1.
Angel
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An angel, especially according to Abrahamic religions and Zoroastrianism, is a spiritual being superior to humans in power and intelligence. Most of them either as intermediaries between Heaven and Earth, or as guardian spirits. They are studied in the doctrine of angelology. In Christian Science, the angel is used to refer to an inspiration from God. In fine art, angels are depicted as having the shape of human beings of extraordinary beauty, they are often identified using the symbols of bird wings, halos. The word angel in English is a blend of Old English engel, both derive from Late Latin angelus messenger, which in turn was borrowed from Late Greek ἄγγελος ángelos. According to R. S. P. Beekes, ángelos itself may be an Oriental loan, the words earliest form is Mycenaean a-ke-ro attested in Linear B syllabic script. The ángelos is the default Septuagints translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mal’ākh denoting simply messenger without specifying its nature. In the Latin Vulgate, however, the meaning becomes bifurcated, if the word refers to some supernatural being, the word angelus appears. Such differentiation has been taken over by later vernacular translations of the Bible, early Christian and Jewish exegetes, in Zoroastrianism there are different angel-like figures. For example, each person has one guardian angel, called Fravashi and they patronize human beings and other creatures, and also manifest Gods energy. In the commentaries of Proclus on the Timaeus of Plato, Proclus uses the terminology of angelic, according to Aristotle, just as there is a First Mover, so, too, must there be spiritual secondary movers. The Torah uses the terms מלאך אלהים, מלאך יהוה, בני אלהים and הקודשים to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as angels, later texts use other terms, such as העליונים. The term מלאך is also used in books of the Tanakh. Depending on the context, the Hebrew word may refer to a messenger or to a supernatural messenger. Daniel is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name, mentioning Gabriel in Daniel 9,21 and these angels are part of Daniels apocalyptic visions and are an important part of all apocalyptic literature. One of these is hāšāṭān, a figure depicted in the Book of Job, philo of Alexandria identifies the angel with the Logos inasmuch as the angel is the immaterial voice of God. The angel is something different from God himself, but is conceived as Gods instrument, in post-Biblical Judaism, certain angels took on particular significance and developed unique personalities and roles
2.
Angle
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In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
3.
Right angle
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In geometry and trigonometry, a right angle is an angle that bisects the angle formed by two adjacent parts of a straight line. More precisely, if a ray is placed so that its endpoint is on a line, as a rotation, a right angle corresponds to a quarter turn. The presence of an angle in a triangle is the defining factor for right triangles. The term is a calque of Latin angulus rectus, here rectus means upright, in Unicode, the symbol for a right angle is U+221F ∟ Right angle. It should not be confused with the similarly shaped symbol U+231E ⌞ Bottom left corner, related symbols are U+22BE ⊾ Right angle with arc, U+299C ⦜ Right angle variant with square, and U+299D ⦝ Measured right angle with dot. The symbol for an angle, an arc, with a dot, is used in some European countries, including German-speaking countries and Poland. Right angles are fundamental in Euclids Elements and they are defined in Book 1, definition 10, which also defines perpendicular lines. Euclid uses right angles in definitions 11 and 12 to define acute angles, two angles are called complementary if their sum is a right angle. Book 1 Postulate 4 states that all angles are equal. Euclids commentator Proclus gave a proof of this using the previous postulates. Saccheri gave a proof as well but using a more explicit assumption, in Hilberts axiomatization of geometry this statement is given as a theorem, but only after much groundwork. A right angle may be expressed in different units, 1/4 turn, 90° π/2 radians 100 grad 8 points 6 hours Throughout history carpenters and masons have known a quick way to confirm if an angle is a true right angle. It is based on the most widely known Pythagorean triple and so called the Rule of 3-4-5 and this measurement can be made quickly and without technical instruments. The geometric law behind the measurement is the Pythagorean theorem, Thales theorem states that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. Two application examples in which the angle and the Thales theorem are included. Cartesian coordinate system Orthogonality Perpendicular Rectangle Types of angles Wentworth, G. A, Euclid, commentary and trans. by T. L. Heath Elements Vol.1 Google Books
4.
Internal and external angles
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In geometry, an angle of a polygon is formed by two sides of the polygon that share an endpoint. For a simple polygon, regardless of whether it is convex or non-convex, a polygon has exactly one internal angle per vertex. If every internal angle of a polygon is less than 180°. In contrast, an angle is an angle formed by one side of a simple polygon. The sum of the angle and the external angle on the same vertex is 180°. The sum of all the angles of a simple polygon is 180° where n is the number of sides. The formula can be proved using induction and starting with a triangle for which the angle sum is 180°. The sum of the angles of any simple convex or non-convex polygon is 360°. The interior angle concept can be extended in a consistent way to crossed polygons such as star polygons by using the concept of directed angles, in other words, 360k° represents the sum of all the exterior angles. For example, for convex and concave polygons k =1, since the exterior angle sum is 360°
5.
Transversal (geometry)
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In geometry, a transversal is a line that passes through two lines in the same plane at two distinct points. Transversals play a role in establishing whether two other lines in the Euclidean plane are parallel, the intersections of a transversal with two lines create various types of pairs of angles, consecutive interior angles, corresponding angles, and alternate angles. By Euclids parallel postulate, if the two lines are parallel, consecutive interior angles are supplementary, corresponding angles are equal, a transversal that cuts two parallel lines at right angles is called a perpendicular transversal. In this case, all 8 angles are right angles When the lines are parallel, a case that is often considered, some of these angle pairs have specific names and are discussed below, corresponding angles, alternate angles, and consecutive angles. Corresponding angles are the four pairs of angles that, have distinct vertex points, lie on the side of the transversal and one angle is interior. Two lines are parallel if and only if the two angles of any pair of corresponding angles of any transversal are congruent, note, This follows directly from Euclids parallel postulate. Further, if the angles of one pair are congruent, then the angles of each of the pairs are also congruent. In our images with parallel lines, corresponding angle pairs are, α=α1, β=β1, γ=γ1, alternate angles are the four pairs of angles that, have distinct vertex points, lie on opposite sides of the transversal and both angles are interior or both angles are exterior. If the two angles of one pair are congruent, then the angles of each of the pairs are also congruent. Proposition 1.27 of Euclids elements, a theorem of absolute geometry and it follows from Euclids parallel postulate that if the two lines are parallel, then the angles of a pair of alternate angles of a transversal are congruent. Consecutive interior angles are the two pairs of angles that, have distinct vertex points, lie on the side of the transversal and are both interior. Two lines are parallel if and only if the two angles of any pair of consecutive interior angles of any transversal are supplementary, by the definition of a straight line and the properties of vertical angles, if one pair is supplementary, the other pair is also supplementary. If three lines in general form a triangle are then cut by a transversal, the lengths of the six resulting segments satisfy Menelaus theorem. Euclids formulation of the parallel postulate may be stated in terms of a transversal, specifically, if the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are less than two right angles then lines must intersect. In fact, Euclid uses the phrase in Greek that is usually translated as transversal. Euclids Proposition 27 states that if a transversal intersects two lines so that interior angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel. Euclid proves this by contradiction, If the lines are not parallel then they must intersect, then one of the alternate angles is an exterior angle equal to the other angle which is an opposite interior angle in the triangle. This contradicts Proposition 16 which states that an angle of a triangle is always greater than the opposite interior angles
6.
