1.
SC-21 (United States)
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SC-21 was a research and development program started in 1994 intended to design land attack ships for the United States Navy. A wide variety of designs were created and extensively examined, including a ship with 500 cruise missiles. Eventually a tumblehome design of around 16,000 tons with two guns and 128 missile tubes was selected as the DD-21, the Destroyer for the 21st century. The program ended in November 2001, with a version of the DD-21 emerging as the DD or Zumwalt class destroyer and it was envisaged that the DD-21 hull would be used for a future air defense cruiser, which then eventually evolved into the CG program. The origins of SC-21 lie in the realization by Admiral Joseph Metcalf III that new technologies such as vertical launch missiles permitted a complete rethink of warship design and he established a steering group, Group Mike, to study the possibilities. Group Mike sponsored two studies in 1987, the Ship Operational Characteristics Study and the Surface Combatant Force Requirement Study, SOCS sought to identify the operational characteristics required of an escort ship, and SCFRS estimated how many such ships were required by the fleet. Since it was expected at that time that the Navy would be fighting prolonged campaigns in the Norwegian Sea, both studies reported in 1989, and almost immediately were rendered obsolete by the ending of the Cold War. The Navy suddenly faced the disappearance of its greatest threat, interest waned in big new designs like the SOCS ship, the Destroyer Variant program of December 1991 was intended as a stopgap, the final development of the Burke class destroyer. In 1992 the CNO ordered a 21st-century Destroyer Technology Study, meanwhile, strategy papers such as FORWARD. FROM THE SEA were redefining the Navys priorities towards littoral warfare and the support of amphibious assaults inland. It seemed, then, that land attack would be the most important mission for the new ships, since the retirement of the Iowa-class battleships, there had been a Congress-mandated requirement relating to the Navys capability for Naval Fire Support. The U. S. Marine Corps and the U. S. Navy maintained that destroyers would be adequate in this role, while smaller caliber guns have been used for centuries in naval fire support, very large guns have special capabilities beyond that of mid-range calibres. US battleships were re-activated three times after WWII specifically for NFS, and their 16 inch gunfire was used in every major engagement of the U. S. from WWII to the Gulf War. Iowa and Wisconsin were finally struck from the Naval Vessel Register in 2006, the SC-21 Mission Need Statement was approved by the Joint Requirements Oversight Council between September–October 1994. The Defense Acquisition Board approved the project on 13 January 1995, the SC-21 COEA had an unusually wide remit, and studied a variety of designs from 2,500 tons to 40,000 tons. Option 3B1 was closest to what became the Zumwalt class, with a pair of 64-cell VLS fore and aft, a bigger hull would be required to enclose everything in a stealthy shape, and to accommodate the much bigger AGS gun system. In a separate study in 1993, two French students had been assigned the design of a Large Capacity Missile Ship, a 20, 000-tonner with 500 VLS cells filled with land-attack missiles. This design was inspired by a RAND paper in that year and this would take several days with aircraft, but a surface ship with large numbers of land-attack missiles could achieve the same effect almost instantly. This design was included in the SC-21 assessment as an afterthought - it was not included in the original list of concepts
2.
Vertical launching system
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A vertical launching system is an advanced system for holding and firing missiles on mobile naval platforms, such as surface ships and submarines. Each vertical launch system consists of a number of cells, which can hold one or more ready for firing. Typically, each cell can hold a number of different types of missiles, when the command is given, the missile flies straight up long enough to clear the cell and the ship, and then turns on course. In addition to greater firepower, VLS is much more tolerant and reliable than the previous systems. The U. S. Navy now relies exclusively on VLS for its guided missile destroyers and cruisers, the most widespread vertical launch system in the world is the Mark 41, developed by the United States Navy. More than 11,000 Mark 41 VLS missile cells have been delivered, or are on order, for use on 186 ships across 19 ship classes, the advanced Mark 57 vertical launch system is used on the new Zumwalt-class destroyer. The older Mark 13 and Mark 26 systems remain in service on ships that were sold to countries such as Taiwan. When installed on an SSN, a VLS allows a greater number, cold means relatively cold compared with rocket engine exhaust. A hot launch system does not require a mechanism, but does require some way of disposing of the missiles exhaust. If the missile ignites in a cell without an ejection mechanism and this potentially makes a hot-launch system relatively light, small, and economical to develop and produce, particularly when designed around smaller missiles. A potential disadvantage is that a missile could destroy the launch tube. The advantage of the system is in its safety, should a missile engine malfunction during launch. For this reason, Russian VLSs are often designed with a slant so that a missile will land in the water instead of on the ships deck. As missile size grows, the benefits of ejection launching increase, above a certain size, a missile booster cannot be safely ignited within the confines of a ships hull. Most modern ICBMs and SLBMs are cold-launched, france, Italy and Britain use a similar hot-launching Sylver system in PAAMS. Russia produces both grid systems and a design with more than one missile per lid. Russia also uses a launch system for some of its vertical launch missile systems. BAe has filed patents relating to the use of Vertical Launch missiles from modified passenger aircraft,22 ballistic missile tubes were converted to allow for seven conventional VLS tubes in place of a SLBM tube
3.
Cruise missile
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A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrestrial targets that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a warhead over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling at supersonic or high speeds, are self-navigating. The idea of a torpedo was shown in the British 1909 film The Airship Destroyer. In 1916, Lawrence Sperry built and patented an aerial torpedo, a small biplane carrying a TNT charge, a Sperry autopilot, inspired by these experiments, the United States Army developed a similar flying bomb called the Kettering Bug. Germany had also flown trials with remote-controlled aerial gliders built by Siemens-Schuckert beginning in 1916, in the period between the World Wars the United Kingdom developed the Larynx, which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s. In the Soviet Union, Sergei Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932 to 1939, the 06/III and 06/IV contained gyroscopic guidance systems. The vehicle was designed to boost to 28 km altitude and glide a distance of 280 km, in 1944, Germany deployed the first operational cruise missiles in World War II. The V-1, often called a bomb, contained a gyroscope guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulsejet engine. Accuracy was sufficient only for use against very large targets, while the range of 250 km was significantly lower than that of a bomber carrying the same payload, the main advantages were speed and expendability. The production cost of a V-1 was only a fraction of that of a V-2 supersonic ballistic missile. Unlike the V-2, however, the deployments of the V-1 required stationary launch ramps which were susceptible to bombardment. Immediately after the war the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile projects, all were cancelled by 1948, except four — the Air Materiel Command BANSHEE, the SM-62 Snark, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador. The BANSHEE design was similar to Operation Aphrodite, like Aphrodite, it failed, during the Cold War period both the United States and the Soviet Union experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines and aircraft. The main outcome of the United States Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8 Regulus missile, the United States Air Forces first operational surface-to-surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of China and this alert was in response to the crisis posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile and it was designed to fly below the enemys radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry a number of hydrogen bombs that it would drop along its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was sound and the 500 megawatt engine finished a successful test run in 1961
4.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
5.
