1.
Angle
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Angle
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
2.
Right angle
–
In geometry and trigonometry, a right angle is an angle that bisects the angle formed by two adjacent parts of a straight line. More precisely, if a ray is placed so that its endpoint is on a line, as a rotation, a right angle corresponds to a quarter turn. The presence of an angle in a triangle is the defining factor for right triangles. The term is a calque of Latin angulus rectus, here rectus means upright, in Unicode, the symbol for a right angle is U+221F ∟ Right angle. It should not be confused with the similarly shaped symbol U+231E ⌞ Bottom left corner, related symbols are U+22BE ⊾ Right angle with arc, U+299C ⦜ Right angle variant with square, and U+299D ⦝ Measured right angle with dot. The symbol for an angle, an arc, with a dot, is used in some European countries, including German-speaking countries and Poland. Right angles are fundamental in Euclids Elements and they are defined in Book 1, definition 10, which also defines perpendicular lines. Euclid uses right angles in definitions 11 and 12 to define acute angles, two angles are called complementary if their sum is a right angle. Book 1 Postulate 4 states that all angles are equal. Euclids commentator Proclus gave a proof of this using the previous postulates. Saccheri gave a proof as well but using a more explicit assumption, in Hilberts axiomatization of geometry this statement is given as a theorem, but only after much groundwork. A right angle may be expressed in different units, 1/4 turn, 90° π/2 radians 100 grad 8 points 6 hours Throughout history carpenters and masons have known a quick way to confirm if an angle is a true right angle. It is based on the most widely known Pythagorean triple and so called the Rule of 3-4-5 and this measurement can be made quickly and without technical instruments. The geometric law behind the measurement is the Pythagorean theorem, Thales theorem states that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. Two application examples in which the angle and the Thales theorem are included. Cartesian coordinate system Orthogonality Perpendicular Rectangle Types of angles Wentworth, G. A, Euclid, commentary and trans. by T. L. Heath Elements Vol.1 Google Books
Right angle
–
A right angle is equal to 90 degrees.
3.
Adjacent angles
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Adjacent angles
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
4.
Vertical angles
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Vertical angles
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
5.
Complementary angles
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Complementary angles
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
6.
Supplementary angles
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Supplementary angles
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
7.
Transversal (geometry)
–
In geometry, a transversal is a line that passes through two lines in the same plane at two distinct points. Transversals play a role in establishing whether two other lines in the Euclidean plane are parallel, the intersections of a transversal with two lines create various types of pairs of angles, consecutive interior angles, corresponding angles, and alternate angles. By Euclids parallel postulate, if the two lines are parallel, consecutive interior angles are supplementary, corresponding angles are equal, a transversal that cuts two parallel lines at right angles is called a perpendicular transversal. In this case, all 8 angles are right angles When the lines are parallel, a case that is often considered, some of these angle pairs have specific names and are discussed below, corresponding angles, alternate angles, and consecutive angles. Corresponding angles are the four pairs of angles that, have distinct vertex points, lie on the side of the transversal and one angle is interior. Two lines are parallel if and only if the two angles of any pair of corresponding angles of any transversal are congruent, note, This follows directly from Euclids parallel postulate. Further, if the angles of one pair are congruent, then the angles of each of the pairs are also congruent. In our images with parallel lines, corresponding angle pairs are, α=α1, β=β1, γ=γ1, alternate angles are the four pairs of angles that, have distinct vertex points, lie on opposite sides of the transversal and both angles are interior or both angles are exterior. If the two angles of one pair are congruent, then the angles of each of the pairs are also congruent. Proposition 1.27 of Euclids elements, a theorem of absolute geometry and it follows from Euclids parallel postulate that if the two lines are parallel, then the angles of a pair of alternate angles of a transversal are congruent. Consecutive interior angles are the two pairs of angles that, have distinct vertex points, lie on the side of the transversal and are both interior. Two lines are parallel if and only if the two angles of any pair of consecutive interior angles of any transversal are supplementary, by the definition of a straight line and the properties of vertical angles, if one pair is supplementary, the other pair is also supplementary. If three lines in general form a triangle are then cut by a transversal, the lengths of the six resulting segments satisfy Menelaus theorem. Euclids formulation of the parallel postulate may be stated in terms of a transversal, specifically, if the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are less than two right angles then lines must intersect. In fact, Euclid uses the phrase in Greek that is usually translated as transversal. Euclids Proposition 27 states that if a transversal intersects two lines so that interior angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel. Euclid proves this by contradiction, If the lines are not parallel then they must intersect, then one of the alternate angles is an exterior angle equal to the other angle which is an opposite interior angle in the triangle. This contradicts Proposition 16 which states that an angle of a triangle is always greater than the opposite interior angles
Transversal (geometry)
–
Eight angles of a transversal. (
Vertical angles such as and are always congruent.)