Dihedral angle
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A dihedral angle is the angle between two intersecting planes. In chemistry it is the angle between planes through two sets of three atoms, having two atoms in common, in solid geometry it is defined as the union of a line and two half-planes that have this line as a common edge. In higher dimension, a dihedral angle represents the angle between two hyperplanes, a dihedral angle is an angle between two intersecting planes on a third plane perpendicular to the line of intersection. A torsion angle is an example of a dihedral angle. In stereochemistry every set of three atoms of a molecule defines a plane, when two such planes intersect, the angle between them is a dihedral angle. Dihedral angles are used to specify the molecular conformation, stereochemical arrangements corresponding to angles between 0° and ±90° are called syn, those corresponding to angles between ±90° and 180° anti. Similarly, arrangements corresponding to angles between 30° and 150° or between −30° and −150° are called clinal and those between 0° and ±30° or ±150° and 180° are called periplanar. The synperiplanar conformation is also known as the syn- or cis-conformation, antiperiplanar as anti or trans, for example, with n-butane two planes can be specified in terms of the two central carbon atoms and either of the methyl carbon atoms. The syn-conformation shown above, with an angle of 60° is less stable than the anti-configuration with a dihedral angle of 180°. For macromolecular usage the symbols T, C, G+, G−, A+, a Ramachandran plot, originally developed in 1963 by G. N. Ramachandran, C. Ramakrishnan, and V. Sasisekharan, is a way to visualize energetically allowed regions for backbone dihedral angles ψ against φ of amino acid residues in protein structure, the figure at right illustrates the definition of the φ and ψ backbone dihedral angles. In a protein chain three dihedral angles are defined as φ, ψ and ω, as shown in the diagram, the planarity of the peptide bond usually restricts ω to be 180° or 0°. The distance between the Cα atoms in the trans and cis isomers is approximately 3.8 and 2.9 Å, the cis isomer is mainly observed in Xaa–Pro peptide bonds. The sidechain dihedral angles tend to cluster near 180°, 60°, and −60°, which are called the trans, gauche+, the stability of certain sidechain dihedral angles is affected by the values φ and ψ. For instance, there are steric interactions between the Cγ of the side chain in the gauche+ rotamer and the backbone nitrogen of the next residue when ψ is near -60°. An alternative method is to calculate the angle between the vectors, nA and nB, which are normal to the planes. Cos φ = − n A ⋅ n B | n A | | n B | where nA · nB is the dot product of the vectors and |nA| |nB| is the product of their lengths. Any plane can also be described by two non-collinear vectors lying in that plane, taking their cross product yields a vector to the plane
7.
Planar geometry
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In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
8.
Line (geometry)
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The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, the straight line is that which is equally extended between its points. In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is tied to the way the geometry is described. When a geometry is described by a set of axioms, the notion of a line is left undefined. The properties of lines are determined by the axioms which refer to them. One advantage to this approach is the flexibility it gives to users of the geometry, thus in differential geometry a line may be interpreted as a geodesic, while in some projective geometries a line is a 2-dimensional vector space. This flexibility also extends beyond mathematics and, for example, permits physicists to think of the path of a light ray as being a line, to avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts, terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive, in those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy, in a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a description or mental image of a notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors and these are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The definition of line in Euclids Elements falls into this category, when geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the Elements, he defined a general line to be breadthless length with a straight line being a line which lies evenly with the points on itself. These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, in fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert, for example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i. e. the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel, in higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, in two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form, y = m x + b where, m is the slope or gradient of the line. B is the y-intercept of the line, X is the independent variable of the function y = f
9.
Vertex (geometry)
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In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
10.
Two-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
11.
Euclidean space
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In geometry, Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, and certain other spaces. It is named after the Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, the term Euclidean distinguishes these spaces from other types of spaces considered in modern geometry. Euclidean spaces also generalize to higher dimensions, classical Greek geometry defined the Euclidean plane and Euclidean three-dimensional space using certain postulates, while the other properties of these spaces were deduced as theorems. Geometric constructions are used to define rational numbers. It means that points of the space are specified with collections of real numbers and this approach brings the tools of algebra and calculus to bear on questions of geometry and has the advantage that it generalizes easily to Euclidean spaces of more than three dimensions. From the modern viewpoint, there is only one Euclidean space of each dimension. With Cartesian coordinates it is modelled by the coordinate space of the same dimension. In one dimension, this is the line, in two dimensions, it is the Cartesian plane, and in higher dimensions it is a coordinate space with three or more real number coordinates. One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance, for example, there are two fundamental operations on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that point is shifted in the same direction. The other is rotation about a point in the plane. In order to all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define the notions of distance, angle, translation. Even when used in theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments. The standard way to such space, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is to define the Euclidean plane as a two-dimensional real vector space equipped with an inner product. The reason for working with vector spaces instead of Rn is that it is often preferable to work in a coordinate-free manner. Once the Euclidean plane has been described in language, it is actually a simple matter to extend its concept to arbitrary dimensions. For the most part, the vocabulary, formulae, and calculations are not made any more difficult by the presence of more dimensions. Intuitively, the distinction says merely that there is no choice of where the origin should go in the space
12.