Aegis Combat System
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The Aegis Combat System is an integrated naval weapons system developed by the Missile and Surface Radar Division of RCA, and now produced by Lockheed Martin. It uses powerful computer and radar technology to track and guide weapons to enemy targets. Initially used by the United States Navy, Aegis is now used also by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, Spanish Navy, Royal Norwegian Navy, over 100 Aegis-equipped ships have been deployed in five navies worldwide. The Royal Australian Navy selected the Aegis system for placement on its new Air Warfare Destroyers, the word Aegis is a reference that dates back to Greek mythology, with connotations of a protective shield, as the Aegis was the buckler of Zeus, worn by Athena. The Aegis Combat System is a command and control and weapon control system that uses powerful computers and radars to track. Mk 41 VLS is available in different versions vary in size. The length comes in three sizes,209 in for the version,266 in for the tactical version. Shipboard torpedo and naval gunnery systems are also integrated, a further SM-2 based weapon, the RIM-174 Standard ERAM is currently in testing, and may be integrated into the system in the near future. Individual ships may not carry all variants, weapons load-outs are adjusted to suit assigned mission profile, the Aegis Combat System is controlled by an advanced, automatic detect-and-track, multi-function three-dimensional passive electronically scanned array radar, the AN/SPY-1. However the AN/SPY-1 Radar is mounted lower than the AN/SPS-49 radar system and this means that with proper scheduling of intercepts, a large number of targets can be engaged simultaneously. The computer-based command-and-decision element is the core of the Aegis Combat System and this interface makes the ACS capable of simultaneous operation against almost all kinds of threats. As of January,2014, the US and Japan were the countries to purchase or deploy the Aegis BMD. Aegis was initially developed by the Missile and Surface Radar Division of RCA, the division responsible for the Aegis systems became Government Electronic Systems. This, and other GE Aerospace businesses, were sold to Martin Marietta in 1992 and this became part of Lockheed Martin in 1995. By the late 1950s, the U. S. Navy replaced guns with guided missiles on its ships, the new threat of Soviet anti-ship missiles exposed a weakness in contemporary naval radar. The requirements of both tracking and targeting these missiles was limited by the number of radars on each ship, as a result, the US Navy decided to develop a program to defend ships from anti-ship missile threats. An Advanced Surface Missile System was promulgated and a development program was initiated in 1964 to meet the requirements. ASMS was renamed Aegis in December 1969 after the aegis, the shield of the Greek god Zeus
6.
Airborne early warning and control
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AEW&C units are also used to carry out surveillance, including over ground targets and frequently perform C2BM functions similar to an Air Traffic Controller given military command over other forces. Like a ground based radar, it can be detected by opposing forces, the system is used offensively to direct fighters to their target locations, and defensively, directing counterattacks on enemy forces, both air and ground. The designation airborne early warning was used for earlier similar aircraft, AWACS is the name of the specific system installed in the E-3 and Japanese Boeing E-767 AEW&C airframes, but is often used as a general synonym for AEW&C. Modern AEW&C systems can detect aircraft from up to 400 km away, one AEW&C aircraft flying at 9,000 m can cover an area of 312,000 km2. Three such aircraft in overlapping orbits can cover the whole of Central Europe, the intention was to cover the North West approaches where German long range Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft were threatening shipping. A Vickers Wellington bomber was fitted with an antenna array. It was tested for use against aerial targets and then for possible use against German E boats, another radar equipped Wellington with a different installation was used to direct Bristol Beaufighters toward Heinkel He 111s, which were air-launching V-1 flying bombs. In February 1944 the U. S. Navy ordered the development of a system that could be carried aloft in an aircraft under Project Cadillac. A prototype system was built and flown in August on a modified TBM Avenger torpedo bomber, tests proved successful, with the system being able to detect low flying formations at a range in excess of 100 miles. The U. S. Navy then ordered production of the TBM-3W, tBM-3Ws fitted with the AN/APS-20 radar entered service in March 1945, with some 36–40 eventually being constructed. The Lockheed WV and EC-121 Warning Star, which first flew in 1949 served widely with both the US Air Force and US Navy and provided the main AEW coverage for US forces during the Vietnam war. It was to remain operational until replaced with the E-3 AWACS, in 1958, the Soviet Tupolev Design Bureau was also ordered to design an AEW aircraft. After determining that the projected radar instrumentation wouldnt fit in a Tupolev Tu-95 or a Tupolev Tu-116 and this solved the problems with cooling and operator space that existed with the narrower Tu-95 and Tu-116 fuselage. To meet the range requirements, production examples were fitted with an air-to-air refueling probe. The resulting system, the Tupolev Tu-126, entered service in 1965 with the Soviet Air Forces, many countries have developed their own AEW&C systems, although the Boeing E-3 Sentry and Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye are the most common systems worldwide. The E-3 Sentry was built by the Boeing Defense and Space Group and was based on the Boeing 707-320 aircraft,65 E-3 were built and it is operated by the United States Air Force, NATO, the British Royal Air Force, France and controversially, Saudi Arabia. The specially designed Grumman E-2 Hawkeye entered service in 1965 and has operated by eight different nations. Over 168 have been produced so far and new versions continue to be developed making it the most widely used AEW system, for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force, the E-3 technology has been fitted into the Boeing E-767
7.
Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye
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The Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye is an American all-weather, carrier-capable tactical airborne early warning aircraft. The fourth major version of the Hawkeye is the E-2D, which first flew in 2007, the E-2 was the first aircraft designed specifically for its role, as opposed to a modification of an existing airframe, such as the Boeing E-3 Sentry. Variants of the Hawkeye have been in production since 1960. The E-2 also received the nickname Super Fudd because it replaced the E-1 Tracer Willy Fudd, in recent decades, the E-2 has been commonly referred to as the Hummer because of the distinctive sounds of its turboprop engines, quite unlike that of turbojet and turbofan jet engines. In addition to U. S. Navy service, smaller numbers of E-2s have been sold to the forces of Egypt, France, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Singapore. Continual improvements in airborne radars through 1956 led to the construction of AEW airplanes by several different countries, the functions of command and control and sea & air surveillance were also added. The first carrier-based aircraft to perform missions for the U. S. Its design, initially designated W2F-1, but later redesignated the E-2A Hawkeye, was the first carrier plane that had been designed from its wheels up as an AEW and command and control airplane. These ‘smaller’ carriers were built during World War II and later modified to allow them to operate jet aircraft, consequently, various height, weight and length restrictions had to be factored into the E-2A design, resulting in some handling characteristics which were less than ideal. The E-2A actually never operated from the modified Essex class carriers, the first prototype, acting as an aerodynamic testbed only, flew on 21 October 1960. The first fully equipped aircraft followed it on 19 April 1961, by 1965 the major development problems delaying the E-2A Hawkeye got so bad that the aircraft was actually cancelled after 59 aircraft had already been built. Particular difficulties were being experienced due to cooling in the closely packed avionics compartment. Early computer and complex avionics systems generated considerable heat, without proper ventilation this would lead to system failures and these failures continued long after the aircraft entered service and at one point reliability was so bad the entire fleet of aircraft was grounded. The airframe was also prone to corrosion, a problem in a carrier based aircraft. The unreliable rotary drum computer was replaced by a Litton L-304 digital computer, in total,49 of the 59 E-2As were upgraded to E-2B standard. These aircraft replaced the E-1B Tracers in the various US Navy AEW squadrons, although the upgraded E-2B was a vast improvement on the unreliable E-2A, it was an interim measure. The US Navy knew the design had much greater capability and had yet to achieve the performance, in April 1968 a reliability improvement program was instigated. In addition, now that the capabilities of the aircraft were starting to be realized, improvements in the new and upgraded aircraft were concentrated in the radar and computer performance
8.