8.
Dihedral angle
–
A dihedral angle is the angle between two intersecting planes. In chemistry it is the angle between planes through two sets of three atoms, having two atoms in common, in solid geometry it is defined as the union of a line and two half-planes that have this line as a common edge. In higher dimension, a dihedral angle represents the angle between two hyperplanes, a dihedral angle is an angle between two intersecting planes on a third plane perpendicular to the line of intersection. A torsion angle is an example of a dihedral angle. In stereochemistry every set of three atoms of a molecule defines a plane, when two such planes intersect, the angle between them is a dihedral angle. Dihedral angles are used to specify the molecular conformation, stereochemical arrangements corresponding to angles between 0° and ±90° are called syn, those corresponding to angles between ±90° and 180° anti. Similarly, arrangements corresponding to angles between 30° and 150° or between −30° and −150° are called clinal and those between 0° and ±30° or ±150° and 180° are called periplanar. The synperiplanar conformation is also known as the syn- or cis-conformation, antiperiplanar as anti or trans, for example, with n-butane two planes can be specified in terms of the two central carbon atoms and either of the methyl carbon atoms. The syn-conformation shown above, with an angle of 60° is less stable than the anti-configuration with a dihedral angle of 180°. For macromolecular usage the symbols T, C, G+, G−, A+, a Ramachandran plot, originally developed in 1963 by G. N. Ramachandran, C. Ramakrishnan, and V. Sasisekharan, is a way to visualize energetically allowed regions for backbone dihedral angles ψ against φ of amino acid residues in protein structure, the figure at right illustrates the definition of the φ and ψ backbone dihedral angles. In a protein chain three dihedral angles are defined as φ, ψ and ω, as shown in the diagram, the planarity of the peptide bond usually restricts ω to be 180° or 0°. The distance between the Cα atoms in the trans and cis isomers is approximately 3.8 and 2.9 Å, the cis isomer is mainly observed in Xaa–Pro peptide bonds. The sidechain dihedral angles tend to cluster near 180°, 60°, and −60°, which are called the trans, gauche+, the stability of certain sidechain dihedral angles is affected by the values φ and ψ. For instance, there are steric interactions between the Cγ of the side chain in the gauche+ rotamer and the backbone nitrogen of the next residue when ψ is near -60°. An alternative method is to calculate the angle between the vectors, nA and nB, which are normal to the planes. Cos φ = − n A ⋅ n B | n A | | n B | where nA · nB is the dot product of the vectors and |nA| |nB| is the product of their lengths. Any plane can also be described by two non-collinear vectors lying in that plane, taking their cross product yields a vector to the plane
Dihedral angle
–
Free energy diagram of butane as a function of dihedral angle.
Dihedral angle
9.
Planar geometry
–
In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
Planar geometry
–
Bi-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system
10.
Ray (geometry)
–
The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, the straight line is that which is equally extended between its points. In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is tied to the way the geometry is described. When a geometry is described by a set of axioms, the notion of a line is left undefined. The properties of lines are determined by the axioms which refer to them. One advantage to this approach is the flexibility it gives to users of the geometry, thus in differential geometry a line may be interpreted as a geodesic, while in some projective geometries a line is a 2-dimensional vector space. This flexibility also extends beyond mathematics and, for example, permits physicists to think of the path of a light ray as being a line, to avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts, terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive, in those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy, in a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a description or mental image of a notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors and these are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The definition of line in Euclids Elements falls into this category, when geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the Elements, he defined a general line to be breadthless length with a straight line being a line which lies evenly with the points on itself. These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, in fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert, for example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i. e. the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel, in higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, in two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form, y = m x + b where, m is the slope or gradient of the line. B is the y-intercept of the line, X is the independent variable of the function y = f
Ray (geometry)
–
The red and blue lines on this graph have the same
slope (gradient); the red and green lines have the same
y-intercept (cross the
y-axis at the same place).
11.
Vertex (geometry)
–
In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
Vertex (geometry)
–
A vertex of an angle is the endpoint where two line segments or rays come together.
12.
Euclidean plane
–
In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
Euclidean plane
–
Bi-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system
13.