Great circle
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A great circle, also known as an orthodrome or Riemannian circle, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere. This partial case of a circle of a sphere is opposed to a circle, the intersection of the sphere. Any diameter of any great circle coincides with a diameter of the sphere, and therefore all great circles have the same circumference as each other, a great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on any given sphere. Every circle in Euclidean 3-space is a circle of exactly one sphere. For most pairs of points on the surface of a sphere, there is a great circle through the two points. The exception is a pair of points, for which there are infinitely many great circles. The minor arc of a circle between two points is the shortest surface-path between them. In this sense, the arc is analogous to “straight lines” in Euclidean geometry. The length of the arc of a great circle is taken as the distance between two points on a surface of a sphere in Riemannian geometry. The great circles are the geodesics of the sphere, in higher dimensions, the great circles on the n-sphere are the intersection of the n-sphere with 2-planes that pass through the origin in the Euclidean space Rn+1. To prove that the arc of a great circle is the shortest path connecting two points on the surface of a sphere, one can apply calculus of variations to it. Consider the class of all paths from a point p to another point q. Introduce spherical coordinates so that p coincides with the north pole. Any curve on the sphere that does not intersect either pole, except possibly at the endpoints, can be parametrized by θ = θ, ϕ = ϕ, a ≤ t ≤ b provided we allow φ to take on arbitrary real values. The infinitesimal arc length in these coordinates is d s = r θ ′2 + ϕ ′2 sin 2 θ d t. So the length of a curve γ from p to q is a functional of the curve given by S = r ∫ a b θ ′2 + ϕ ′2 sin 2 θ d t. Note that S is at least the length of the meridian from p to q, S ≥ r ∫ a b | θ ′ | d t ≥ r | θ − θ |. Since the starting point and ending point are fixed, S is minimized if and only if φ =0, so the curve must lie on a meridian of the sphere φ = φ0 = constant
13.
Sphere
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A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball. This distance r is the radius of the ball, and the point is the center of the mathematical ball. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is twice the radius. While outside mathematics the terms sphere and ball are used interchangeably. The ball and the share the same radius, diameter. The surface area of a sphere is, A =4 π r 2, at any given radius r, the incremental volume equals the product of the surface area at radius r and the thickness of a shell, δ V ≈ A ⋅ δ r. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ A ⋅ δ r. In the limit as δr approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫0 r A d r ′, substitute V,43 π r 3 = ∫0 r A d r ′. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect to r yields A as a function of r,4 π r 2 = A. Which is generally abbreviated as, A =4 π r 2, alternatively, the area element on the sphere is given in spherical coordinates by dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ. In Cartesian coordinates, the element is d S = r r 2 − ∑ i ≠ k x i 2 ∏ i ≠ k d x i, ∀ k. For more generality, see area element, the total area can thus be obtained by integration, A = ∫02 π ∫0 π r 2 sin θ d θ d φ =4 π r 2. In three dimensions, the volume inside a sphere is derived to be V =43 π r 3 where r is the radius of the sphere, archimedes first derived this formula, which shows that the volume inside a sphere is 2/3 that of a circumscribed cylinder. In modern mathematics, this formula can be derived using integral calculus, at any given x, the incremental volume equals the product of the cross-sectional area of the disk at x and its thickness, δ V ≈ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. In the limit as δx approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫ − r r π y 2 d x. At any given x, a right-angled triangle connects x, y and r to the origin, hence, applying the Pythagorean theorem yields, thus, substituting y with a function of x gives, V = ∫ − r r π d x. Which can now be evaluated as follows, V = π − r r = π − π =43 π r 3
14.
Measure (mathematics)
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In mathematical analysis, a measure on a set is a systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of that set, intuitively interpreted as its size. In this sense, a measure is a generalization of the concepts of length, area, for instance, the Lebesgue measure of the interval in the real numbers is its length in the everyday sense of the word – specifically,1. Technically, a measure is a function that assigns a real number or +∞ to subsets of a set X. It must further be countably additive, the measure of a subset that can be decomposed into a finite number of smaller disjoint subsets, is the sum of the measures of the smaller subsets. In general, if one wants to associate a consistent size to each subset of a set while satisfying the other axioms of a measure. This problem was resolved by defining measure only on a sub-collection of all subsets, the so-called measurable subsets and this means that countable unions, countable intersections and complements of measurable subsets are measurable. Non-measurable sets in a Euclidean space, on which the Lebesgue measure cannot be defined consistently, are complicated in the sense of being badly mixed up with their complement. Indeed, their existence is a consequence of the axiom of choice. Measure theory was developed in stages during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Émile Borel, Henri Lebesgue, Johann Radon. The main applications of measures are in the foundations of the Lebesgue integral, in Andrey Kolmogorovs axiomatisation of probability theory, probability theory considers measures that assign to the whole set the size 1, and considers measurable subsets to be events whose probability is given by the measure. Ergodic theory considers measures that are invariant under, or arise naturally from, let X be a set and Σ a σ-algebra over X. A function μ from Σ to the real number line is called a measure if it satisfies the following properties, Non-negativity. Countable additivity, For all countable collections i =1 ∞ of pairwise disjoint sets in Σ, μ = ∑ k =1 ∞ μ One may require that at least one set E has finite measure. Then the empty set automatically has measure zero because of countable additivity, because μ = μ = μ + μ + μ + …, which implies that μ =0. If only the second and third conditions of the definition of measure above are met, the pair is called a measurable space, the members of Σ are called measurable sets. If and are two spaces, then a function f, X → Y is called measurable if for every Y-measurable set B ∈ Σ Y. See also Measurable function#Caveat about another setup, a triple is called a measure space. A probability measure is a measure with total measure one – i. e, a probability space is a measure space with a probability measure
15.
Rotation (mathematics)
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Rotation in mathematics is a concept originating in geometry. Any rotation is a motion of a space that preserves at least one point. It can describe, for example, the motion of a body around a fixed point. A clockwise rotation is a negative magnitude so a counterclockwise turn has a positive magnitude, mathematically, a rotation is a map. All rotations about a fixed point form a group under composition called the rotation group, for example, in two dimensions rotating a body clockwise about a point keeping the axes fixed is equivalent to rotating the axes counterclockwise about the same point while the body is kept fixed. These two types of rotation are called active and passive transformations, the rotation group is a Lie group of rotations about a fixed point. This fixed point is called the center of rotation and is identified with the origin. The rotation group is a point stabilizer in a group of motions. For a particular rotation, The axis of rotation is a line of its fixed points and they exist only in n >2. The plane of rotation is a plane that is invariant under the rotation, unlike the axis, its points are not fixed themselves. The axis and the plane of a rotation are orthogonal, a representation of rotations is a particular formalism, either algebraic or geometric, used to parametrize a rotation map. This meaning is somehow inverse to the meaning in the group theory, rotations of spaces of points and of respective vector spaces are not always clearly distinguished. The former are sometimes referred to as affine rotations, whereas the latter are vector rotations, see the article below for details. A motion of a Euclidean space is the same as its isometry, but a rotation also has to preserve the orientation structure. The improper rotation term refers to isometries that reverse the orientation, in the language of group theory the distinction is expressed as direct vs indirect isometries in the Euclidean group, where the former comprise the identity component. Any direct Euclidean motion can be represented as a composition of a rotation about the fixed point, there are no non-trivial rotations in one dimension. In two dimensions, only a single angle is needed to specify a rotation about the origin – the angle of rotation that specifies an element of the circle group. The rotation is acting to rotate an object counterclockwise through an angle θ about the origin, composition of rotations sums their angles modulo 1 turn, which implies that all two-dimensional rotations about the same point commute
16.
