1.
University of Massachusetts
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The University of Massachusetts is the five-campus public university system and the only public research system in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The system includes four universities, a school, and a satellite campus, with system administration in Boston. The system is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, the UMass system is ranked 52nd in the World in 2016 for its Innovative Achievements according to Reuters. Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the system 91-100 in the world by reputation in 2015, round University Ranking ranks University of Massachusetts No.65 nationally and No.165 globally in 2017. In 2016 The Times Higher Education ranked UMass 165 globally and 57 nationally, in 2015, the system was ranked 30th globally in the Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U. S. Patents in 2015 by National Academy of Inventors, in 2017 Times Higher Education published its list of the most international universities in the world, with the University of Massachusetts listed No.88. In 2012, the state of Massachusetts introduced $607 million in new funding to advance high-quality instructional. In 2012, research expenditures for the UMass system were close to $600 million, the University of Massachusetts Amherst is the flagship and largest school in the UMass system. It was also the first one established, dating back to 1863, the University of Massachusetts Medical School was founded in 1962, and is located in Worcester. The University of Massachusetts Boston, originally established in 1964, was merged with Boston State College in 1982, in 1991, the University of Lowell and Southeastern Massachusetts University joined the system as the University of Massachusetts Lowell and University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, respectively. UMass Amherst is the flagship and the largest of the UMass campuses and it became Massachusetts State College in 1931, and University of Massachusetts in 1947. The library system is the largest state-supported library system in New England with over 6.1 million items, the campus has many architecturally distinctive buildings commissioned by the Commonwealth and designed by world-renowned architects. UMass Amherst offers a variety of academic and co-curricular options, ninety-three percent of the 1,174 full-time faculty members hold the highest degree in their fields. The average SAT score for the 2015 entering class is 1226, the campus has 21,373 undergraduates and offers 86 bachelors degree programs. There is a student-to-faculty ratio of 17,1, UMass Amherst hosts Commonwealth Honors College where admission is more competitive with an average SAT score of 1390. CHC offers personalized advising, smaller class sizes taught by professors, and a six building Honors Residential Community, students participate in 240 campus organizations,21 NCAA Division I athletic teams, living-learning residence halls, community service, internships, and faculty research. Students can take classes on any of these campuses and participate in all co-curricular, kumble R. Subbaswamy serves as UMass Amhersts chancellor. UMass Boston is a university located in the City of Boston
2.
Rutgers University
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Rutgers was chartered as Queens College on November 10,1766. It is the eighth-oldest college in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, for most of its existence, Rutgers was a private liberal arts college affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church. The college expanded its role in research and instruction in agriculture, engineering and it gained university status in 1924 with the introduction of graduate education and further expansion. However, Rutgers evolved into a public research university after being designated The State University of New Jersey by the New Jersey Legislature in laws enacted in 1945 and 1956. It is one of two colonial colleges that later became public universities. Rutgers has three campuses located throughout New Jersey, the New Brunswick campus in New Brunswick and adjacent Piscataway, the Newark campus, the university has additional facilities elsewhere in New Jersey. Instruction is offered by 9,000 faculty members in 175 academic departments to over 45,000 undergraduate students and more than 20,000 graduate, through several years of effort by the Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen and Rev. The Grammar School, today the private Rutgers Preparatory School, was a part of the community until 1959. New Brunswick was chosen as the location over Hackensack because the New Brunswick Dutch had the support of the Anglican population, despite the religious nature of the early college, the first classes were held at a tavern called the Sign of the Red Lion. When the Revolutionary War broke out and taverns were suspected by the British as being hotbeds of rebel activity, in its early years, due to a lack of funds, Queens College was closed for two extended periods. Early trustees considered merging the college with the College of New Jersey, in Princeton, in 1808, after raising $12,000, the college was temporarily reopened and broke ground on a building of its own, called Old Queens, designed by architect John McComb, Jr. The colleges third president, the Rev. Ira Condict, laid the cornerstone on April 27,1809, shortly after, the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, founded in 1784, relocated from Brooklyn, New York, to New Brunswick, and shared facilities with Queens College. During those formative years, all three institutions fit into Old Queens, in 1830, the Queens College Grammar School moved across the street, and in 1856, the Seminary relocated to a seven-acre tract less than one-half miles away. According to the Board of Trustees, Colonel Rutgers was honored because he epitomized Christian values, the Rutgers Scientific School would expand over the years to grow into the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and divide into the College of Engineering and the College of Agriculture. Rutgers created the New Jersey College for Women in 1918, with the development of graduate education, and the continued expansion of the institution, the collection of schools became Rutgers University in 1924. Rutgers College continued as an arts college within the university. Rutgers was designated the State University of New Jersey by acts of the New Jersey Legislature in 1945 and 1956, shortly after, the University of Newark was merged with Rutgers in 1946, as were the College of South Jersey and South Jersey Law School, in 1950. These two institutions became Rutgers University–Newark and Rutgers University–Camden, respectively, on September 10,1970, after much debate, the Board of Governors voted to admit women into Rutgers College
3.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
4.