Euclidean space
–
In geometry, Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, and certain other spaces. It is named after the Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, the term Euclidean distinguishes these spaces from other types of spaces considered in modern geometry. Euclidean spaces also generalize to higher dimensions, classical Greek geometry defined the Euclidean plane and Euclidean three-dimensional space using certain postulates, while the other properties of these spaces were deduced as theorems. Geometric constructions are used to define rational numbers. It means that points of the space are specified with collections of real numbers and this approach brings the tools of algebra and calculus to bear on questions of geometry and has the advantage that it generalizes easily to Euclidean spaces of more than three dimensions. From the modern viewpoint, there is only one Euclidean space of each dimension. With Cartesian coordinates it is modelled by the coordinate space of the same dimension. In one dimension, this is the line, in two dimensions, it is the Cartesian plane, and in higher dimensions it is a coordinate space with three or more real number coordinates. One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance, for example, there are two fundamental operations on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that point is shifted in the same direction. The other is rotation about a point in the plane. In order to all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define the notions of distance, angle, translation. Even when used in theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments. The standard way to such space, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is to define the Euclidean plane as a two-dimensional real vector space equipped with an inner product. The reason for working with vector spaces instead of Rn is that it is often preferable to work in a coordinate-free manner. Once the Euclidean plane has been described in language, it is actually a simple matter to extend its concept to arbitrary dimensions. For the most part, the vocabulary, formulae, and calculations are not made any more difficult by the presence of more dimensions. Intuitively, the distinction says merely that there is no choice of where the origin should go in the space
Euclidean space
–
A
sphere, the most perfect spatial shape according to
Pythagoreans, also is an important concept in modern understanding of Euclidean spaces
14.
Great circle
–
A great circle, also known as an orthodrome or Riemannian circle, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere. This partial case of a circle of a sphere is opposed to a circle, the intersection of the sphere. Any diameter of any great circle coincides with a diameter of the sphere, and therefore all great circles have the same circumference as each other, a great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on any given sphere. Every circle in Euclidean 3-space is a circle of exactly one sphere. For most pairs of points on the surface of a sphere, there is a great circle through the two points. The exception is a pair of points, for which there are infinitely many great circles. The minor arc of a circle between two points is the shortest surface-path between them. In this sense, the arc is analogous to “straight lines” in Euclidean geometry. The length of the arc of a great circle is taken as the distance between two points on a surface of a sphere in Riemannian geometry. The great circles are the geodesics of the sphere, in higher dimensions, the great circles on the n-sphere are the intersection of the n-sphere with 2-planes that pass through the origin in the Euclidean space Rn+1. To prove that the arc of a great circle is the shortest path connecting two points on the surface of a sphere, one can apply calculus of variations to it. Consider the class of all paths from a point p to another point q. Introduce spherical coordinates so that p coincides with the north pole. Any curve on the sphere that does not intersect either pole, except possibly at the endpoints, can be parametrized by θ = θ, ϕ = ϕ, a ≤ t ≤ b provided we allow φ to take on arbitrary real values. The infinitesimal arc length in these coordinates is d s = r θ ′2 + ϕ ′2 sin 2 θ d t. So the length of a curve γ from p to q is a functional of the curve given by S = r ∫ a b θ ′2 + ϕ ′2 sin 2 θ d t. Note that S is at least the length of the meridian from p to q, S ≥ r ∫ a b | θ ′ | d t ≥ r | θ − θ |. Since the starting point and ending point are fixed, S is minimized if and only if φ =0, so the curve must lie on a meridian of the sphere φ = φ0 = constant
Great circle
–
A great circle divides the sphere in two equal hemispheres
15.
Sphere
–
A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball. This distance r is the radius of the ball, and the point is the center of the mathematical ball. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is twice the radius. While outside mathematics the terms sphere and ball are used interchangeably. The ball and the share the same radius, diameter. The surface area of a sphere is, A =4 π r 2, at any given radius r, the incremental volume equals the product of the surface area at radius r and the thickness of a shell, δ V ≈ A ⋅ δ r. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ A ⋅ δ r. In the limit as δr approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫0 r A d r ′, substitute V,43 π r 3 = ∫0 r A d r ′. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect to r yields A as a function of r,4 π r 2 = A. Which is generally abbreviated as, A =4 π r 2, alternatively, the area element on the sphere is given in spherical coordinates by dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ. In Cartesian coordinates, the element is d S = r r 2 − ∑ i ≠ k x i 2 ∏ i ≠ k d x i, ∀ k. For more generality, see area element, the total area can thus be obtained by integration, A = ∫02 π ∫0 π r 2 sin θ d θ d φ =4 π r 2. In three dimensions, the volume inside a sphere is derived to be V =43 π r 3 where r is the radius of the sphere, archimedes first derived this formula, which shows that the volume inside a sphere is 2/3 that of a circumscribed cylinder. In modern mathematics, this formula can be derived using integral calculus, at any given x, the incremental volume equals the product of the cross-sectional area of the disk at x and its thickness, δ V ≈ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. In the limit as δx approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫ − r r π y 2 d x. At any given x, a right-angled triangle connects x, y and r to the origin, hence, applying the Pythagorean theorem yields, thus, substituting y with a function of x gives, V = ∫ − r r π d x. Which can now be evaluated as follows, V = π − r r = π − π =43 π r 3
Sphere
–
Circumscribed cylinder to a sphere
Sphere
–
A two-dimensional
perspective projection of a sphere
Sphere
Sphere
–
Deck of playing cards illustrating engineering instruments, England, 1702.