Arc (geometry)
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In Euclidean geometry, an arc is a closed segment of a differentiable curve. A common example in the plane, is a segment of a circle called a circular arc, in space, if the arc is part of a great circle, it is called a great arc. Every pair of points on a circle determines two arcs. The length, L, of an arc of a circle with radius r and this is because L c i r c u m f e r e n c e = θ2 π. Substituting in the circumference L2 π r = θ2 π, and, with α being the angle measured in degrees, since θ = α/180π. For example, if the measure of the angle is 60 degrees and this is so because the circumference of a circle and the degrees of a circle, of which there are always 360, are directly proportional. The area of the sector formed by an arc and the center of a circle is A =12 r 2 θ. The area A has the proportion to the circle area as the angle θ to a full circle. We can cancel π on both sides, A r 2 = θ2, by multiplying both sides by r2, we get the final result, A =12 r 2 θ. Using the conversion described above, we find that the area of the sector for an angle measured in degrees is A = α360 π r 2. The area of the bounded by the arc and the straight line between its two end points is 12 r 2. To get the area of the arc segment, we need to subtract the area of the triangle, determined by the circles center and the two end points of the arc, from the area A. Using the intersecting chords theorem it is possible to calculate the radius r of a circle given the height H and its perpendicular bisector is another chord, which is a diameter of the circle. The length of the first chord is W, and it is divided by the bisector into two halves, each with length W/2. The total length of the diameter is 2r, and it is divided into two parts by the first chord, the length of one part is the sagitta of the arc, H, and the other part is the remainder of the diameter, with length 2r − H. Applying the intersecting chords theorem to these two chords produces H =2, whence 2 r − H = W24 H, so r = W28 H + H2
17.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
18.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
19.
Euclid
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Euclid, sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclides of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the father of geometry. He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I, in the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, Euclid is the anglicized version of the Greek name Εὐκλείδης, which means renowned, glorious. Very few original references to Euclid survive, so little is known about his life, the date, place and circumstances of both his birth and death are unknown and may only be estimated roughly relative to other people mentioned with him. He is rarely mentioned by name by other Greek mathematicians from Archimedes onward, the few historical references to Euclid were written centuries after he lived by Proclus c.450 AD and Pappus of Alexandria c.320 AD. Proclus introduces Euclid only briefly in his Commentary on the Elements, Proclus later retells a story that, when Ptolemy I asked if there was a shorter path to learning geometry than Euclids Elements, Euclid replied there is no royal road to geometry. This anecdote is questionable since it is similar to a story told about Menaechmus, a detailed biography of Euclid is given by Arabian authors, mentioning, for example, a birth town of Tyre. This biography is generally believed to be completely fictitious, however, this hypothesis is not well accepted by scholars and there is little evidence in its favor. The only reference that historians rely on of Euclid having written the Elements was from Proclus, although best known for its geometric results, the Elements also includes number theory. The geometrical system described in the Elements was long known simply as geometry, today, however, that system is often referred to as Euclidean geometry to distinguish it from other so-called non-Euclidean geometries that mathematicians discovered in the 19th century. In addition to the Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day and they follow the same logical structure as Elements, with definitions and proved propositions. Data deals with the nature and implications of information in geometrical problems. On Divisions of Figures, which only partially in Arabic translation. It is similar to a first-century AD work by Heron of Alexandria, catoptrics, which concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors. The attribution is held to be anachronistic however by J J OConnor, phaenomena, a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek, it is quite similar to On the Moving Sphere by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC. Optics is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective, in its definitions Euclid follows the Platonic tradition that vision is caused by discrete rays which emanate from the eye. One important definition is the fourth, Things seen under a greater angle appear greater, proposition 45 is interesting, proving that for any two unequal magnitudes, there is a point from which the two appear equal. Other works are attributed to Euclid, but have been lost
20.
Pi
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The number π is a mathematical constant, the ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter, commonly approximated as 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek letter π since the mid-18th century, being an irrational number, π cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction. Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other numbers are commonly used to approximate π. The digits appear to be randomly distributed, in particular, the digit sequence of π is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date no proof of this has been discovered. Also, π is a number, i. e. a number that is not the root of any non-zero polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass, ancient civilizations required fairly accurate computed values for π for practical reasons. It was calculated to seven digits, using techniques, in Chinese mathematics. The extensive calculations involved have also used to test supercomputers. Because its definition relates to the circle, π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses, and spheres. Because of its role as an eigenvalue, π appears in areas of mathematics. It is also found in cosmology, thermodynamics, mechanics, attempts to memorize the value of π with increasing precision have led to records of over 70,000 digits. In English, π is pronounced as pie, in mathematical use, the lowercase letter π is distinguished from its capitalized and enlarged counterpart ∏, which denotes a product of a sequence, analogous to how ∑ denotes summation. The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol π, π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circles circumference C to its diameter d, π = C d The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of the circles size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio C/d. This definition of π implicitly makes use of geometry, although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curved geometry. Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which can be defined independently of geometry using limits. An integral such as this was adopted as the definition of π by Karl Weierstrass, definitions of π such as these that rely on a notion of circumference, and hence implicitly on concepts of the integral calculus, are no longer common in the literature. One such definition, due to Richard Baltzer, and popularized by Edmund Landau, is the following, the cosine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series, or as the solution of a differential equation
21.
Polygon
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In elementary geometry, a polygon /ˈpɒlɪɡɒn/ is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed polygonal chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the vertices or corners. The interior of the polygon is called its body. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides, for example, a polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. The basic geometrical notion of a polygon has been adapted in various ways to suit particular purposes, mathematicians are often concerned only with the bounding closed polygonal chain and with simple polygons which do not self-intersect, and they often define a polygon accordingly. A polygonal boundary may be allowed to intersect itself, creating star polygons and these and other generalizations of polygons are described below. The word polygon derives from the Greek adjective πολύς much, many and it has been suggested that γόνυ knee may be the origin of “gon”. Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides, Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity, Convex, any line drawn through the polygon meets its boundary exactly twice. As a consequence, all its interior angles are less than 180°, equivalently, any line segment with endpoints on the boundary passes through only interior points between its endpoints. Non-convex, a line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice, equivalently, there exists a line segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon. Simple, the boundary of the polygon does not cross itself, there is at least one interior angle greater than 180°. Star-shaped, the interior is visible from at least one point. The polygon must be simple, and may be convex or concave, self-intersecting, the boundary of the polygon crosses itself. Branko Grünbaum calls these coptic, though this term does not seem to be widely used, star polygon, a polygon which self-intersects in a regular way. A polygon cannot be both a star and star-shaped, equiangular, all corner angles are equal. Cyclic, all lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle. Isogonal or vertex-transitive, all lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is cyclic and equiangular
22.