Boeing E-3 Sentry
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The Boeing E-3 Sentry, commonly known as AWACS, is an American airborne early warning and control aircraft developed by Boeing as the prime contractor. The E-3 is distinguished by the rotating radar dome above the fuselage. Production ended in 1992 after 68 aircraft had been built, in the mid-1960s, the US Air Force was seeking an aircraft to replace its piston-engined Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star, which had been in service for over a decade. After issuing preliminary development contracts to three companies, the USAF picked Boeing to construct two airframes to test Westinghouse Electric and Hughess competing radars, both radars used pulse-Doppler technology, with Westinghouses design emerging as the contract winner. Testing on the first production E-3 began in October 1975, the first USAF E-3 was delivered in March 1977, and during the next seven years, a total of 34 aircraft were manufactured. NATO, as an identity, also had 18 aircraft manufactured. The E-3 was also sold to the United Kingdom and France, in 1991, when the last aircraft had been delivered, E-3s participated in Operation Desert Storm, playing a crucial role of directing coalition aircraft against the enemy. Throughout the aircrafts service life, numerous upgrades were performed to enhance its capabilities, in 1963, the USAF asked for proposals for an Airborne Warning and Control System to replace its EC-121 Warning Stars, which had served in the airborne early warning role for over a decade. The new aircraft would take advantage of improvements in technology and in computer aided radar data analysis. Contracts were issued to Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed, the latter being eliminated in July 1966, in 1967, a parallel program was put into place to develop the radar, with Westinghouse Electric and the Hughes Aircraft being asked to compete in producing the radar system. In 1968, it was referred to as Overland Radar Technology during development tests on the modified EC-121Q, the Westinghouse radar antenna was going to be used by whichever company won the radar competition, since Westinghouse had pioneered in the design of high-power RF phase-shifters. Boeing initially proposed an aircraft, but tests indicated it would not outperform the already-operational 707. To increase endurance, this design was to be powered by eight General Electric TF34s and it would carry its radar in a rotating dome mounted at the top of a forward-swept tail, above the fuselage. Boeing was selected ahead of McDonnell Douglass DC-8-based proposal in July 1970, initial orders were placed for two aircraft, designated EC-137D as test beds to evaluate the two competing radars. The first EC-137 made its flight on 9 February 1972. Favorable test results led to the selection of Westinghouses radar for the production aircraft, Hughess radar was initially thought to be a certain winner, simply because much of its design was also going into the new F-15 Eagles radar program. The Westinghouse radar used a pipelined fast fourier transform to digitally resolve 128 Doppler frequencies, Westinghouses engineering team won this competition by using a programmable 18-bit computer whose software could be modified before each mission. This computer was the AN/AYK-8 design from the B-57G program, and this radar also multiplexed a beyond-the-horizon pulse mode that could complement the pulse-Doppler radar mode
9.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
10.
DARPA
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The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing
11.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853
12.
Montana-class battleship
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The Montana-class battleships of the United States Navy were planned as successors to the Iowa class, being slower but larger, better armored, and having superior firepower. Intended armament would have been 12 16-inch Mark 7 guns in four 3-gun turrets, preliminary design work for the Montana class began before the US entry into World War II. The first two vessels were approved by Congress in 1939 following the passage of the Second Vinson Act, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor delayed construction of the Montana class. The success of carrier combat at the Battle of the Coral Sea and, to a greater extent, consequently, the US Navy chose to cancel the Montana class in favor of more urgently needed aircraft carriers, amphibious and anti-submarine vessels. Because the Iowas were fast enough to escort the new Essex-class aircraft carriers, their orders were retained, four additional battleships were approved for construction in 1940, with the last two intended to be the first ships of the Montana class. The Navy, mindful of the construction of Japans Yamato-class battleships, had been working on a 58. Preliminary planning for the Montana-class battleships took place in 1939, when the carrier was still considered strategically less important than the battleship. The Navy began designing a 65, 000-ton battleship to counter the threat posed by the Yamato-class battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, although the Navy knew little about the Yamato class, the new Japanese battleships were rumored to have a main gun battery of 18 inches. Initially, plans were drawn for a 45, 000-ton US battleship, but after evaluation, the Battleship Design Advisory Board increased the displacement of the planned ship to 58,000 tons. After debate at the board about whether the Montana class should be fast, achieving the high 33 kn speed of the Iowa class, or up-gunned and up-armored. The entire Montana class was suspended in May 1942, before any of their keels had been laid, five ships of the Montana class were authorized on 19 July 1940, but they were suspended indefinitely until being canceled on 21 July 1943. The ships were to be built at the New York Navy Yard, Philadelphia Navy Yard, Montana was planned to be the lead ship of the class. She was the ship to be named in honor of the 41st state. Both the earlier battleship, BB-51, and BB-67 were canceled, Ohio was to be the second Montana-class battleship. She was to be named in honor of the 17th state, Ohio would have been the fourth ship to bear that name had she been commissioned. Maine was to be the third Montana-class battleship and she was to be named in honor of the 23rd state, and was assigned to the New York Navy Yard. Maine would have been the ship to bear that name had she been commissioned. New Hampshire was to be the fourth Montana-class battleship, and was to be named in honor of the ninth state and she was assigned to the New York Navy Yard, and would have been the third ship to bear that name had she been commissioned
13.
Ohio-class submarine
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The Ohio class is a class of nuclear-powered submarines currently used by the United States Navy. The navy has 18 Ohio-class submarines,14 ballistic missile submarines, the Ohio class was named after the lead submarine of this class, USS Ohio. The 14 Trident II SSBNs together carry approximately fifty percent of the total US active inventory of strategic thermonuclear warheads. All the Ohio-class submarines, except for USS Henry M. Jackson, are named for U. S. states, the Ohio-class submarines are the largest submarines ever built for the U. S. Navy. The Ohio-class submarines were designed specifically for extended war-deterrence patrols, each of these submarines is provided with two complete crews, called the Blue crew and the Gold crew, with each crew serving typically on 70- to 90-day deterrent patrols. To decrease the time in port for crew turnover and replenishment, the classs design allows the warship to operate for about fifteen years between major overhauls. These submarines are reported to be as quiet at their speed of 20 knots or more than the previous Lafayette-class submarines at 6 knots. Fire control for their Mark 48 torpedoes is carried out by Mark 118 Mod 2 system, the Ohio-class submarines were constructed from sections of hull, with each four-deck section being 42 ft in diameter. The sections were produced at the General Dynamics Electric Boat facility, Quonset Point, Rhode Island, the US Navy has a total of 18 Ohio-class submarines which consist of 14 ballistic missile submarines, and four cruise missile submarines. The SSBN submarines are known as Trident submarines, and provide the sea-based leg of the U. S. nuclear triad. Each SSBN submarine is armed with up to 24 Trident II submarine-launched ballistic missiles, each SSGN is capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles, plus a complement of Harpoon missiles to be fired through their torpedo tubes. The first eight Ohio-class submarines were armed at first with 24 Trident I C4 SLBMs, beginning with the ninth Trident submarine, Tennessee, the remaining boats were equipped with the larger, three-stage Trident II D5 missile. Starting with Alaska in 2000, the Navy began converting its remaining ballistic missile submarines armed with C4 missiles to carry D5 missiles and this task was completed in mid-2008. The first eight submarines had their home ports at Bangor, Washington, the remaining ten submarines originally had their home ports at Kings Bay, Georgia, replacing the Poseidon and Trident Backfit submarines of the Atlantic Fleet. During the conversion of the first four submarines to SSGNs, five of the submarines, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Nebraska, Maine, further transfers occur as the strategic weapons goals of the United States change. In 2011, Ohio-class submarines carried out 28 deterrent patrols, each patrol lasts around 70 days. Four boats are on station in designated areas at any given time. From January to June 2014, Pennsylvania carried out a 140-day-long patrol, after the end of the Cold War, plans called for Ohio to be retired in 2002, followed by three of her sister boats
14.