King of spades: Spheres
16.
Measure (mathematics)
–
In mathematical analysis, a measure on a set is a systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of that set, intuitively interpreted as its size. In this sense, a measure is a generalization of the concepts of length, area, for instance, the Lebesgue measure of the interval in the real numbers is its length in the everyday sense of the word – specifically,1. Technically, a measure is a function that assigns a real number or +∞ to subsets of a set X. It must further be countably additive, the measure of a subset that can be decomposed into a finite number of smaller disjoint subsets, is the sum of the measures of the smaller subsets. In general, if one wants to associate a consistent size to each subset of a set while satisfying the other axioms of a measure. This problem was resolved by defining measure only on a sub-collection of all subsets, the so-called measurable subsets and this means that countable unions, countable intersections and complements of measurable subsets are measurable. Non-measurable sets in a Euclidean space, on which the Lebesgue measure cannot be defined consistently, are complicated in the sense of being badly mixed up with their complement. Indeed, their existence is a consequence of the axiom of choice. Measure theory was developed in stages during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Émile Borel, Henri Lebesgue, Johann Radon. The main applications of measures are in the foundations of the Lebesgue integral, in Andrey Kolmogorovs axiomatisation of probability theory, probability theory considers measures that assign to the whole set the size 1, and considers measurable subsets to be events whose probability is given by the measure. Ergodic theory considers measures that are invariant under, or arise naturally from, let X be a set and Σ a σ-algebra over X. A function μ from Σ to the real number line is called a measure if it satisfies the following properties, Non-negativity. Countable additivity, For all countable collections i =1 ∞ of pairwise disjoint sets in Σ, μ = ∑ k =1 ∞ μ One may require that at least one set E has finite measure. Then the empty set automatically has measure zero because of countable additivity, because μ = μ = μ + μ + μ + …, which implies that μ =0. If only the second and third conditions of the definition of measure above are met, the pair is called a measurable space, the members of Σ are called measurable sets. If and are two spaces, then a function f, X → Y is called measurable if for every Y-measurable set B ∈ Σ Y. A triple is called a measure space, a probability measure is a measure with total measure one – i. e. A probability space is a space with a probability measure
Measure (mathematics)
–
Informally, a measure has the property of being
monotone in the sense that if A is a
subset of B, the measure of A is less than or equal to the measure of B. Furthermore, the measure of the
empty set is required to be 0.
17.
Rotation (mathematics)
–
Rotation in mathematics is a concept originating in geometry. Any rotation is a motion of a space that preserves at least one point. It can describe, for example, the motion of a body around a fixed point. A clockwise rotation is a negative magnitude so a counterclockwise turn has a positive magnitude, mathematically, a rotation is a map. All rotations about a fixed point form a group under composition called the rotation group, for example, in two dimensions rotating a body clockwise about a point keeping the axes fixed is equivalent to rotating the axes counterclockwise about the same point while the body is kept fixed. These two types of rotation are called active and passive transformations, the rotation group is a Lie group of rotations about a fixed point. This fixed point is called the center of rotation and is identified with the origin. The rotation group is a point stabilizer in a group of motions. For a particular rotation, The axis of rotation is a line of its fixed points and they exist only in n >2. The plane of rotation is a plane that is invariant under the rotation, unlike the axis, its points are not fixed themselves. The axis and the plane of a rotation are orthogonal, a representation of rotations is a particular formalism, either algebraic or geometric, used to parametrize a rotation map. This meaning is somehow inverse to the meaning in the group theory, rotations of spaces of points and of respective vector spaces are not always clearly distinguished. The former are sometimes referred to as affine rotations, whereas the latter are vector rotations, see the article below for details. A motion of a Euclidean space is the same as its isometry, but a rotation also has to preserve the orientation structure. The improper rotation term refers to isometries that reverse the orientation, in the language of group theory the distinction is expressed as direct vs indirect isometries in the Euclidean group, where the former comprise the identity component. Any direct Euclidean motion can be represented as a composition of a rotation about the fixed point, there are no non-trivial rotations in one dimension. In two dimensions, only a single angle is needed to specify a rotation about the origin – the angle of rotation that specifies an element of the circle group. The rotation is acting to rotate an object counterclockwise through an angle θ about the origin, composition of rotations sums their angles modulo 1 turn, which implies that all two-dimensional rotations about the same point commute
Rotation (mathematics)
–
Rotation of an object in two dimensions around a point O.