Dutch angle
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This produces a viewpoint akin to tilting ones head to the side. In cinematography, the Dutch angle is one of cinematic techniques often used to portray psychological uneasiness or tension in the subject being filmed. Dutch refers to a bastardisation of the word Deutsch, which means German in German and it is not related to the Dutch people or language. It originated in the First World War, as Navy blockades made the import of movies impossible, the German movie scene was part of the expressionist movement, which used the Dutch angle extensively. A Dutch angle is a shot in which the camera has been rotated relative to the horizon or vertical lines in the shot. The primary use of angles is to cause a sense of unease or disorientation for the viewer. Many Dutch angles are static shots, but in a moving Dutch angle shot the camera can pivot, dziga Vertovs 1929 experimental documentary Man with a Movie Camera contains uses of the Dutch angle as well, among other innovative techniques discovered by Vertov himself. The 1949 film The Third Man makes extensive use of Dutch angle shots, an anecdote of cinema lore alleges that once filming was completed, the crew presented director Carol Reed with a spirit level, to sardonically encourage him to use more traditional shooting angles. Dutch angles were used extensively in the 1960s Batman TV series and 1966 film, satires in which each villain had his or her own angle, as they were Crooked. The fourth season premiere of Charmed uses dutch angles in a few scenes to emphasize the imbalance felt by the characters after Prue Halliwells death. Dutch angles are used by film directors who have a background in the visual arts, such as Tim Burton. In his Evil Dead trilogy, Sam Raimi used Dutch angles to show that a character had become possessed, the Dutch angle is an overt cinematographical technique that can easily be overused. The science-fiction film Battlefield Earth, in particular, drew criticism for its pervasive use of the Dutch angle. In the words of film critic Roger Ebert, the director, Roger Christian, has learned from better films that directors sometimes tilt their cameras, but he has not learned why. Dutch angles are used in horror video games, particularly those with static camera angles such as early entries in the Resident Evil. Similar to their use in movies, these angles are used to bring about a feeling of unease in the player
23.
Normal (geometry)
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In geometry, a normal is an object such as a line or vector that is perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the case, the normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point. In the three-dimensional case a normal, or simply normal. The word normal is used as an adjective, a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force. The concept of normality generalizes to orthogonality, the concept has been generalized to differentiable manifolds of arbitrary dimension embedded in a Euclidean space. The normal vector space or normal space of a manifold at a point P is the set of the vectors which are orthogonal to the tangent space at P, in the case of differential curves, the curvature vector is a normal vector of special interest. For a convex polygon, a surface normal can be calculated as the cross product of two edges of the polygon. For a plane given by the equation a x + b y + c z + d =0, the vector is a normal. For a hyperplane in n+1 dimensions, given by the equation r = a 0 + α1 a 1 + ⋯ + α n a n, where a0 is a point on the hyperplane and ai for i =1. N are non-parallel vectors lying on the hyperplane, a normal to the hyperplane is any vector in the space of A where A is given by A =. That is, any vector orthogonal to all in-plane vectors is by definition a surface normal. If a surface S is parameterized by a system of coordinates x, with s and t real variables. For a surface S given explicitly as a function f of the independent variables x, y, the first one is obtaining its implicit form F = z − f =0, from which the normal follows readily as the gradient ∇ F. The second way of obtaining the normal follows directly from the gradient of the form, ∇ f, by inspection, ∇ F = k ^ − ∇ f. Note that this is equal to ∇ F = k ^ − ∂ f ∂ x i ^ − ∂ f ∂ y j ^, if a surface does not have a tangent plane at a point, it does not have a normal at that point either. For example, a cone does not have a normal at its tip nor does it have a normal along the edge of its base, however, the normal to the cone is defined almost everywhere. In general, it is possible to define a normal almost everywhere for a surface that is Lipschitz continuous, a normal to a surface does not have a unique direction, the vector pointing in the opposite direction of a surface normal is also a surface normal. For an oriented surface, the normal is usually determined by the right-hand rule
24.
Orthogonality
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The concept of orthogonality has been broadly generalized in mathematics, as well as in areas such as chemistry, and engineering. The word comes from the Greek ὀρθός, meaning upright, and γωνία, the ancient Greek ὀρθογώνιον orthogōnion and classical Latin orthogonium originally denoted a rectangle. Later, they came to mean a right triangle, in the 12th century, the post-classical Latin word orthogonalis came to mean a right angle or something related to a right angle. In geometry, two Euclidean vectors are orthogonal if they are perpendicular, i. e. they form a right angle, two vectors, x and y, in an inner product space, V, are orthogonal if their inner product ⟨ x, y ⟩ is zero. This relationship is denoted x ⊥ y, two vector subspaces, A and B, of an inner product space, V, are called orthogonal subspaces if each vector in A is orthogonal to each vector in B. The largest subspace of V that is orthogonal to a subspace is its orthogonal complement. Given a module M and its dual M∗, an element m′ of M∗, two sets S′ ⊆ M∗ and S ⊆ M are orthogonal if each element of S′ is orthogonal to each element of S. A term rewriting system is said to be if it is left-linear and is non-ambiguous. Orthogonal term rewriting systems are confluent, a set of vectors in an inner product space is called pairwise orthogonal if each pairing of them is orthogonal. Such a set is called an orthogonal set, nonzero pairwise orthogonal vectors are always linearly independent. In certain cases, the normal is used to mean orthogonal. For example, the y-axis is normal to the curve y = x2 at the origin, however, normal may also refer to the magnitude of a vector. In particular, a set is called if it is an orthogonal set of unit vectors. As a result, use of the normal to mean orthogonal is often avoided. The word normal also has a different meaning in probability and statistics, a vector space with a bilinear form generalizes the case of an inner product. When the bilinear form applied to two results in zero, then they are orthogonal. The case of a pseudo-Euclidean plane uses the term hyperbolic orthogonality, in the diagram, axes x′ and t′ are hyperbolic-orthogonal for any given ϕ. In 2-D or higher-dimensional Euclidean space, two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero, i. e. they make an angle of 90°, hence orthogonality of vectors is an extension of the concept of perpendicular vectors into higher-dimensional spaces
25.