International Association of Chiefs of Police
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International Association of Chiefs of Police is a 501 nonprofit organization based in Alexandria, Virginia. IACP developed and/or promoted many tools used by law enforcement agencies. These tools include the use of fingerprints, Uniform Crime Reports, the United Nations granted a Consultative Status to the IACP in the 1970s due to the IACPs work in several UN member nations. Also in the 1970s, the IACP developed a national bomb data center, along with other activities, the IACP publishes Police Chief Magazine. The Psychological Services Section of IACP has over a hundred members and they are recognized specialists in this field, including those employed by larger departments and independent consultants. The section has been in operation since 1986, and publishes guidelines for various types of police psychological services, at the meeting, the organization was founded as the National Chiefs of Police Union. At the Chicago meeting, Chief W. S. Seavey of Omaha, Chief Harvey O. Carr of Grand Rapids, Michigan, was the first treasurer and secretary. Chief of police Interpol Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook
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Criminology
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Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia, later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term criminologie. In the mid-18th century criminology arose as social philosophers gave thought to crime, over time, several schools of thought have developed. There were three schools of thought in early criminological theory spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century, Classical, Positive. The Classical School, which developed in the century, was based on utilitarian philosophy. Cesare Beccaria, author of On Crimes and Punishments, Jeremy Bentham, thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivators. Punishment can deter people from crime, as the costs outweigh benefits, the more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior. The Classical school of thought came about at a time when major reform in penology occurred, also, this time period saw many legal reforms, the French Revolution, and the development of the legal system in the United States. The Positivist school presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individuals control, the scientific method was introduced and applied to study human behavior. Positivism can be broken up into three segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is regarded as the father of criminology. He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the Italian school of criminology, Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime. This approach, influenced by the theory of phrenology and by Charles Darwin. Criminologists have since rejected Lombrosos biological theories, with groups not used in his studies. Sociological positivism suggests that factors such as poverty, membership of subcultures. Adolphe Quetelet made use of data and statistical analysis to gain insight into the relationship between crime and sociological factors and he found that age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors related to crime. Lance Lochner conducted three different research experiments that shared the same conclusion, schooling reduces crime by a significant margin, Rawson W. Rawson utilized crime statistics to suggest a link between population density and crime rates, with crowded cities creating an environment conducive for crime. Joseph Fletcher and John Glyde also presented papers to the Statistical Society of London on their studies of crime, Henry Mayhew used empirical methods and an ethnographic approach to address social questions and poverty, and presented his studies in London Labour and the London Poor. Émile Durkheim viewed crime as an aspect of society, with uneven distribution of wealth
6.
