works—including Mark Twains Huckleberry Finn and Joseph Conrads Nigger of the Narcissus—have found various replacements for the word nigger. An example of Bowdlerization can be seen in Huck Finn, in which Twain used racial slurs in natural speech to highlight what he saw as racism. This often catches innocent words also, see Scunthorpe problem, chinese internet filters – the Great Firewall – also work to block politically-sensitive terms and characters from being published on most public sites or loaded by domestic ISPs. Ad usum Delphini Censorship Minced oath Tobacco bowdlerization
26.
J. R. R. Tolkien
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He was at one time a close friend of C. S. Lewis—they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972, after Tolkiens death, his son Christopher published a series of works based on his fathers extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including The Silmarillion. Between 1951 and 1955, Tolkien applied the term legendarium to the part of these writings. While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien and this has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the father of modern fantasy literature—or, more precisely, of high fantasy. In 2008, The Times ranked him sixth on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, forbes ranked him the 5th top-earning dead celebrity in 2009. Tolkiens paternal ancestors were middle-class craftsmen who made and sold clocks, watches and pianos in London, the Tolkien family had emigrated from Germany in the 18th century but had become quickly intensely English. According to the tradition, the Tolkiens had arrived in England in 1756. Several families with the surname Tolkien or similar spelling live in northwestern Germany, mainly in Lower Saxony, however, this origin of the name has not been proven. A German writer has suggested that the name is likely to derive from the village of Tolkynen near Rastenburg. Although that village is far from Lower Saxony, its name is derived from the now-extinct Old Prussian language. John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on 3 January 1892 in Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State to Arthur Reuel Tolkien, an English bank manager, the couple had left England when Arthur was promoted to head the Bloemfontein office of the British bank for which he worked. Tolkien had one sibling, his brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel. In another incident, a family servant, who thought Tolkien a beautiful child, took the baby to his kraal to show him off. When he was three, he went to England with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of rheumatic fever before he could join them and this left the family without an income, so Tolkiens mother took him to live with her parents in Kings Heath, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to Sarehole, then a Worcestershire village, Mabel Tolkien taught her two children at home. Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil and she taught him a great deal of botany and awakened in him the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees, but his lessons were those concerning languages
27.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
28.
Shilling
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The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, a term that dates back to Anglo-Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include bob and hog, while the derivation of bob is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was bobstick and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s, often it was represented by a solidus symbol, which may have originally stood for a long s or ſ, thus 1/9 would be one shilling and ninepence. A price with no pence was sometimes written with a slash, the solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound of silver into 66 shillings. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, in the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, a shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII. The term shilling was in use in Scotland from early medieval times, the common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish and it was worth 1/20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side, the first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75% silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin ) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963, in 1966, Australias currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin, where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a coin in Australia was deener. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was bob, after 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10-cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933, in 1967, New Zealands currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight
29.
One Thousand and One Nights
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One Thousand and One Nights is a collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the Arabian Nights, from the first English-language edition, the work was collected over many centuries by various authors, translators, and scholars across West, Central, and South Asia and North Africa. The tales themselves trace their roots back to ancient and medieval Arabic, Persian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Jewish, the stories proceed from this original tale, some are framed within other tales, while others begin and end of their own accord. Some editions contain only a few hundred nights, while others include 1,001 or more, the bulk of the text is in prose, although verse is occasionally used for songs and riddles and to express heightened emotion. Most of the poems are single couplets or quatrains, although some are longer, the main frame story concerns Shahryār, whom the narrator calls a Sasanian king ruling in India and China. Shahryār begins to marry a succession of only to execute each one the next morning. Eventually the vizier, whose duty it is to provide them, Scheherazade, the viziers daughter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly agrees. On the night of their marriage, Scheherazade begins to tell the king a tale, the king, curious about how the story ends, is thus forced to postpone her execution in order to hear the conclusion. The next night, as soon as she finishes the tale, she begins a new one, so it goes on for 1,001 nights. The tales vary widely, they include historical tales, love stories, tragedies, comedies, poems, burlesques, numerous