Perpendicular
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In elementary geometry, the property of being perpendicular is the relationship between two lines which meet at a right angle. The property extends to other related geometric objects, a line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the two lines intersect at a right angle. Perpendicularity can be shown to be symmetric, meaning if a first line is perpendicular to a second line, for this reason, we may speak of two lines as being perpendicular without specifying an order. Perpendicularity easily extends to segments and rays, in symbols, A B ¯ ⊥ C D ¯ means line segment AB is perpendicular to line segment CD. A line is said to be perpendicular to an if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it intersects. This definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between lines, two planes in space are said to be perpendicular if the dihedral angle at which they meet is a right angle. Perpendicularity is one instance of the more general mathematical concept of orthogonality, perpendicularity is the orthogonality of classical geometric objects. Thus, in advanced mathematics, the perpendicular is sometimes used to describe much more complicated geometric orthogonality conditions. The word foot is used in connection with perpendiculars. This usage is exemplified in the top diagram, above, the diagram can be in any orientation. The foot is not necessarily at the bottom, step 2, construct circles centered at A and B having equal radius. Let Q and R be the points of intersection of two circles. Step 3, connect Q and R to construct the desired perpendicular PQ, to prove that the PQ is perpendicular to AB, use the SSS congruence theorem for and QPB to conclude that angles OPA and OPB are equal. Then use the SAS congruence theorem for triangles OPA and OPB to conclude that angles POA, to make the perpendicular to the line g at or through the point P using Thales theorem, see the animation at right. The Pythagorean Theorem can be used as the basis of methods of constructing right angles, for example, by counting links, three pieces of chain can be made with lengths in the ratio 3,4,5. These can be out to form a triangle, which will have a right angle opposite its longest side. This method is useful for laying out gardens and fields, where the dimensions are large, the chains can be used repeatedly whenever required. If two lines are perpendicular to a third line, all of the angles formed along the third line are right angles
26.
Turn (geometry)
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A turn is a unit of plane angle measurement equal to 2π radians, 360° or 400 gon. A turn is also referred to as a revolution or complete rotation or full circle or cycle or rev or rot, a turn can be subdivided in many different ways, into half turns, quarter turns, centiturns, milliturns, binary angles, points etc. A turn can be divided in 100 centiturns or 1000 milliturns, with each corresponding to an angle of 0. 36°. A protractor divided in centiturns is normally called a percentage protractor, binary fractions of a turn are also used. Sailors have traditionally divided a turn into 32 compass points, the binary degree, also known as the binary radian, is 1⁄256 turn. The binary degree is used in computing so that an angle can be represented to the maximum possible precision in a single byte, other measures of angle used in computing may be based on dividing one whole turn into 2n equal parts for other values of n. The notion of turn is used for planar rotations. Two special rotations have acquired appellations of their own, a rotation through 180° is commonly referred to as a half-turn, the word turn originates via Latin and French from the Greek word τόρνος. In 1697, David Gregory used π/ρ to denote the perimeter of a divided by its radius. However, earlier in 1647, William Oughtred had used δ/π for the ratio of the diameter to perimeter, the first use of the symbol π on its own with its present meaning was in 1706 by the Welsh mathematician William Jones. Euler adopted the symbol with that meaning in 1737, leading to its widespread use, percentage protractors have existed since 1922, but the terms centiturns and milliturns were introduced much later by Sir Fred Hoyle. The German standard DIN1315 proposed the unit symbol pla for turns, since 2011, the HP 39gII and HP Prime support the unit symbol tr for turns. In 2016, support for turns was also added to newRPL for the HP 50g, one turn is equal to 2π radians. In 1958, Albert Eagle proposed the Greek letter tau τ as a symbol for 1/2π and his proposal used a pi with three legs symbol to denote the constant. In 2010, Michael Hartl proposed to use tau to represent Palais circle constant, τ=2π. First, τ is the number of radians in one turn, which allows fractions of a turn to be expressed directly, for instance. Second, τ visually resembles π, whose association with the constant is unavoidable. Hartls Tau Manifesto gives many examples of formulas that are simpler if tau is used instead of pi, however, a rebuttal was given in The Pi Manifesto, stating a variety of reasons tau should not supplant pi
27.
Radian
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The radian is the standard unit of angular measure, used in many areas of mathematics. The length of an arc of a circle is numerically equal to the measurement in radians of the angle that it subtends. The unit was formerly an SI supplementary unit, but this category was abolished in 1995, separately, the SI unit of solid angle measurement is the steradian. The radian is represented by the symbol rad, so for example, a value of 1.2 radians could be written as 1.2 rad,1.2 r,1. 2rad, or 1. 2c. Radian describes the angle subtended by a circular arc as the length of the arc divided by the radius of the arc. One radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc that is equal in length to the radius of the circle. Conversely, the length of the arc is equal to the radius multiplied by the magnitude of the angle in radians. As the ratio of two lengths, the radian is a number that needs no unit symbol, and in mathematical writing the symbol rad is almost always omitted. When quantifying an angle in the absence of any symbol, radians are assumed, and it follows that the magnitude in radians of one complete revolution is the length of the entire circumference divided by the radius, or 2πr / r, or 2π. Thus 2π radians is equal to 360 degrees, meaning that one radian is equal to 180/π degrees, the concept of radian measure, as opposed to the degree of an angle, is normally credited to Roger Cotes in 1714. He described the radian in everything but name, and he recognized its naturalness as a unit of angular measure, the idea of measuring angles by the length of the arc was already in use by other mathematicians. For example, al-Kashi used so-called diameter parts as units where one part was 1/60 radian. The term radian first appeared in print on 5 June 1873, in examination questions set by James Thomson at Queens College, Belfast. He had used the term as early as 1871, while in 1869, Thomas Muir, then of the University of St Andrews, in 1874, after a consultation with James Thomson, Muir adopted radian. As stated, one radian is equal to 180/π degrees, thus, to convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 180/π. The length of circumference of a circle is given by 2 π r, so, to convert from radians to gradians multiply by 200 / π, and to convert from gradians to radians multiply by π /200. This is because radians have a mathematical naturalness that leads to a more elegant formulation of a number of important results, most notably, results in analysis involving trigonometric functions are simple and elegant when the functions arguments are expressed in radians. Because of these and other properties, the trigonometric functions appear in solutions to problems that are not obviously related to the functions geometrical meanings
28.