18.
Arc (geometry)
–
In Euclidean geometry, an arc is a closed segment of a differentiable curve. A common example in the plane, is a segment of a circle called a circular arc, in space, if the arc is part of a great circle, it is called a great arc. Every pair of points on a circle determines two arcs. The length, L, of an arc of a circle with radius r and this is because L c i r c u m f e r e n c e = θ2 π. Substituting in the circumference L2 π r = θ2 π, and, with α being the angle measured in degrees, since θ = α/180π. For example, if the measure of the angle is 60 degrees and this is so because the circumference of a circle and the degrees of a circle, of which there are always 360, are directly proportional. The area of the sector formed by an arc and the center of a circle is A =12 r 2 θ. The area A has the proportion to the circle area as the angle θ to a full circle. We can cancel π on both sides, A r 2 = θ2, by multiplying both sides by r2, we get the final result, A =12 r 2 θ. Using the conversion described above, we find that the area of the sector for an angle measured in degrees is A = α360 π r 2. The area of the bounded by the arc and the straight line between its two end points is 12 r 2. To get the area of the arc segment, we need to subtract the area of the triangle, determined by the circles center and the two end points of the arc, from the area A. Using the intersecting chords theorem it is possible to calculate the radius r of a circle given the height H and its perpendicular bisector is another chord, which is a diameter of the circle. The length of the first chord is W, and it is divided by the bisector into two halves, each with length W/2. The total length of the diameter is 2r, and it is divided into two parts by the first chord, the length of one part is the sagitta of the arc, H, and the other part is the remainder of the diameter, with length 2r − H. Applying the intersecting chords theorem to these two chords produces H =2, whence 2 r − H = W24 H, so r = W28 H + H2
Arc (geometry)
–
A
circular sector is shaded in green. Its curved boundary of length L is a circular arc.
19.
Radius
–
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service is a networking protocol that provides centralized Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting management for users who connect and use a network service. RADIUS was developed by Livingston Enterprises, Inc. in 1991 as an access server authentication and accounting protocol and these networks may incorporate modems, DSL, access points, VPNs, network ports, web servers, etc. RADIUS is a protocol that runs in the application layer. Network access servers, the gateways that control access to a network, RADIUS is often the back-end of choice for 802. 1X authentication as well. The RADIUS server is usually a background process running on a UNIX or Microsoft Windows server, RADIUS is a AAA protocol which manages network access in the following two-step process, also known as a AAA transaction. AAA stands for authentication, authorization and accounting, Authentication and authorization characteristics in RADIUS are described in RFC2865 while accounting is described by RFC2866. The user or machine sends a request to a Network Access Server to gain access to a network resource using access credentials. The credentials are passed to the NAS device via the link-layer protocol - for example, in turn, the NAS sends a RADIUS Access Request message to the RADIUS server, requesting authorization to grant access via the RADIUS protocol. This request includes access credentials, typically in the form of username, the RADIUS server checks that the information is correct using authentication schemes such as PAP, CHAP or EAP. Historically, RADIUS servers checked the users information against a locally stored flat file database, modern RADIUS servers can do this, or can refer to external sources — commonly SQL, Kerberos, LDAP, or Active Directory servers — to verify the users credentials. The RADIUS server then returns one of three responses to the NAS, 1) Access Reject, 2) Access Challenge, or 3) Access Accept, Access Reject The user is unconditionally denied access to all requested network resources. Reasons may include failure to provide proof of identification or an unknown or inactive user account, Access Challenge Requests additional information from the user such as a secondary password, PIN, token, or card. Access Accept The user is granted access, once the user is authenticated, the RADIUS server will often check that the user is authorized to use the network service requested. A given user may be allowed to use a wireless network. Again, this information may be stored locally on the RADIUS server, each of these three RADIUS responses may include a Reply-Message attribute which may give a reason for the rejection, the prompt for the challenge, or a welcome message for the accept. The text in the attribute can be passed on to the user in a web page. Authorization attributes are conveyed to the NAS stipulating terms of access to be granted and this might be with a customizable login prompt, where the user is expected to enter their username and password. Alternatively, the user use a link framing protocol such as the Point-to-Point Protocol
Radius
20.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
21.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
22.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
23.