stories depict jinns, ghouls, apes, sorcerers, magicians, and legendary places, which are often intermingled with real people and geography, not always rationally. The different versions have different individually detailed endings but they all end with the giving his wife a pardon. The narrators standards for what constitutes a cliffhanger seem broader than in modern literature, the history of the Nights is extremely complex and modern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story of how the collection as it currently exists came about. Most scholars agreed that the Nights was a work and that the earliest tales in it came from India and Persia. At some time, probably in the early 8th century, these tales were translated into Arabic under the title Alf Layla and this collection then formed the basis of The Thousand and One Nights. The original core of stories was quite small, then, in Iraq in the 9th or 10th century, this original core had Arab stories added to it – among them some tales about the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Devices found in Sanskrit literature such as stories and animal fables are seen by some scholars as lying at the root of the conception of the Nights. Indian folklore is represented in the Nights by certain animal stories, the influence of the Panchatantra and Baital Pachisi is particularly notable. The Jataka Tales are a collection of 547 Buddhist stories, which are for the most part moral stories with an ethical purpose
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Norwegian Folktales
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Norwegian Folktales is a collection of Norwegian folktales and legends by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe. It is also known as Asbjørnsen and Moe, after the collectors, Asbjørnsen and Moe applied the principles espoused by the Grimms, for instance, using a simple linguistic style in place of dialects, while maintaining the original form of the stories. The Norwegian pair also collected tales from the field themselves, in contrast to the Grimms, the original series, entitled Norske Folkeeventyr went into publication piecemeal. It first appeared a pamphlet offering a selection of a few tales, without a title page. This was sufficiently well-received, and championed by P. A. Munch in a German newspaper and it led to the appearance of a reprint of the first volume in 1843 and the second volume in 1844 as proper hardcovers. The second edition appeared in 1852, another series dubbed the New Collection appeared later. The tales are numbered, the original collection containing 58 tales, the new collection held 50 tales. Asbjørnsen as a solo project collected and published Norske Huldre-Eventyr og Folkesagn I-II, the tales were first translated into English by Sir George Webbe Dasent. He translated all but a few of the tales from the two series of Norske Folkeeventyr, Dasents Popular Tales from the Norse, contains all 58 tales from the initial edition of the original collection. Dasents Tales from the Fjeld, A Second Series of Popular Tales covers the two tales from the collection and 45 of the tales from the new collection. The English translation, by George Webbe Dasent, is the best and happiest rendering of our tales that has appeared, H. L. Braekstad, Round the Yule Log, Norwegian Folk and Fairy Tales includes tales from the Norske Huldre-Eventyr. Pat Shaw Iversen and Carl Normans Norwegian Folktales is a selection that includes some of the tales from the Ny Samling omitted by Dasent, legend, AM# - Tale number as they appear in Asbjørnsen and Moe. Modern Norwegian Title - Modernized spelling, AT index - Aarne–Thompson classification system index for folktale type. Da# - Tale number as appears in Dasents translation, usable as sort key, st-Ma - the Braekstad, Iversen, and Stroebe-Martin translations. Legend, Hu# - Tale number in Norske Huldre-Eventyr, with continuous numbering for the second collection Modern Norwegian Title - Modernized spelling, Year - Year of collection Br# - Tale number as appears in Braekstads Round the Yule Log. St-Ma - the Braekstad, Iversen, and Stroebe-Martin translations, Tales not from any of the proceeding series that are usually included alongside them in later collections, Asbjornsen and Moe. Norske Folkeeventyr – via Project Runeberg, Norske Folkeeventyr audio books in Norwegian English translation of Norske Folkeeventyr, Popular Tales From the Norse translated by George Webbe Dasent, Third Edition,1888
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East of the Sun and West of the Moon
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East of the Sun and West of the Moon is a Norwegian fairy tale. East of the Sun and West of the Moon was collected by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, the Swedish version is called Prince Hat under the Ground. It is related to both the tale of Cupid and Psyche in The Golden Ass and to Beauty and the Beast and it was included by Andrew Lang in The Blue Fairy Book. The White Bear approaches a poor peasant and asks if he will give him his prettiest and youngest daughter, in return, the girl is reluctant, so the peasant asks the bear to return, and in the meantime, persuades her. The White Bear takes her off to a rich and enchanted castle, at night, he takes off his bear form in order to come to her bed as a man, although the lack of light means that she never sees him. When she grows homesick, the bear agrees that she go home as long as she agrees that she will never speak with her mother alone. At home, they welcome her, and her mother makes persistent attempts to speak with her alone, finally succeeding and persuading her to tell the whole tale. Hearing it, her mother insists that the White Bear must really be a troll, gives her some candles, the youngest daughter obeys, and finds he is a highly attractive prince, but she spills three drops of the melted tallow on him, waking him. In the morning, the youngest daughter finds that the palace has vanished and she sets out in search of him. Coming to a mountain, she finds an old woman playing with a golden apple. The youngest daughter asks if she knows the way to the castle east of the sun, the old woman cannot tell her, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach a neighbor who might know, and gives her the apple. The neighbor is sitting outside another mountain, with a golden carding comb. She, also, does not know the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach a neighbor who might know, the third neighbor has a golden spinning wheel. She, also, does not know the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach the East Wind and gives her the spinning wheel. The East Wind has never been to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon and he takes her to the West Wind. The West Wind does the same, bringing her to the South Wind, the North Wind reports that he once blew an aspen leaf there, and was exhausted after, but he will take her if she really wants to go. The youngest daughter does wish to go, and so he takes her there, the next morning, the youngest daughter takes out the golden apple. The troll princess who was to marry the prince sees it, the girl agrees, if she can spend the night with the prince