Degree (angle)
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A degree, usually denoted by °, is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees. It is not an SI unit, as the SI unit of measure is the radian. Because a full rotation equals 2π radians, one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians, the original motivation for choosing the degree as a unit of rotations and angles is unknown. One theory states that it is related to the fact that 360 is approximately the number of days in a year. Ancient astronomers noticed that the sun, which follows through the path over the course of the year. Some ancient calendars, such as the Persian calendar, used 360 days for a year, the use of a calendar with 360 days may be related to the use of sexagesimal numbers. The earliest trigonometry, used by the Babylonian astronomers and their Greek successors, was based on chords of a circle, a chord of length equal to the radius made a natural base quantity. One sixtieth of this, using their standard sexagesimal divisions, was a degree, Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus seem to have been among the first Greek scientists to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Timocharis, Aristarchus, Aristillus, Archimedes, and Hipparchus were the first Greeks known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes, eratosthenes used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Furthermore, it is divisible by every number from 1 to 10 except 7 and this property has many useful applications, such as dividing the world into 24 time zones, each of which is nominally 15° of longitude, to correlate with the established 24-hour day convention. Finally, it may be the case more than one of these factors has come into play. For many practical purposes, a degree is a small enough angle that whole degrees provide sufficient precision. When this is not the case, as in astronomy or for geographic coordinates, degree measurements may be written using decimal degrees, with the symbol behind the decimals. Alternatively, the sexagesimal unit subdivisions can be used. One degree is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute into 60 seconds, use of degrees-minutes-seconds is also called DMS notation. These subdivisions, also called the arcminute and arcsecond, are represented by a single and double prime. For example,40. 1875° = 40° 11′ 15″, or, using quotation mark characters, additional precision can be provided using decimals for the arcseconds component. The older system of thirds, fourths, etc. which continues the sexagesimal unit subdivision, was used by al-Kashi and other ancient astronomers, but is rarely used today
29.
Congruence (geometry)
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In geometry, two figures or objects are congruent if they have the same shape and size, or if one has the same shape and size as the mirror image of the other. This means that either object can be repositioned and reflected so as to coincide precisely with the other object, so two distinct plane figures on a piece of paper are congruent if we can cut them out and then match them up completely. Turning the paper over is permitted, in elementary geometry the word congruent is often used as follows. The word equal is often used in place of congruent for these objects, two line segments are congruent if they have the same length. Two angles are congruent if they have the same measure, two circles are congruent if they have the same diameter. The related concept of similarity applies if the objects differ in size, for two polygons to be congruent, they must have an equal number of sides. Two polygons with n sides are congruent if and only if they each have identical sequences side-angle-side-angle-. for n sides. Congruence of polygons can be established graphically as follows, First, match, second, draw a vector from one of the vertices of the one of the figures to the corresponding vertex of the other figure. Translate the first figure by this vector so that two vertices match. Third, rotate the translated figure about the matched vertex until one pair of corresponding sides matches, fourth, reflect the rotated figure about this matched side until the figures match. If at any time the step cannot be completed, the polygons are not congruent, two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides are equal in length, in which case their corresponding angles are equal in measure. SSS, If three pairs of sides of two triangles are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent, ASA, If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in measurement, and the included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. The ASA Postulate was contributed by Thales of Miletus, in most systems of axioms, the three criteria—SAS, SSS and ASA—are established as theorems. In the School Mathematics Study Group system SAS is taken as one of 22 postulates, AAS, If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in measurement, and a pair of corresponding non-included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. For American usage, AAS is equivalent to an ASA condition, RHS, also known as HL, If two right-angled triangles have their hypotenuses equal in length, and a pair of shorter sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. The SSA condition which specifies two sides and a non-included angle does not by itself prove congruence, in order to show congruence, additional information is required such as the measure of the corresponding angles and in some cases the lengths of the two pairs of corresponding sides. The opposite side is longer when the corresponding angles are acute. This is the case and two different triangles can be formed from the given information, but further information distinguishing them can lead to a proof of congruence
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Thales of Miletus
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Thales of Miletus was a pre-Socratic Greek/Phoenician philosopher, mathematician and astronomer from Miletus in Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Thales is recognized for breaking from the use of mythology to explain the world and the universe, and instead explaining natural objects and phenomena by theories and hypothesis, i. e. science. Aristotle reported Thales hypothesis that the principle of nature and the nature of matter was a single material substance. In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and he is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales theorem. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed, the ancient source, Apollodorus of Athens, writing during the 2nd century BCE, thought Thales was born about the year 625 BCE. The dates of Thales life are not exactly known, but are roughly established by a few events mentioned in the sources. According to Herodotus Thales predicted the eclipse of May 28,585 BC. Diogenes Laërtius quotes the chronicle of Apollodorus of Athens as saying that Thales died at the age of 78 during the 58th Olympiad and attributes his death to heat stroke while watching the games. Plutarch had earlier told this version, Solon visited Thales and asked him why he remained single, nevertheless, several years later, anxious for family, he adopted his nephew Cybisthus. Thales involved himself in many activities, taking the role of an innovator, some say that he left no writings, others say that he wrote On the Solstice and On the Equinox. Diogenes Laërtius quotes two letters from Thales, one to Pherecydes of Syros, offering to review his book on religion, Thales identifies the Milesians as Athenian colonists. He was aware of the existence of the lodestone, and was the first to be connected to knowledge of this in history, according to Aristotle, Thales thought lodestones had souls, because iron is attracted to them. According to Hieronymus, historically quoted by Diogenes Laertius, Thales found the height of pyramids by comparison between the lengths of the shadows cast by a person and by the pyramids, several anecdotes suggest Thales was not just a philosopher, but also a businessman. A story, with different versions, recounts how Thales achieved riches from an olive harvest by prediction of the weather, in one version, he bought all the olive presses in Miletus after predicting the weather and a good harvest for a particular year. Thales’ political life had mainly to do with the involvement of the Ionians in the defense of Anatolia against the power of the Persians. In neighbouring Lydia, a king had come to power, Croesus and he had conquered most of the states of coastal Anatolia, including the cities of the Ionians. The story is told in Herodotus, the war endured for five years, but in the sixth an eclipse of the Sun spontaneously halted a battle in progress. It seems that Thales had predicted this solar eclipse, the Seven Sages were most likely already in existence, as Croesus was also heavily influenced by Solon of Athens, another sage
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Tangent