Proto-Indo-European language
–
Proto-Indo-European is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, the most widely spoken language family in the world. Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other proto-language and these methods supply all of the knowledge concerning PIE, since there is no written record of the language. PIE is estimated to have spoken as a single language around 3500 B. C. E. during the Neolithic Age. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis, the homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe. Work has also gone into reconstructing their culture and religion, PIE had a complex system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes as well as ablaut and accent. PIE nominals and pronouns had a system of declension. The PIE phonology, particles, numerals, and copula are also well-reconstructed, today, the most widely-spoken daughter languages of PIE are Spanish, English, Hindustani, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Punjabi, German, French, and Marathi. There is no evidence of PIE. It has been reconstructed from its present-day descendants using the comparative method, the comparative method is based on the Neogrammarian rule that the Indo-European sound laws are applied without exception. The method compares languages and applies the laws to find a common ancestor. For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English, piede and foot, padre and father, pesce and fish. Since there is a consistent correspondence of the consonants that is far too frequent to be coincidental. Although his name is associated with this observation, he was not the first to make it. In many ways Jones work was less accurate than his predecessors, as he erroneously included Egyptian, Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi. In 1818, Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated the set of correspondences to include other Indo-European languages, such as Sanskrit and Greek, and the full range of consonants involved. In 1816 Franz Bopp published On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit in which he investigated a common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833 he began publishing the Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, in 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what is now known as Grimms law as a general rule in his Deutsche Grammatik. Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages, and showed that sound change affects an entire language systematically, august Schleichers A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages was an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language
Proto-Indo-European language
–
Classification of Indo-European languages. Red: Extinct languages. White: categories or unattested proto-languages. Left half:
centum languages; right half:
satem languages
24.
Euclid
–
Euclid, sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclides of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the father of geometry. He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I, in the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, Euclid is the anglicized version of the Greek name Εὐκλείδης, which means renowned, glorious. Very few original references to Euclid survive, so little is known about his life, the date, place and circumstances of both his birth and death are unknown and may only be estimated roughly relative to other people mentioned with him. He is rarely mentioned by name by other Greek mathematicians from Archimedes onward, the few historical references to Euclid were written centuries after he lived by Proclus c.450 AD and Pappus of Alexandria c.320 AD. Proclus introduces Euclid only briefly in his Commentary on the Elements, Proclus later retells a story that, when Ptolemy I asked if there was a shorter path to learning geometry than Euclids Elements, Euclid replied there is no royal road to geometry. This anecdote is questionable since it is similar to a story told about Menaechmus, a detailed biography of Euclid is given by Arabian authors, mentioning, for example, a birth town of Tyre. This biography is generally believed to be completely fictitious, however, this hypothesis is not well accepted by scholars and there is little evidence in its favor. The only reference that historians rely on of Euclid having written the Elements was from Proclus, although best known for its geometric results, the Elements also includes number theory. The geometrical system described in the Elements was long known simply as geometry, today, however, that system is often referred to as Euclidean geometry to distinguish it from other so-called non-Euclidean geometries that mathematicians discovered in the 19th century. In addition to the Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day and they follow the same logical structure as Elements, with definitions and proved propositions. Data deals with the nature and implications of information in geometrical problems. On Divisions of Figures, which only partially in Arabic translation. It is similar to a first-century AD work by Heron of Alexandria, catoptrics, which concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors. The attribution is held to be anachronistic however by J J OConnor, phaenomena, a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek, it is quite similar to On the Moving Sphere by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC. Optics is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective, in its definitions Euclid follows the Platonic tradition that vision is caused by discrete rays which emanate from the eye. One important definition is the fourth, Things seen under a greater angle appear greater, proposition 45 is interesting, proving that for any two unequal magnitudes, there is a point from which the two appear equal. Other works are attributed to Euclid, but have been lost
Euclid
–
Euclid by
Justus van Gent, 15th century
Euclid
–
One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, found at
Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100 (
P. Oxy. 29). The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.
Euclid
–
Statue in honor of Euclid in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural History
25.