Trident (missile)
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The Trident missile is a submarine-launched ballistic missile equipped with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles. Originally developed by Lockheed Missiles and Space Corporation, the missile is armed with thermonuclear warheads and is launched from nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, Trident missiles are carried by fourteen US Navy Ohio-class submarines, with US warheads, and four Royal Navy Vanguard-class submarines, with British warheads. The missile is named after the mythological trident of Neptune, in 1971, The US Navy began studies of an advanced Undersea Long-range Missile System. A Decision Coordinating Paper for the ULMS was approved on 14 September 1971, ULMS program outlined a long-term modernization plan, which proposed the development of a longer-range missile termed ULMS II, which was to achieve twice the range of the existing Poseidon missile. In addition to a missile, a larger submarine was proposed to replace the James Madison. The ULMS II missile system was designed to be retrofitted to the existing SSBNs, in May 1972, the term ULMS II was replaced with Trident. The Trident was to be a larger, higher-performance missile with a capacity greater than 6000 mi. Trident I was deployed in 1979 and retired in 2005 and its objective was to achieve performance similar to Poseidon but at extended range. Trident II had the objective of improved circular error probable, and was first deployed in 1990, Trident missiles are provided to the United Kingdom under the terms of the 1963 Polaris Sales Agreement which was modified in 1982 for Trident. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher wrote to President Carter on 10 July 1980, however, in 1982 Thatcher wrote to President Reagan to request the United Kingdom be allowed to procure the Trident II system, the procurement of which had been accelerated by the US Navy. This was agreed in March 1982, under the agreement, the United Kingdom paid an additional 5% of their total procurement cost of 2.5 billion dollars to the US government as a research and development contribution. In 2002, the United States Navy announced plans to extend the life of the submarines and this requires a D5 Life Extension Program, which is currently underway. The main aim is to replace obsolete components at minimal cost by using commercial off the shelf hardware, in 2007, Lockheed Martin was awarded a total of $848 million in contracts to perform this and related work, which also includes upgrading the missiles reentry systems. On the same day, Draper Labs was awarded $318 million for upgrade of the guidance system, then-British Prime Minister Tony Blair was quoted as saying the issue would be fully debated in Parliament prior to a decision being taken. Blair outlined plans in Parliament on 4 December 2006, to build a new generation of submarines to carry existing Trident missiles and it is called the Dreadnought-class submarine. The first flight test of a D-5 LE subsystem, the MK6 Mod 1 guidance system, in Demonstration and Shakedown Operation -23 and this was almost exactly 22 years after the first Trident II missile was launched from Tennessee in February 1990. The total cost of the Trident program thus far came to $39.546 billion in 2011, the launch from the submarine occurs below the sea surface. The missiles are ejected from their tubes by igniting an explosive charge in a container which is separated by seventeen titanium alloy pinnacles activated by a double alloy steam system
15.
Cruise missile submarine
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A cruise missile submarine is a submarine that launches cruise missiles as its primary armament. Originally early designs of cruise missile submarines had to surface to launch their missiles, many modern attack submarines can launch cruise missiles from their torpedo tubes while some designs also incorporate a small number of VLS canisters. Torpedoes are a more stealthy option, but missiles give a much longer stand-off range, the U. S. Navys first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines were five submarines equipped with the Regulus missile, USS Tunny, USS Barbero, USS Grayback, USS Growler and USS Halibut. Tunny and Barbero were modified World War II Gato-class submarines, while Grayback, Growler and these ships were redesignated with the removal of the Regulus missile from service in 1964. From 2002 to 2008, the U. S. Navy modified the four oldest Ohio-class submarines, USS Ohio, Michigan, Florida and this gave each converted submarine the capability to carry up to 154 Tomahawks. The large diameter tubes can also be modified to carry and launch other payloads, USS Florida launched cruise missiles against Libyan targets as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn in March 2011. The Russian/Soviet Navy has operated the following classes of cruise missile submarine, juliett class - out of service. Echo class - out of service, papa class - out of service. Charlie class - out of service, oscar-class submarine - these carry the SS-N-19 long range anti-ship missile. Severodvinsk class - several types of ASCM and LACM may be carried, along with the Julietts and Echo IIs, these continued as SSGs or SSGNs with an antiship variant of the P-5 until circa 1990. The Echo Is were an exception, they could not accommodate the antiship targeting radar, the Collins class submarines of the Royal Australian Navy, which can launch Sub-Harpoon anti-ship missiles, use the SSG designation. The Israeli Dolphin class submarine fleet is alleged to carry nuclear armed Popeye Turbo SLCMs with a range of at least 1,500 km. The Royal Navy deploys Tomahawk missiles for land-attack on all its present fleet submarines, formerly, some submarines also carried Sub-Harpoon anti-ship missiles. The French Navy deploys Exocet missiles on its Rubis-class submarines for anti-ship operations, ballistic missile submarine List of NATO reporting names for guided missile submarines Missile boat Transporter erector launcher Gardiner, Robert, Chumbley, Stephen. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1947-1995, US Stingray style sub motherships test missiles
16.
Tomahawk (missile)
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The Tomahawk is a long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile named after the Native American axe. Introduced by McDonnell Douglas in the 1970s, it was designed as a medium to long-range. It has been improved several times, and after corporate divestitures, some Tomahawks were also manufactured by General Dynamics. The Tomahawk missile family consists of a number of subsonic, jet engine-powered missiles designed to attack a variety of surface targets, although a number of launch platforms have been deployed or envisaged, only sea launched variants are currently in service. Tomahawk has a design, allowing a wide variety of warhead, guidance. The Tomahawk project was awarded to Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel. James H. Walker led a team of scientists to design, the original design with advanced technology is still used today. There have been variants of the BGM-109 Tomahawk employing various types of warheads. BGM-109A Tomahawk Land Attack Nuclear - Not deployed, bGM-109A Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – Nuclear with a W80 thermonuclear weapon. Retired from service sometime between 2010 and 2013, rGM/UGM-109B Tomahawk Anti Ship Missile – active radar homing anti-ship missile variant, withdrawn from service in the 1990s. BGM-109C Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – Conventional with a unitary warhead and this was initially a modified Bullpup warhead. BGM-109D Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – Dispenser with cluster munitions, rGM/UGM-109E Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – improved version of the TLAM-C. BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile – with a W84 nuclear warhead, aGM-109H/L Medium Range Air to Surface Missile – a shorter range, turbojet powered ASM with cluster munitions, never entered service, cost US$569,000. Many of the versions were converted into TLAMs at the end of the Cold War. The Block III TLAMs that entered service in 1993 can fly farther, Block IV TLAMs are completely redesigned with an improved turbofan engine. The F107-402 engine provided the new BLK III with a throttle control and this engine also provided better fuel economy. The Block IV TLAMs have enhanced capabilities and are equipped with a real-time targeting system for striking fleeting targets. A major improvement to the Tomahawk is network-centric warfare-capabilities, using data from sensors to find its target
17.
Huntington Ingalls Industries
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Huntington Ingalls Industries is an American Fortune 500 shipbuilding company formed on March 31,2011 as a spin-off of Northrop Grumman. Mike Petters is currently the president and CEO of Huntington Ingalls Industries, HII is the sole designer, builder, and refueler of nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in the United States. It is one of two nuclear-powered submarine builders,70 percent of the current, active US Navy fleet has been built by HIIs erstwhile units. The company takes its name from the founders of its two facilities, Collis Potter Huntington and Robert Ingalls.5 billion. HII is to build ten Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carriers for the US Navy and it is scheduled to deliver one carrier every five years starting in 2015. The US Navy awarded HII a $2.4 billion fixed-price incentive contract for the design and construction of the amphibious assault ship America. Work will be performed primarily at the shipyard in Pascagoula, Miss. In June,2016 Huntington Ingalls Industries has been awarded a million contract to build the U. S. Navy’s newest amphibious assault warship. The total contract value for the construction of the third America-class ship is over $3 billion and this contract included planning, advanced engineering and procurement of long-lead material for the new vessel. In April 2011, the US Navy awarded HII a $1.5 billion contract for the construction of John P. Murtha and this was the first Navy contract awarded to HII, though Ingalls Shipbuilding had already built three ships of the class. The US Navy is building Virginia-class submarines as replacements for the Los Angeles-class submarines which are currently being phased out, HII and Electric Boat alternate work on the reactor plant, final assembly, test, outfit and delivery
18.