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In geometry, the tangent line to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that just touches the curve at that point. Leibniz defined it as the line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve, a similar definition applies to space curves and curves in n-dimensional Euclidean space. Similarly, the tangent plane to a surface at a point is the plane that just touches the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in geometry and has been extensively generalized. The word tangent comes from the Latin tangere, to touch, euclid makes several references to the tangent to a circle in book III of the Elements. In Apollonius work Conics he defines a tangent as being a line such that no other straight line could fall between it and the curve, archimedes found the tangent to an Archimedean spiral by considering the path of a point moving along the curve. Independently Descartes used his method of normals based on the observation that the radius of a circle is always normal to the circle itself and these methods led to the development of differential calculus in the 17th century. Many people contributed, Roberval discovered a method of drawing tangents. René-François de Sluse and Johannes Hudde found algebraic algorithms for finding tangents, further developments included those of John Wallis and Isaac Barrow, leading to the theory of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz. An 1828 definition of a tangent was a line which touches a curve. This old definition prevents inflection points from having any tangent and it has been dismissed and the modern definitions are equivalent to those of Leibniz who defined the tangent line as the line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. The tangent at A is the limit when point B approximates or tends to A, the existence and uniqueness of the tangent line depends on a certain type of mathematical smoothness, known as differentiability. At most points, the tangent touches the curve without crossing it, a point where the tangent crosses the curve is called an inflection point. Circles, parabolas, hyperbolas and ellipses do not have any point, but more complicated curves do have, like the graph of a cubic function. Conversely, it may happen that the curve lies entirely on one side of a line passing through a point on it. This is the case, for example, for a passing through the vertex of a triangle. In convex geometry, such lines are called supporting lines, the geometrical idea of the tangent line as the limit of secant lines serves as the motivation for analytical methods that are used to find tangent lines explicitly. The question of finding the tangent line to a graph, or the tangent line problem, was one of the central questions leading to the development of calculus in the 17th century, suppose that a curve is given as the graph of a function, y = f
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Trigonometric functions
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In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
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Parallelogram
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In Euclidean geometry, a parallelogram is a simple quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. The opposite or facing sides of a parallelogram are of equal length, by comparison, a quadrilateral with just one pair of parallel sides is a trapezoid in American English or a trapezium in British English. The three-dimensional counterpart of a parallelogram is a parallelepiped, rhomboid – A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and adjacent sides are unequal, and whose angles are not right angles Rectangle – A parallelogram with four angles of equal size. Rhombus – A parallelogram with four sides of equal length, square – A parallelogram with four sides of equal length and angles of equal size. A simple quadrilateral is a if and only if any one of the following statements is true. Two pairs of opposite angles are equal in measure, one pair of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles, the sum of the squares of the sides equals the sum of the squares of the diagonals. It has rotational symmetry of order 2, the sum of the distances from any interior point to the sides is independent of the location of the point. Thus all parallelograms have all the properties listed above, and conversely, if just one of statements is true in a simple quadrilateral. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel and so will never intersect, the area of a parallelogram is twice the area of a triangle created by one of its diagonals. The area of a parallelogram is also equal to the magnitude of the cross product of two adjacent sides. Any line through the midpoint of a parallelogram bisects the area, any non-degenerate affine transformation takes a parallelogram to another parallelogram. A parallelogram has rotational symmetry of order 2, if it also has exactly two lines of reflectional symmetry then it must be a rhombus or an oblong. If it has four lines of symmetry, it is a square. The perimeter of a parallelogram is 2 where a and b are the lengths of adjacent sides, unlike any other convex polygon, a parallelogram cannot be inscribed in any triangle with less than twice its area. The centers of four squares all constructed either internally or externally on the sides of a parallelogram are the vertices of a square. If two lines parallel to sides of a parallelogram are constructed concurrent to a diagonal, then the parallelograms formed on opposite sides of that diagonal are equal in area, the diagonals of a parallelogram divide it into four triangles of equal area. All of the formulas for general convex quadrilaterals apply to parallelograms
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Cyclic quadrilateral
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In Euclidean geometry, a cyclic quadrilateral or inscribed quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose vertices all lie on a single circle. This circle is called the circumcircle or circumscribed circle, and the vertices are said to be concyclic, the center of the circle and its radius are called the circumcenter and the circumradius respectively. Other names for these quadrilaterals are concyclic quadrilateral and chordal quadrilateral, usually the quadrilateral is assumed to be convex, but there are also crossed cyclic quadrilaterals. The formulas and properties given below are valid in the convex case, the word cyclic is from the Ancient Greek κύκλος which means circle or wheel. All triangles have a circumcircle, but not all quadrilaterals do, an example of a quadrilateral that cannot be cyclic is a non-square rhombus. The section characterizations below states what necessary and sufficient conditions a quadrilateral must satisfy to have a circumcircle, any square, rectangle, isosceles trapezoid, or antiparallelogram is cyclic. A kite is cyclic if and only if it has two right angles, a bicentric quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral that is also tangential and an ex-bicentric quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral that is also ex-tangential. A convex quadrilateral is cyclic if and only if the four perpendicular bisectors to the sides are concurrent and this common point is the circumcenter. A convex quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic if and only if its opposite angles are supplementary, the direct theorem was Proposition 22 in Book 3 of Euclids Elements. Equivalently, a quadrilateral is cyclic if and only if each exterior angle is equal to the opposite interior angle. That is, for example, ∠ A C B = ∠ A D B. Ptolemys theorem expresses the product of the lengths of the two e and f of a cyclic quadrilateral as equal to the sum of the products of opposite sides. That is, if this equation is satisfied in a convex quadrilateral, then it is a cyclic quadrilateral. If two lines, one containing segment AC and the other containing segment BD, intersect at P, then the four points A, B, C, D are concyclic if, the intersection P may be internal or external to the circle. In the former case, the quadrilateral is ABCD, and in the latter case. When the intersection is internal, the equality states that the product of the segment lengths into which P divides one diagonal equals that of the other diagonal and this is known as the intersecting chords theorem since the diagonals of the cyclic quadrilateral are chords of the circumcircle. Yet another characterization is that a convex quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic if, the area K of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d is given by Brahmaguptas formula K = where s, the semiperimeter, is s = 1/2. This is a corollary of Bretschneiders formula for the general quadrilateral, If also d =0, the cyclic quadrilateral becomes a triangle and the formula is reduced to Herons formula
![{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\sin ^{2}A+\sin ^{2}B=1&&\cos ^{2}A+\cos ^{2}B=1\\[3pt]&\tan A=\cot B&&\sec A=\csc B\end{aligned}}}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47aa6b35b8e53468f73d7ec051d55371da314fba)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Angle", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 14
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