Straight line
–
The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, the straight line is that which is equally extended between its points. In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is tied to the way the geometry is described. When a geometry is described by a set of axioms, the notion of a line is left undefined. The properties of lines are determined by the axioms which refer to them. One advantage to this approach is the flexibility it gives to users of the geometry, thus in differential geometry a line may be interpreted as a geodesic, while in some projective geometries a line is a 2-dimensional vector space. This flexibility also extends beyond mathematics and, for example, permits physicists to think of the path of a light ray as being a line, to avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts, terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive, in those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy, in a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a description or mental image of a notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors and these are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The definition of line in Euclids Elements falls into this category, when geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the Elements, he defined a general line to be breadthless length with a straight line being a line which lies evenly with the points on itself. These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, in fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert, for example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i. e. the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel, in higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, in two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form, y = m x + b where, m is the slope or gradient of the line. B is the y-intercept of the line, X is the independent variable of the function y = f
Straight line
–
The red and blue lines on this graph have the same
slope (gradient); the red and green lines have the same
y-intercept (cross the
y-axis at the same place).
26.
Greek letter
–
It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
Greek letter
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Dipylon inscription, one of the oldest known samples of the use of the Greek alphabet, c. 740 BC
Greek letter
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Greek alphabet
Greek letter
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Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Greek letter
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A 16th-century edition of the New Testament, printed in a renaissance typeface by
Claude Garamond
27.
Pi
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The number π is a mathematical constant, the ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter, commonly approximated as 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek letter π since the mid-18th century, being an irrational number, π cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction. Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other numbers are commonly used to approximate π. The digits appear to be randomly distributed, in particular, the digit sequence of π is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date no proof of this has been discovered. Also, π is a number, i. e. a number that is not the root of any non-zero polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass, ancient civilizations required fairly accurate computed values for π for practical reasons. It was calculated to seven digits, using techniques, in Chinese mathematics. The extensive calculations involved have also used to test supercomputers. Because its definition relates to the circle, π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses, and spheres. Because of its role as an eigenvalue, π appears in areas of mathematics. It is also found in cosmology, thermodynamics, mechanics, attempts to memorize the value of π with increasing precision have led to records of over 70,000 digits. In English, π is pronounced as pie, in mathematical use, the lowercase letter π is distinguished from its capitalized and enlarged counterpart ∏, which denotes a product of a sequence, analogous to how ∑ denotes summation. The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol π, π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circles circumference C to its diameter d, π = C d The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of the circles size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio C/d. This definition of π implicitly makes use of geometry, although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curved geometry. Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which can be defined independently of geometry using limits. An integral such as this was adopted as the definition of π by Karl Weierstrass, definitions of π such as these that rely on a notion of circumference, and hence implicitly on concepts of the integral calculus, are no longer common in the literature. One such definition, due to Richard Baltzer, and popularized by Edmund Landau, is the following, the cosine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series, or as the solution of a differential equation
Pi
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The constant π is represented in this
mosaic outside the Mathematics Building at the
Technical University of Berlin.
Pi
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The circumference of a circle is slightly more than three times as long as its diameter. The exact ratio is called π.
Pi
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Archimedes developed the polygonal approach to approximating π.
Pi
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Isaac Newton used
infinite series to compute π to 15 digits, later writing "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations".
28.
Polygon
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In elementary geometry, a polygon /ˈpɒlɪɡɒn/ is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed polygonal chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the vertices or corners. The interior of the polygon is called its body. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides, for example, a polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. The basic geometrical notion of a polygon has been adapted in various ways to suit particular purposes, mathematicians are often concerned only with the bounding closed polygonal chain and with simple polygons which do not self-intersect, and they often define a polygon accordingly. A polygonal boundary may be allowed to intersect itself, creating star polygons and these and other generalizations of polygons are described below. The word polygon derives from the Greek adjective πολύς much, many and it has been suggested that γόνυ knee may be the origin of “gon”. Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides, Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity, Convex, any line drawn through the polygon meets its boundary exactly twice. As a consequence, all its interior angles are less than 180°, equivalently, any line segment with endpoints on the boundary passes through only interior points between its endpoints. Non-convex, a line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice, equivalently, there exists a line segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon. Simple, the boundary of the polygon does not cross itself, there is at least one interior angle greater than 180°. Star-shaped, the interior is visible from at least one point. The polygon must be simple, and may be convex or concave, self-intersecting, the boundary of the polygon crosses itself. Branko Grünbaum calls these coptic, though this term does not seem to be widely used, star polygon, a polygon which self-intersects in a regular way. A polygon cannot be both a star and star-shaped, equiangular, all corner angles are equal. Cyclic, all lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle. Isogonal or vertex-transitive, all lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is cyclic and equiangular
Polygon
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Historical image of polygons (1699)
Polygon
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Some different types of polygon
Polygon
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The
Giant's Causeway, in
Northern Ireland
29.