Northeastern University
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Northeastern University is a private research university in Boston, Massachusetts, established in 1898. It is categorized as an R1 institution by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the university offers undergraduate and graduate programs on its main campus in the Fenway-Kenmore, Roxbury, South End, and Back Bay neighborhoods of Boston. The university has satellite campus in Charlotte, North Carolina, Seattle, Washington, an additional satellite campus will open in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in late 2016. The universitys enrollment is approximately 18,000 undergraduate students and 7,000 graduate students, Northeastern features a cooperative education program that integrates classroom study with professional experience on seven continents and a comprehensive study abroad program. In 2011, the university opened the George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex opened in early 2017. Northeastern is a large, highly residential university, most students choose to live on campus but upperclassmen have the option to live off campus. More than 75% of Northeastern students receive some form of financial aid, in the 2015–16 school year, the university offered $239 million in grant and scholarship assistance. The universitys sports teams, the Northeastern Huskies, compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Colonial Athletic Association in 18 varsity sports, mens Track and Field has won the CAA back to back years in 2015 and 2016. In 2013, mens basketball won its first CAA regular season championship, mens soccer won the CAA title for the first time, in 1903, the first Automobile Engineering School in the country was established followed by the School of Commerce and Finance in 1907. In 1916, a bill was introduced into the Massachusetts Legislature to incorporate the institute as Northeastern College, after considerable debate and investigation it was passed in March 1916. On March 30,1917, Frank Palmer Speare was inaugurated as the new Colleges first President, five years later the school changed its name to Northeastern University to better reflect the increasing depth of its instruction. In March 1923, the University secured general degree granting power from the Legislature, with the exception of the A. B. the S. B. the College of Liberal Arts was added in 1935. Two years later the Northeastern University Corporation was established, with a board of trustees composed of 31 University members and 8 from the YMCA, in 1948 Northeastern separated itself completely from the YMCA. Following World War II Northeastern began admitting women, in the postwar educational boom the University created the College of Education, University College, and the Colleges of Pharmacy and Nursing. The College of Criminal Justice followed, then the College of Computer Science, by the early 1980s the one-time night commuter school had grown to nearly 60,000 enrollees. By 1989–1990 University enrollment had reduced to about 40,000 full, part-time, and evening students, following the retirement of President Kenneth Ryder 1989 the University adopted a slow and more thoughtful approach to change. Historically, it had been accepting between 7,500 and 10,000 students per year based on applications of about 15,000 to 20,000 with acceptance rates between 50% and 75% depending on program. Attrition rates were huge, with a 25% freshmen dropout rate and graduation rate below 50%, when President John Curry left office in 1996 the university population had been systematically reduced to about 25,000
7.
John F. Kennedy School of Government
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The John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University is a public policy and public administration school, of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The school offers degrees in public policy, public administration, and international development, grants several doctoral degrees. It conducts research in subjects relating to politics, government, international affairs, the Schools primary campus is located on John F. Kennedy Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The main buildings overlook the Charles River, southwest of Harvard Yard and Harvard Square, the School is adjacent to the public riverfront John F. Kennedy Memorial Park. In 2015, Douglas Elmendorf, the director of the U. S. Congressional Budget Office who had served as a Harvard faculty member, was named Dean of the Harvard Kennedy School. From 2004 to 2015, the Schools Dean was David Ellwood, previously, Ellwood was an assistant secretary in the Department of Health and Human Services in the Clinton Administration. A major expansion and renovation of the began in 2015. Harvard Kennedy School was originally the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration, and was founded in 1936 with a $2 million gift from Lucius N. Littauer and its shield was designed to express the national purpose of the school and was modeled after the U. S. shield. The School drew its initial faculty from Harvards existing government and economics departments, the Schools original home was in the Littauer Center north of Harvard Yard, now the home of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences Economics Department. In the 1960s, the School began to develop public policy degree. In 1966, the School was renamed for President John F. Kennedy, under the terms of Littauers original grant, the current HKS campus also features a building called Littauer. The IOP has been housed on the Kennedy School campus since 1978, the John F. Kennedy, Jr. Forum in the new Littauer building is both the site of IOP forum events as well as a major social gathering place between HKS courses. Ground breaking commenced on May 7,2015 and is expected to be complete in early 2018. The school has stated that the new space will be used exclusively to cater to the needs of the class sizes. Currently, Harvard Kennedy School offers four degree programs. The Master of Public Policy program focuses on analysis, economics, management in the public sector. Among the members of the mid-career MPA class are the Mason Fellows, Mason Fellows typically constitute about 50% of the incoming class of Mid Career MPA candidates
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Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
9.