San Antonio-class amphibious transport dock
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The San Antonio class is a class of amphibious transport docks, also called a landing platform/dock, used by the United States Navy. These warships replace the older Austin-class LPDs, as well as the Newport-class tank landing ships, twelve ships of the San Antonio class were proposed, but only eleven were funded. Their original target price was $890 million, as built, their average cost is $1.6 billion, Defense Authorization for Fiscal Year 2015 included partial funding for a twelfth San Antonio-class ship. As of November 2014 nine warships of this class are in service with the U. S. Navy with an additional three ships under construction or authorized, the San Antonio class was designed to provide the Navy and U. S. The ship is more than 45 percent larger than the Austin class and it carries fewer troops, but has twice as much space for vehicles, landing craft, and aircraft. The project embraced a Design for Ownership philosophy, a concurrent engineering approach that injects operator, maintainer, the goal was to ensure that operational realities are considered throughout the total ship design, integration, construction, test and life cycle support of the new ships and their systems. This process was intended to combat readiness, enhance quality of life, and reduce Total Ownership Costs. The San Antonio class has significant survivability features and computer technology, in addition to Rolling Airframe Missile protection from air threats, the class was designed to minimize radar signature. Radar cross-section reduction techniques make the more difficult to locate. Enhanced survivability features include improved nuclear blast and fragmentation protection and a shock-hardened structure, the fiber-optic shipboard-wide area network connects onboard-integrated systems. The network will allow plug in and fight configuration, updating and replacing hardware more easily when newer technology becomes available, moreover, the class has extensive communications, command, control, and intelligence systems to support current and projected expeditionary warfare missions of the 21st century. The class is fitted with the integrated Ship Self-Defense System, the system fuses the radars and other sensors and controls the weapons systems for an automated fast reaction capability against air threats. The Advanced Enclosed Mast/Sensors System mast, a 93-foot-high octagonal structure 35 feet in diameter, is constructed of a multi-layer frequency-selective composite material and it is designed to permit the ships own sensor frequencies with very low loss while reflecting other frequencies. The tapered octagonal shape of the AEM/S is designed to reduce the radar cross section, medical facilities include two operating rooms and 124 beds. Additionally, they are the first USN ships designed to accommodate sailors, by mid-2016, the Navy and Marine Corps were studying installing a vertical launch system into San Antonio-class ships so they could field larger offensive missiles. The original ship concept included two 8-cell Mk 41 VLS in the bow, which is being reexamined to add Tomahawk cruise missiles to support Marines ashore with little modification to the combat system, following the extended problems and incidents experienced by USS San Antonio, the U. S. The DOT&E found in 2011 that the first ship of the class, USS San Antonio, had several deficiencies which rendered it not operationally effective, suitable, in April 2015, the USN proposed adding a 12th ship to the class. Which will be built at Ingalls in exchange for a destroyer to be named later, on 4 December 2015, the 12th ship was ordered
19.
Kirov-class battlecruiser
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The Kirov-class battlecruiser is a class of nuclear-powered warship of the Russian Navy, the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships in operation in the world. Among modern warships, they are second in only to large aircraft carriers. The official designation of the ship-type is heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser, the ships are often referred to as battlecruisers by western defense commentators due to their size and general appearance. Originally built for the Soviet Navy, the class is named for the first of a series of four ships to be constructed, Kirov, original plans called for the construction of five ships, however the last was cancelled. In Russia this class of ship is referred to by the designation Project 1144 Orlan. Only Pyotr Velikiy is currently operational, Admiral Nakhimov is projected to re-enter the Russian Navy in 2018. The appearance of the Kirov class played a key role in the recommissioning of the Iowa-class battleships by the United States Navy in the 1980s, the Kirov hull design also was used for the nuclear-powered SSV-33 command ship Ural. The Kirov classs main weapons are 20 P-700 Granit missiles mounted in deck, air defense is provided by twelve octuple S-300F launchers with 96 missiles and a pair of Osa-MA batteries with 20 missiles each. Pyotr Velikiy carries some S-300FM missiles and is the ship in the Russian Navy capable of ballistic missile defence. The Tor installation is in fact mounted further forward of the old SS-N-14 mounting, Kirov and Frunze had eight 30 mm AK-630 close-in weapon systems, which were supplanted with the Kashtan air-defence system on later ships. Other weapons are the automatic 130 mm AK-130 gun system,10 21-inch torpedo/missile tubes and Udav-1 with 40 anti-submarine rockets and two sextuple RBU-1000 launchers. Russia is developing a new missile to equip Kirov-class ships called the 3M22 Zircon. If the missile passes developmental tests, it could service in 2020, being deployed first aboard the Admiral Nakhimov. When she appeared for the first time in 1981, NATO observers called her BALCOM I, Kirov suffered a reactor accident in 1990 while serving in the Mediterranean Sea. Repairs were never carried out, due to lack of funds, in 1983, a command and control ship, the SSV-33 Ural was launched, although the ship would not be officially commissioned until 1989. She utilized the basic design of the Kirov-class vessels, but with a modified superstructure, different armament. Ural was decommissioned and laid up in 2001, due to operating costs. Frunze, the vessel in the class, was commissioned in 1984
20.
Strike cruiser
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A strike cruiser was a proposal from DARPA for a class of cruisers in the late 1970s. A prototype strike cruiser was to be the refurbished USS Long Beach, at a cost of roughly $800 million, originally, eight to twelve strike cruisers were projected. The class would have been complemented by the Aegis-equipped fleet defense version of the Spruance-class destroyers, plagued with design difficulties and escalating cost the project was canceled in the closing days of the Ford administration. After the cancellation of the class, the Aegis destroyers were expanded into the Ticonderoga class Aegis cruiser program
21.
Popular Science
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Popular Science is an American bi-monthly magazine carrying popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. Popular Science has won over 58 awards, including the American Society of Magazine Editors awards for its excellence in both 2003 and 2004. With roots beginning in 1872, PopSci has been translated into over 30 languages and is distributed to at least 45 countries. The Popular Science Monthly, as the publication was called, was founded in May 1872 by Edward L. Youmans to disseminate scientific knowledge to the educated layman. Youmans had previously worked as an editor for the weekly Appletons Journal, early issues were mostly reprints of English periodicals. William Jay Youmans, Edwards brother, helped found Popular Science Monthly in 1872 and was an editor as well and he became editor-in-chief on Edwards death in 1887. The publisher, D. Appleton & Company, was forced for economic reasons to sell the journal in 1900, james McKeen Cattell became the editor in 1900 and the publisher in 1901. Cattell had a background in academics and continued publishing articles for educated readers, by 1915 the readership was declining and publishing a science journal was a financial challenge. The existing journal would continue the tradition as Scientific Monthly. Existing subscribers would remain subscribed under the new name, Scientific Monthly was published until 1958 when it was absorbed into Science. The Modern Publishing Company acquired the Popular Science Monthly name and this company had purchased Electrician and Mechanic magazine in 1914 and over the next two years merged several magazines together into a science magazine for a general audience. The October 1915 issue was titled Popular Science Monthly and Worlds Advance, the volume number was that of Popular Science but the content was that of Worlds Advance. The new editor was Waldemar Kaempffert, an editor of Scientific American. The change in Popular Science Monthly was dramatic, the old version was a scholarly journal that had eight to ten articles in a 100-page issue. There would be ten to twenty photographs or illustrations, the new version had hundreds of short, easy to read articles with hundreds of illustrations. Editor Kaempffert was writing for the craftsman and hobbyist who wanted to know something about the world of science. The circulation doubled in the first year, from the mid-1930s to the 1960s, the magazine featured fictional stories of Gus Wilsons Model Garage, centered on car problems. An annual review of changes to the new model year cars ran in 1940 and 41 and it continued until the mid-1970s when the magazine reverted to publishing the new models over multiple issues as information became available
22.