Dutch angle
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This produces a viewpoint akin to tilting ones head to the side. In cinematography, the Dutch angle is one of cinematic techniques often used to portray psychological uneasiness or tension in the subject being filmed. Dutch refers to a bastardisation of the word Deutsch, which means German in German and it is not related to the Dutch people or language. It originated in the First World War, as Navy blockades made the import of movies impossible, the German movie scene was part of the expressionist movement, which used the Dutch angle extensively. A Dutch angle is a shot in which the camera has been rotated relative to the horizon or vertical lines in the shot. The primary use of angles is to cause a sense of unease or disorientation for the viewer. Many Dutch angles are static shots, but in a moving Dutch angle shot the camera can pivot, dziga Vertovs 1929 experimental documentary Man with a Movie Camera contains uses of the Dutch angle as well, among other innovative techniques discovered by Vertov himself. The 1949 film The Third Man makes extensive use of Dutch angle shots, an anecdote of cinema lore alleges that once filming was completed, the crew presented director Carol Reed with a spirit level, to sardonically encourage him to use more traditional shooting angles. Dutch angles were used extensively in the 1960s Batman TV series and 1966 film, satires in which each villain had his or her own angle, as they were Crooked. The fourth season premiere of Charmed uses dutch angles in a few scenes to emphasize the imbalance felt by the characters after Prue Halliwells death. Dutch angles are used by film directors who have a background in the visual arts, such as Tim Burton. In his Evil Dead trilogy, Sam Raimi used Dutch angles to show that a character had become possessed, the Dutch angle is an overt cinematographical technique that can easily be overused. The science-fiction film Battlefield Earth, in particular, drew criticism for its pervasive use of the Dutch angle. In the words of film critic Roger Ebert, the director, Roger Christian, has learned from better films that directors sometimes tilt their cameras, but he has not learned why. Dutch angles are used in horror video games, particularly those with static camera angles such as early entries in the Resident Evil. Similar to their use in movies, these angles are used to bring about a feeling of unease in the player
Dutch angle
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A special axis head allows for cinematographers to set up Dutch angles.
Dutch angle
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Critics noted
Battlefield Earth's overuse of tilted camera angles
30.
Normal (geometry)
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In geometry, a normal is an object such as a line or vector that is perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the case, the normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point. In the three-dimensional case a normal, or simply normal. The word normal is used as an adjective, a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force. The concept of normality generalizes to orthogonality, the concept has been generalized to differentiable manifolds of arbitrary dimension embedded in a Euclidean space. The normal vector space or normal space of a manifold at a point P is the set of the vectors which are orthogonal to the tangent space at P, in the case of differential curves, the curvature vector is a normal vector of special interest. For a convex polygon, a surface normal can be calculated as the cross product of two edges of the polygon. For a plane given by the equation a x + b y + c z + d =0, the vector is a normal. For a hyperplane in n+1 dimensions, given by the equation r = a 0 + α1 a 1 + ⋯ + α n a n, where a0 is a point on the hyperplane and ai for i =1. N are non-parallel vectors lying on the hyperplane, a normal to the hyperplane is any vector in the space of A where A is given by A =. That is, any vector orthogonal to all in-plane vectors is by definition a surface normal. If a surface S is parameterized by a system of coordinates x, with s and t real variables. For a surface S given explicitly as a function f of the independent variables x, y, the first one is obtaining its implicit form F = z − f =0, from which the normal follows readily as the gradient ∇ F. The second way of obtaining the normal follows directly from the gradient of the form, ∇ f, by inspection, ∇ F = k ^ − ∇ f. Note that this is equal to ∇ F = k ^ − ∂ f ∂ x i ^ − ∂ f ∂ y j ^, if a surface does not have a tangent plane at a point, it does not have a normal at that point either. For example, a cone does not have a normal at its tip nor does it have a normal along the edge of its base, however, the normal to the cone is defined almost everywhere. In general, it is possible to define a normal almost everywhere for a surface that is Lipschitz continuous, a normal to a surface does not have a unique direction, the vector pointing in the opposite direction of a surface normal is also a surface normal. For an oriented surface, the normal is usually determined by the right-hand rule
Normal (geometry)
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A polygon and two of its normal vectors
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Angle", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 14
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