Master of Public Administration
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Instruction includes the roles, development, and principles of public administration, public policy management and implementation. More recently, Governance Network management has emerged as an approach to public administration. S. Other notable MPA graduates include Bill OReilly, in recent years, there has been a gradual convergence between the MPA and the Master of Public Policy degrees. Many educational institutions are now offering MPA degrees via online instruction, there are also Executive MPA programs for professionals who have prior work and management experience. However, some MPA programs in the United States are housed in Business schools, in other cases, they bring together multidisciplinary approaches and methodologies as to give their students a more comprehensive overview of the current challenges of public administration. A Master of Public Administration can be acquired at various institutions, see List of schools offering MPA degrees. S
10.
Body worn video
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Parking inspectors in some areas also wear these devices, to capture an assault or offense. BWVs are notable because their placement, often on the front of a shirt, provides for first-person perspective, BWV is a form of closed-circuit television. The cameras are located on the police officer’s chest or head. The first generation of police body cameras was introduced around 2005 in the United Kingdom. That means these cameras have only been around for a short period of time. The current body camera is much lighter and smaller than the first experiments with wearable cameras, there are several types of body cameras made by several different companies. Each camera basically serves the purpose, yet some function in slightly different ways than others. Some are meant to be mounted on one’s chest or shoulder, as far as sizing goes most are roughly the size of a Scotch Tape dispenser and weigh anywhere from about 2 ounces to 5 ounces. Thats somewhere between a strawberry and a lemon. These lightweight cameras are designed to be worn without any discomfort, in 2014, the three top companies that had been producing body cameras throughout the United States were Taser International, VieVu, and Digital Ally. In 2016, a survey described 66 body worn video cameras produced by 38 different vendors. Body camera manufacturers have constantly looked for technical innovations to improve their products to ensure the most professional, each company has their own specific reasons for providing certain features in their body cameras. Axon cameras, similar to body cameras on the market, were created for the purpose of ensuring public safety through obtaining the truth behind actions carried out by law enforcement agencies. Taser chose not to include the use of HD video quality in their first model because the files were five to ten times larger than a regular resolution of 640 x 240. Vievu found that HD video quality serves as a great help when evidence is presented in courtrooms due to the ability to get a clearer picture of what occurred. The Axon Body 2 that was introduced later does support HD recording, factors like these are addressed by each company throughout the process of designing and producing their body cameras. Many body cameras offer specific features that include options of HD footage, infrared, night vision, fisheye lenses, and varying degrees of view. Ever since body cameras have been worn by officers, there has been a debate over whether video qualities that make the camera superior to that of the officer’s eyes should be allowed
11.