Naval ship
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A naval ship is a military ship used by a navy. Naval ships are differentiated from civilian ships by construction and purpose, generally, naval ships are damage resilient and armed with weapon systems, though armament on troop transports is light or non-existent. Naval ships designed primarily for naval warfare are termed warships, as opposed to support or shipyard operations, submarine – self-propelled submersible types regardless of whether they are employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability. Amphibious warfare – ships having organic capability for amphibious assault and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas, combat logistics – ships that have the capability to provide underway replenishment to fleet units. Mine warfare – ships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas, coastal defense – ships whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction. Sealift – ships that have the capability to provide material support to other deployed units operating far from home base. Support – ships, such as oilers, designed to operate in the ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore based establishments. Service type craft – navy-subordinated craft designed to provide support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments. In rough order of tonnage, modern naval ships are commonly divided into the following different classes. There is also much blurring / gray areas between the classes, depending on their use, history, and interpretation of the class by different navies. Official Website of the United States Navy, heres the Entire U. S. Navy Fleet in One Chart. Official Website of the United States Navy, *United States Naval Recognition Training Slides-Grand Valley State University Archives and Special Collections
23.
Warship
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A warship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to damage and are usually faster. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries weapons, ammunition. Warships usually belong to a navy, though they have also operated by individuals, cooperatives. In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred, in war, merchant ships are often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service, until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often used as troop carriers or supply ships. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding. Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century, by the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ships firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line, in the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts. During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of propulsion, naval armament. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, the Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, the first ironclad warships, the French Gloire and British Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the material for warship construction
24.
Modern history
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Modern history, the modern period or the modern era, is the global historiographical approach to the timeframe after the Post-classical history. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion. Contemporary history is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are relevant to the present time. Some events, while not without precedent, show a new way of perceiving the world, the concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. The fundamental difficulty of studying modern history is the fact that a plethora of it has been documented up to the present day and it is imperative to consider the reliability of the information obtained from these records. In the pre-modern era, many peoples sense of self and purpose was expressed via a faith in some form of deity. Pre-modern cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritual intermediaries to the common person. It was only through intermediaries that the general masses had access to the divine. Tradition was sacred to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the order of ceremony. The term modern was coined in the 16th century to present or recent times. New information about the world was discovered via empirical observation, versus the use of reason. The term Early Modern was introduced in the English language in the 1930s, to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment. It is important to note that these terms stem from European history, in the Contemporary era, there were various socio-technological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the modern world, the Information Age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China, in the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the world, was the late modern form of terrorism. The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of science, politics, warfare and it has also been an age of discovery and globalization. During this time, the European powers and later their colonies, began a political, economic, the modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism, capitalism, urbanization and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress
25.
Maritime geography
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Maritime geography is often discussed in terms of three loosely defined regions, brown water, green water, and blue water. The elements of maritime geography are loosely defined and their meanings have changed throughout history, the USAs 2010 Naval Operations Concept defines blue water as the open ocean, green water as coastal waters, ports and harbors, and brown water as navigable rivers and their estuaries. Robert Rubel of the US Naval War College includes bays in his definition of brown water, during the Cold War, green water denoted those areas of ocean in which naval forces might encounter land-based aircraft and brown water, land-based artillery. The development of long-range bombers with antiship missiles turned most of the oceans to green, after the Cold War, US amphibious taskforces were sometimes referred to as the green-water navy, in contrast to the blue-water carrier battlegroups. This distinction disappeared as increasing threats in coastal waters forced the ships further offshore, delivering assaults by helicopter. This prompted the development of ships designed to operate in such waters - the Zumwalt class destroyer, under his scheme brown water would be zones in which ocean-going units could not operate at all, including rivers, minefields, straits and other choke points. The brown water environment starts from the shoreline through to the end of the continental shelf, a brown-water navy focuses on coastal operations and primarily takes a defensive role. The green water environment extends from the edge of the brown-water layer past any continental shelves, archipelagos and islands. A green-water navy is capable of defense of its nation in depth and is a significant offensive force within its territory, the blue water environment extends from the outer edge of the green-water zone through to the deep ocean of the world. A blue-water navy can project its nations power throughout the world
26.
Blue-water navy
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A blue-water navy is a maritime force capable of operating globally, essentially across the deep waters of open oceans. A term more used in the United Kingdom to describe such a force is a navy possessing maritime expeditionary capabilities. While definitions of what constitutes such a force vary, there is a requirement for the ability to exercise sea control at wide ranges. The term blue-water navy is a maritime geographical-term in contrast with brown-water navy, the Defense Security Service of the United States has defined the blue-water navy as, a maritime force capable of sustained operation across the deep waters of open oceans. A blue-water navy allows a country to project power far from the home country, smaller blue-water navies are able to dispatch fewer vessels abroad for shorter periods of time. In public discourse, blue-water capability is identified with the operation of capital ships such as battleships. In the end Australia did not buy a new carrier, a blue-water navy implies force protection from sub-surface, surface and airborne threats and a sustainable logistic reach, allowing a persistent presence at range. A hallmark of a true blue-water navy is the ability to conduct replenishment at sea, while a blue-water navy can project sea control power into another nations littoral, it remains susceptible to threats from less capable forces. An example of vulnerability was the October 2000 USS Cole bombing in Aden. The term blue-water navy should not be confused with the capability of an individual ship, for example, vessels of a green-water navy can often operate in blue water for short periods of time. A number of nations have extensive maritime assets but lack the capability to maintain the required sustainable logistic reach, some of them join coalition task groups in blue-water deployments such as anti-piracy patrols off Somalia. According to a definition, blue-water capability refers to an oceangoing fleet able to operate on the high seas far from its nations homeports. In their 2012 publication, Sea Power and the Asia-Pacific, professors Geoffrey Till, bratton outlined what they termed as concise criteria with regard to the definitions of brown, green and blue-water navies. They go on to say that even such a definition and understanding of naval hierarchy. For example, while France and the United States may be considered blue-water navies, he states that the operational capability, another definition states that brown-water refers to the littoral areas within 100 nautical miles of the coastline. Green-water begins from 100 nautical miles out to the major land formation. While blue-water is the ability to force out to aleast 1,500 nautical miles beyond the coast. Traditionally a distinction used to be made between a coastal brown-water navy operating in the zone to 200 nautical miles and an oceangoing blue-water navy
27.
Brown-water navy
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These mother ships include converted World War II-era LCMs and LSTs, among other vessels. Brown-water navies are contrasted with seaworthy blue-water navies, which can conduct operations in open ocean. After losing its blue-water fleet in the Battle of Copenhagen, the kingdom of Denmark-Norway quickly built a brown-water navy, the partial successes of the resulting Gunboat War were undone by land invasion. The term brown-water navy originated in the American Civil War, of 1861–1865, in the early days of the war, U. S. Army built and crewed these boats, with the naval officers commanding them being the only direct connection to the U. S. Navy. By the autumn of 1862, the boats and their mission were transferred to the Department of the Navy. Because of the rivers murky brown water, the ships participated in these Mississippi campaigns were quickly referred to as the brown-water navy. After the end of the American civil war the next major conflict in the world was the Paraguayan War. In this the Brazilian brown-water navy, which comprised large ironclads as well as monitors, had a crucial role. The natural highway to the Republic of Paraguay was the River Paraguay and it comprised a 6,000 feet line of artillery batteries overlooking a sharp concave bend in the river, at a point where the channel was only 200 yards wide. A chain boom could be raised to block the navigation, the fortress was exceedingly hard to take from the landward side for it was protected by impassible swamp, marsh or lagoons and, where not, by 8 miles of trenches with a garrison of 18,000 men. The river was shallow, uncharted and capable of trapping large vessels if the water level should fall, in that environment the greatest threat to shipping was torpedoes. Six vessels of the Brazilian ironclad squadron eventually succeeded in dashing past Humaitá in an incident known as the Passage of Humaitá, even after Humaitá was captured − which took more than two years – the Paraguayans improvised further strongpoints along the river, further delaying the Allies. Save for a river patrol boat, the United States river ironclad navy was all. Yet the concept of a defense force lived on in countries and regions where rivers enabled the U. S. to project its military presence. The U. S. Navy of that era used the term for protecting U. S. foreign policy, the U. S. Navy, China gunboat, USS Asheville, was sunk, by the Japanese, in March 1942. They have succeeded the river created in 1945, by the request of General Leclerc. The Dinassaut served until the end of the conflict in 1955, ten Dinassauts were created, with five based in Cochinchina and the others in Tonkin. Each one was made of ten vessels and one Commandos Marine unit
28.