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Little Red Riding Hood
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Little Red Riding Hood, or Little Red Ridinghood, also known as Little Red Cap or simply Red Riding Hood, is a European fairy tale about a young girl and a Big Bad Wolf. The story has changed considerably in various retellings and subjected to numerous modern adaptations. It is number 333 in the Aarne-Thompson classification system for folktales, variations of the story have developed, incorporating various cultural beliefs and regional dialects into the story. An example of this is Kawonis Journey Across the Mountain, A Cherokee Little Red Riding Hood, another such example is Petite Rouge Riding Hood, which approaches the story from a Cajun perspective. The story revolves around a girl called Little Red Riding Hood, in Grimms and Perraults versions of the tale, she is named after the red hooded cape/cloak that she wears. The girl walks through the woods to deliver food to her sickly grandmother, in the Grimms version, her mother had ordered her to stay strictly on the path. A Big Bad Wolf wants to eat the girl and the food in the basket and he secretly stalks her behind trees, bushes, shrubs, and patches of little and tall grass. He approaches Little Red Riding Hood, and she tells him where she is going. He suggests that the girl pick some flowers, which she does, in the meantime, he goes to the grandmothers house and gains entry by pretending to be the girl. He swallows the whole and waits for the girl, disguised as the grandma. When the girl arrives, she notices that her grandmother looks very strange, Little Red then says, What a deep voice you have. Goodness, what big eyes you have, and what big hands you have. And lastly, What a big mouth you have, at point the wolf jumps out of bed. In Charles Perraults version of the story, the tale ends here, Little Red Riding Hood and her grandmother emerge unharmed. They then fill the body with heavy stones. The wolf awakens and tries to flee, but the stones cause him to collapse and it also warns about the dangers of not obeying ones mother. A very similar story also belongs to the North African tradition, namely in Kabylia, where a number of versions are attested. The theme also appears in the story of the life of Saint Margaret, wherein the saint emerges unharmed from the belly of a dragon and they were eventually set free, unharmed, by Zeus, when he gave Cronus an emetic
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Sleeping Beauty
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Sleeping Beauty by Charles Perrault, or Little Briar Rose by the Brothers Grimm, is a classic fairy tale which involves a beautiful princess, a sleeping enchantment, and a handsome prince. The version collected by the Brothers Grimm was an orally transmitted version of the originally literary tale published by Charles Perrault in Histoires ou contes du temps passé in 1697. This in turn was based on Sun, Moon, and Talia by Italian poet Giambattista Basile, the earliest known version of the story is found in the narrative Perceforest, composed between 1330 and 1344 and first printed in 1528. At the christening of a king and queens long-wished-for child, seven good fairies are invited to be godmothers to the infant princess, the fairies attend the banquet at the palace. Each fairy is presented with a plate and drinking cups adorned with jewels. Soon after, an old fairy enters the palace and is seated with a plate of fine china and this old fairy is overlooked because she has been within a tower for many years and everyone had believed her to be deceased. Six of the seven fairies then offer their gifts of beauty, wit, grace, dance, song. The evil fairy is very angry about having been forgotten, and as her gift, enchants the infant princess so that she one day prick her finger on a spindle of a spinning wheel. The seventh fairy, who hasnt yet given her gift, attempts to reverse the evil fairys curse, however, she can only do so partially. Instead of dying, the Princess will fall into a deep sleep for 100 years, the King orders that every spindle and spinning wheel in the kingdom to be destroyed, to try to save his daughter from the terrible curse. Fifteen or sixteen years pass and one day, when the king and queen are away, the princess, who has never seen anyone spin before, asks the old woman if she can try the spinning wheel. The curse is fulfilled as the princess pricks her finger on the spindle, the old woman cries for help and attempts are made to revive the princess. The king attributes this to fate and has the Princess carried to the finest room in the palace and placed upon a bed of gold, the king and queen kiss their daughter goodbye and depart, proclaiming the entrance to be forbidden. The good fairy who altered the evil prophecy is summoned, having great powers of foresight, the fairy sees that the Princess will awaken to distress when she finds herself alone, so the fairy puts everyone in the castle to sleep. The fairy also summons a forest of trees, brambles and thorns that spring up around the castle, shielding it from the outside world, a hundred years pass and a prince from another family spies the hidden castle during a hunting expedition. The prince then braves the tall trees, brambles and thorns which part at his approach and he passes the sleeping castle folk and comes across the chamber where the Princess lies asleep on the bed. Struck by the radiant beauty before him, he falls on his knees before her, the enchantment comes to an end by a kiss and the princess awakens and converses with the prince for a long time. Meanwhile, the rest of the castle awakens and go about their business, the prince and princess are later married by the chaplain in the castle chapel
Media related to Blue Fairy Book at Wikimedia Commons
Andrew Lang's Fairy Books public domain audiobook at LibriVox