New York Police Department
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The New York City Police Department, officially the City of New York Police Department, is the largest municipal police force in the United States. Established in 1845, the agency has primary responsibilities in law enforcement, the NYPD is one of the oldest police departments established in the U. S. tracing its roots back to the nineteenth century. According to the department, its mission is to enforce the laws, preserve the peace, reduce fear, the departments regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules. In June 2004, there were about 40,000 sworn officers plus several thousand employees, in June 2005. As of December 2011, that figure increased slightly to over 36,600, the NYPDs current authorized uniformed strength is 34,450. The Patrolmens Benevolent Association of the City of New York, the largest municipal police union in the United States, represents over 50,000 active, the NYPD Intelligence Division & Counter-Terrorism Bureau has officers stationed in 11 cities internationally. In the 1990s the department developed a CompStat system of management which has also since established in other cities. The NYPD is headquartered at 1 Police Plaza, located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan across the street from City Hall, the NYPD has extensive crime scene investigation and laboratory resources, as well as units which assist with computer crime investigations. The NYPD runs a Real Time Crime Center, essentially a search engine. A Domain Awareness System, a joint project of Microsoft and the NYPD, links 6,000 closed-circuit television cameras, license plate readers, members of the NYPD are frequently referred to by politicians, some media and their own police cars by the nickname New Yorks Finest. The Municipal Police were established in 1845, replacing an old night watch system, in 1857, it was tumultuously replaced by a Metropolitan force, which consolidated many other local police departments in 1898. Twentieth-century trends included professionalization and struggles against corruption, Officers begin service with the rank of Probationary Police Officer, also referred to as Recruit Officer. After successful completion of six months of Police Academy training and various academic, physical, There are three career tracks in the NYPD, supervisory, investigative, and specialist. The supervisory track consists of 12 sworn titles, referred to as ranks, promotion to the ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain are made via competitive civil service examinations. Promotion from the rank of police officer to detective is determined by the current police labor contract, the entry level appointment to detective is third grade or specialist. The commissioner may grant discretionary grades of first or second and these grades offer compensation roughly equivalent to that of supervisors. Specifically, a second grade detectives pay roughly corresponds to a sergeants, Detectives are police officers who have been given a more investigatory position but no official supervisory authority. A Detective First Grade still falls under the command of a sergeant or above, just like detectives, sergeants and lieutenants can receive pay grade increases within their respective ranks
12.
Gang
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Some criminal gang members are jumped in or have to prove their loyalty by committing acts such as theft or violence. A member of a gang may be called a gangster or a thug, in early usage, the word gang referred to a group of workmen. In the United Kingdom, the word is often used in this sense. In current usage, it denotes a criminal organization or else a criminal affiliation. The word gang often carries a connotation, however, within a gang which defines itself in opposition to mainstream norms. The word gang derives from the past participle of Old English gan and it is cognate with Old Norse gangster, meaning journey. In discussing banditry in American history Barrington Moore, Jr, according to some estimates the Thuggee gangs in India murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. The 17th century saw London terrorized by a series of organized gangs, some of known as the Mims, Hectors, Bugles. These gangs often came into conflict with each other, the members dressed with colored ribbons to distinguish the different factions. Chicago had over 1,000 gangs in the 1920s, Gang involvement in drug trafficking increased during the 1970s and 1980s, but some gangs continue to have minimal involvement in the trade. In the United States, the history of gangs began on the East Coast in 1783 following the American Revolution, the emergence of the gangs was largely attributed to the vast rural population immigration to the urban areas. The first street-gang in the United States, the 40 Thieves, the gangs in Washington D. C. had control of what is now Federal Triangle, in a region then known as Murder Bay. In 2007, there were approximately 785,000 active street gang members in the United States, approximately 230,000 gang members were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2011. According to the Chicago Crime Commission publication, The Gang Book 2012, traditionally Los Angeles County has been considered the Gang Capital of America, with an estimated 120,000 gang members. There were at least 30,000 gangs and 800,000 gang members active across the USA in 2007, about 900,000 gang members lived within local communities across the country, and about 147,000 were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2009. By 1999, Hispanics accounted for 47% of all members, Blacks 31%, Whites 13%. A December 13,2009 The New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. There are between 25,000 and 50,000 gang members in Central Americas El Salvador, more than 1,800 gangs were known to be operating in the UK in 2011