Green-water navy
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It is a relatively new term, and has been created to better distinguish, and add nuance, between two long-standing descriptors, blue-water navy and brown-water navy. It is a naval term used in different ways. It originates with the United States Navy, who use it to refer to the portion of their fleet that specializes in operations in coastal waters. Nowadays such ships rely on stealth or speed to avoid destruction by shore batteries or land-based aircraft, the US Navy has also used the term to refer to the first phase of the expansion of Chinas navy into a full blue-water navy. Subsequently, other authors have applied it to other navies that can project power locally. Such navies typically have amphibious ships and sometimes small aircraft carriers, the elements of maritime geography are loosely defined and their meanings have changed throughout history. The USs 2010 Naval Operations Concept defines blue water as the ocean, green water as coastal waters, ports and harbors. Robert Rubel of the US Naval War College includes bays in his definition of brown water, during the Cold War, green water denoted those areas of ocean in which naval forces might encounter land-based aircraft. The development of long-range bombers with anti-ship missiles turned most of the oceans to green, after the Cold War, US amphibious task forces were sometimes referred to as the green-water navy, in contrast to the blue-water carrier battle groups. This distinction disappeared as increasing threats in coastal waters forced the ships further offshore, delivering assaults by helicopter. Under his scheme, brown water would be zones in which ocean-going units could not operate at all, including rivers, minefields, straits and other choke points. This is not true for most other navies, whose supply chains, a number of countries are working on overcoming these constraints. Other authors have started to apply the term green-water navy to any navy that has ocean-going ships. Its often not clear what they mean, as the term is used without consistency or precision, for example, the German Navy has near the same capability as the Canadian Navy but is not recognized as a true green-water navy. Another example is the Portuguese Navy that, despite being classified as a minor navy, has several times conducted sustained operations in faraway regions typical of the green-water navies. The collapse of the USSR also brought with it the collapse of the second largest naval force in the world, moreover, budget cuts forced large cuts in the submarine force, such as the retirements of the Typhoon-class submarine. As the Soviet Navy was built largely around submarine warfare the losses in the submarine capability have adversely affected the capability of the newly formed Russian Navy as well, the Royal Australian Navy is well established as a green-water navy. The navy sustains a range of maritime operations, from the Middle East to the Pacific Ocean
29.
Broadside
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A broadside is the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their coordinated fire in naval warfare. From the 16th century until the decades of the steamship. Firing all guns on one side of the ship known as a broadside. The cannons of 18th century men of war were accurate only at short range and these wooden ships sailed closer and closer towards each other until cannon fire would be effective. Each tried to be the first to fire a broadside, often giving one party a decisive headstart in the battle when it crippled the other ship. Since ancient times, war at sea had been much like on land, with melee weapons and bows and arrows. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were small wrought-iron pieces mounted on the decks and in the fighting tops. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock, as guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just its crew. Since these guns were heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with clinker planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull, the solution was the gradual adoption of carvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship. The development of propulsion during the 15th century from single-masted, square-rigged cogs to three-masted carracks with a mix of square, gunports cut in the hull of ships had been introduced as early as 1501. Initially, the gunports were used to mount heavy so-called stern chasers pointing aft and this made possible coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship for the first time in history, at least in theory. Guns in the 16th century were considered to be in fixed positions and were intended to be fired independently rather than in concerted volleys. It was not until the 1590s that the word broadside in English was commonly used to refer to gunfire from the side of a rather than the ships side itself. This is calculated by multiplying the weight of the ships main armament shells times the number of barrels that can be brought to bear. If some turrets are incapable of firing to either side of the vessel, for example, the American Iowa-class battleships carried a main armament of nine 16-inch main guns in turrets which could all be trained to a single broadside. Each 16-inch shell weighed 2,700 pounds, which multiplied by nine equals a total of 24,300 pounds
30.
Central battery ship
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One of the participants was the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia, essentially a central battery ship herself, albeit a low-freeboard one. The central battery ships had their main guns concentrated in the middle of the ship in an armoured citadel, the concentration of armament amidships meant the ship could be shorter and handier than a broadside type like previous warships. In this manner the design could maximize the thickness of armour in an area while still carrying a significant broadside. These ships meant the end of the frigates with their full-length gun decks. In the UK, the man behind the design was the newly appointed Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy, Edward James Reed. The previous Royal Navy ironclad designs, represented by HMS Warrior, had proven to be seaworthy, fast under power and sail, the first central battery ship was HMS Bellerophon of 1865. Great Britain built a total of 18 central battery ships before turrets became common on ships in the 1880s. The second British central battery ship, HMS Hercules, served as model for the Austrian navy, starting with their first design SMS Lissa designed by Josef von Romako and launched in 1871. The Austrian SMS Kaiser—not to be confused with German Kaiser—was built along a similar design, although the hull had been converted from a wooden ship, three older broadside ironclads of the Kaiser Max class were also officially converted to casemate design, although they were mostly built from scratch. The largest design yet was Tegetthoff, later renamed to Mars when the new dreadnought battleship Tegetthoff was commissioned, the Austrian records distinguish between the category of older broadside ironclads and the newer designs using the words Panzerfregatten and respectively Casemattschiffe. The German navy had two large ships of the Kaiser class built in UK shipyards. The first ironclad of the Greek navy, Vasilefs Georgios, was built in the UK, at 1700 tons. The Italians had three ships built, Venezia, converted from broadside during construction, and the two Principe Amedeo-class ironclads. The disadvantage of the centre-battery was that, while more flexible than the broadside, each gun still had a restricted field of fire. The centre-battery ships were succeeded by turreted warships. Box battery Brown, David K. RCNC, Warrior to Dreadnought, Warship Design 1860–1905, London, Chatham,1997 ISBN 1-84067-529-2 Sondhaus, Lawrence. The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918, Navalism, Industrial Development, gardiner, Robert, ed. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1860–1905
31.