13.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
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Boston Police Department
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The Boston Police Department, dating back to 1838, holds the primary responsibility for law enforcement and investigation within the city of Boston, Massachusetts. It is the first in the nation, the BPD is also the 20th largest law enforcement agency in the country and the 3rd largest in New England behind the Massachusetts State Police and the Massachusetts Department of Correction. Before the existence of a police department, the first night watch was established in Boston in 1635. In 1703, pay in the sum of 35 shillings a month was set for members of the night watch. In 1796, the watch was reorganized, and the watchmen carried a badge of office, a rattle, and a pole, which was painted blue and white with a hook on one end. The hook was used to grab fleeing criminals, and the bill was used as a weapon. The rattle was a device used for calling for assistance. The Day Police, which had no connection to the watch, was organized in 1838. The Day Police operated under the city marshal and had six appointed officers and this organization would eventually lead to the establishment of the modern-day Boston Police Department. In 1838, a bill passed in the General Court that allowed the city to appoint police officers, the Boston Police Department was formally founded in May 1854, at which point both the night watch and Day Police were disbanded. A fourteen-inch club replaced the old hook and bill, which had been in use for one hundred, at the time of its founding, the Boston Police constituted one of the first paid, professional police services in the United States. The department was organized and modeled after Sir Robert Peels Metropolitan Police Service. On November 3,1851, the first Irish born Boston Police officer, at the time, the police salary of $2.00 a day for the morning and afternoon beat and $1.20 for the night watch was nearly twice as high as the wages of laborers. On January 5,1852, shortly before the elected mayor Benjamin Seaver took office. McGinniskin was discharged from the Boston Police for no reason than he was a Catholic. McGinniskin became a United States inspector at the customhouse and died of rheumatism on March 2,1868, McGinniskin is buried in the St. Augustine Cemetery in South Boston. On October 18,1857, at about 5,15 a. m, Boston Police Officer Ezekiel W. Hodsdon was patrolling the Corner of Havre and Maverick Street in East Boston. Hodsdon attempted to arrest two suspects for a burglary, a struggle ensued, and one of the suspects was able to get behind Hodsdon and shoot him in the head
15.
Google Scholar
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Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines. This estimate also determined how many documents were available on the web. Google Scholar is similar in function to the freely available CiteSeerX and it also resembles the subscription-based tools, Elseviers Scopus and Thomson Reuters Web of Science. Google Scholar arose out of a discussion between Alex Verstak and Anurag Acharya, both of whom were working on building Googles main web index. Their goal was to make the worlds problem solvers 10% more efficient by allowing easier, Scholar has gained a range of features over time. In 2006, a citation importing feature was implemented supporting bibliography managers, in 2011, Google removed Scholar from the toolbars on its search pages, making it both less easily accessible and less discoverable for users not already aware of its existence. Around this period, sites with features such as CiteSeer, Scirus. All three of these are now defunct, a major enhancement was rolled out in 2012, with the possibility for individual scholars to create personal Scholar Citations profiles, public author profiles that are editable by authors themselves. Individuals, logging on through a Google account with a bona fide address usually linked to an institution, can now create their own page giving their fields of interest. Google Scholar automatically calculates and displays the individuals total citation count, h-index, according to Google, three quarters of Scholar search results pages show links to the authors public profiles as of August 2014. A feature introduced in November 2013 allows logged-in users to search results into the Google Scholar library. A metrics feature now supports viewing the impact of academic journals and this reveals the top journals in a field of interest, and the articles generating these journals impact can also be accessed. Google Scholar allows users to search for digital or physical copies of articles and it indexes full-text journal articles, technical reports, preprints, theses, books, and other documents, including selected Web pages that are deemed to be scholarly. Using its group of feature, it shows the links to journal articles. Through its cited by feature, Google Scholar provides access to abstracts of articles that have cited the article being viewed and it is this feature in particular that provides the citation indexing previously only found in CiteSeer, Scopus and Web of Science. As of July 2013, Google Scholar is not yet available to the Google AJAX API, Google Scholars legal database of US cases is extensive. Google Scholar embeds clickable citation links within the case and the How Cited tab allows lawyers to research prior case law, the Google Scholar Legal Content Star Paginator extension inserts Westlaw and LexisNexis style page numbers in line with the text of the case. Research has shown that Google Scholar puts high weight especially on citation counts, as a consequence, the first search results are often highly cited articles
16.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