Casemate
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A casemate, sometimes erroneously rendered casement, is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired. Originally, the referred to a vaulted chamber in a fortress. In armoured fighting vehicles that do not have a turret for the main gun, the word comes from the Italian casamatta, the etymology of which is uncertain. Others think that it comes from the Arabic word kasaba, transliterated to kasbah, menagio speculated that it came from the Greek word for pit, khasma, the plural of which is khasmata. Hensleigh Wedgwood thought that it came from the Spanish casa and matar, others take matto in its archaic Italian meaning of dark, equivalent to the English matt, as in opaque, making a casamatta a dark house. Casematte were also used as prisons, making use of their lack of light to add to the punishment. This explanation seems to be the most agreed upon, a casemate was originally a vaulted chamber usually constructed underneath the rampart. It was intended to be impenetrable and could be used for sheltering troops or stores, with the addition of an embrasure through the scarp face of the rampart, it could be used as a protected gun position. In the early 19th century, French military engineer Baron Haxo designed a free-standing casemate that could be built on the top of the rampart, casemates built in concrete were used in the Second World War to protect coastal artillery from air attack. In warship design the term casemate has been used in a number of ways, the most famous naval battle of the war was the duel at Hampton Roads between the Union turretted ironclad USS Monitor and the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia. Casemate ship was a term for central battery ship or center battery ship. The casemate was a box that extended the full width of the ship protecting many guns. The armoured sides of the box were the sides of hull of the ship, there was an armoured bulkhead at the front and rear of the casemate, and a thick deck protecting the top. The lower edge of the casemate sat on top of ships belt armour, some ships, such as the Alexandra, had a two-storey casemate. A casemate was a room in the side of a warship. A typical casemate held a 6-in gun, and had a 6 front plate, with armour plates on the sides and rear, with a protected top and floor. Casemates were similar in size to turrets, ships carrying them had them in pairs, the first battleships to carry them were the British Royal Sovereign class laid down in 1889. They were adopted as a result of live-firing trials against HMS Resistance in 1888, the use of casemates enabled the 6-in guns to be dispersed, so that a single hit would not knock out all of them
32.
Gun turret
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A gun turret is a location from which weapons can be fired that affords protection, visibility, and some cone of fire. Rotating gun turrets have the protection, the weapon, and its crew rotate, when this meaning of the word turret started being used at the beginning of the 1860s, turrets were normally cylindrical. Barbettes were an alternative to turrets, with a barbette the protection was fixed, in the 1890s, armoured hoods were added to barbettes, these rotated with the platform. By the early 20th Century, these hoods were known as turrets, modern warships have gun-mountings described as turrets, though the protection on them is limited to protection from the weather. They may be manned or remotely controlled and are most often protected to some degree, the protection provided by the turret may be against battle damage, the weather conditions, general environment in which the weapon or its crew will be operating. A small turret, or sub-turret set on top of a one, is called a cupola. The term cupola is used for a rotating turret that carries a sighting device rather than weaponry. Before the development of large-calibre, long-range guns in the mid-19th century, firepower was provided by a large number of guns, each of which could traverse only in a limited arc. Additionally casemate mounts had to be recessed into the side of a vessel to afford a wide arc of fire, designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century. The Lady Nancy proved a success and Coles patenting his rotating turret design after the war. Coless aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, the Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns, the design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles enlisted the support of Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, the HMS Prince Albert which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence. While Coles designed the turrets the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts, another ship using Coles turret designs, HMS Royal Sovereign, was completed in August 1864. Its existing broadside guns were replaced with four turrets on a flat deck, early ships like the Royal Sovereign had little sea-keeping qualities being limited to coastal waters. Sir Edward James Reed, went on to design and build HMS Monarch, laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869, it carried two turrets, although the inclusion of a forecastle and poop prevented the turret guns firing fore and aft. The gun turret was independently invented by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson in America, Ericsson designed the USS Monitor in 1861, its most prominent feature being a large cylindrical gun turret mounted amidships above the low-freeboard upper hull, also called the raft. This extended well past the sides of the lower, more traditionally shaped hull, a small armoured pilot house was fitted on the upper deck towards the bow, however, its position prevented Monitor from firing her guns straight forward
33.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
34.
Aircraft cruiser
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The aircraft cruiser is a warship that combines the features of the aircraft carrier and a surface warship such as a cruiser or battleship. The first aircraft cruiser was originally a 1930s experimental concept of creating an all-around warship, the early aircraft cruisers were usually armed with relatively heavy artillery, mines and a number of aircraft fitted with floats. The early aircraft cruiser turned out to be an unsuccessful design, the rapid development of naval aircraft in the 1930s quickly rendered the vessels obsolete, and they were rebuilt e. g. as anti-aircraft cruisers. One United States design for a flight deck cruiser from 1930, was described as a Brooklyn-class light cruiser forwards one half of a Wasp-class aircraft carrier aft, although not built, similar ships were created during and after World War II as reconstructions and later from the keel up. The cruiser Mogami also had its gun turrets replaced by aircraft handling facilities. The German Kriegsmarine also studied several Flugdeckkreuzer designs in 1942 which included 20.3 cm or 28 cm gun turrets forward of the flight deck. A more modern derivative of the cruiser is the helicopter cruiser which could typically operate at least 4 or more helicopters including medium. Litton-Ingalls completed sketch design work for DDH-997, which moved the helicopter deck aft, stretching the length of the hangar, the design would have accommodated two SH-3 Sea Kings or four smaller SH-60 Seahawk or SH-2 Seasprite helicopters. This raised the cost of the DDH substantially above a standard Spruance-class destroyer, while this additional cost might have been justified if the DDH was going to enter series production, it was difficult to justify for a single ship. Accordingly, the Navy built Hayler to the design as the rest of the Spruance-class. In the Russian Navy, aviation cruiser is a designation for the Kiev and they are a cross between a cruiser and an aircraft carrier. Aviation cruisers ships have close-in weapon systems, both gun and missile, for self-defense against missiles or rockets, the Kiev class of aviation cruisers is capable of carrying VTOL aircraft and helicopters. The ships have only a single angled flight deck for aviation, the forward deck is used to carry cruiser weapons, including P-500 Bazalt cruise missiles that are the main armament of the Slava-class cruiser. The Kuznetsov class is classified as heavy cruisers, reflecting their greater weight as well as the larger number of aircraft they can operate. In addition to helicopters, they are capable of operating conventional fixed-wing aircraft like the Sukhoi Su-33. The ships have a flight deck as well as an axial flight deck for takeoff. Since there is no catapult, a bow ski jump is used to assist takeoff, Kuznetsov also carries the P-700 Granit cruise missiles that form the main armament of the Kirov-class battlecruiser. All Soviet aircraft carriers were built at the Nikolayev Shipyard in the Ukrainian SSR and their classification as aircraft cruisers is very important for the purposes of international law, as it allows them to transit the Turkish Straits on their way into the Mediterranean Sea
35.
Amphibious assault ship
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An amphibious assault ship is a type of amphibious warfare ship employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an amphibious assault. The design evolved from aircraft carriers converted for use as helicopter carriers, coming full circle, some amphibious assault ships now have a secondary role as aircraft carriers, supporting V/STOL fixed-wing aircraft. Most of these ships can carry or support landing craft. The largest fleet of these types is operated by the United States Navy, including the Tarawa class dating back to the 1970s and this does not include the amphibious transport dock, and dock landing ship. In the Pacific theater of World War II, escort carriers would often escort the landing ships, in this role, they would provide air cover for the troopships as well as fly the first wave of attacks on the beach fortifications in amphibious landing operations. In addition, they would also transport aircraft and spare parts from the US to the remote island airstrips, despite all the progress that was seen during World War II, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation, the first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the invasion of Egypt during the Suez War in 1956. In this engagement, two British light fleet carriers, Ocean and Theseus, were converted to perform an airborne assault with helicopters. The techniques were developed further by American forces during the Vietnam War, the modern amphibious assault can take place at virtually any point of the coast, making defending against them extremely difficult. Most early amphibious assault ships were converted from small aircraft carriers and their sister ship HMS Hermes was also converted to a commando carrier in the early 1970s, but was restored to aircraft carrier operations before the end of the 1970s. Later amphibious assault craft were constructed for the role, the United States Navy is also designing a new class of assault ships, the first America-class ship entered service in October 2014. The first British ship to be constructed specifically for the assault role was HMS Ocean. Most modern amphibious assault ships have a deck, allowing them to launch landing craft in rougher seas than a ship that has to use cranes or a stern ramp. Due to their aircraft carrier heritage, all amphibious assault ships resemble aircraft carriers in design, landing craft are also carried, either on deck-mounted davits, or in an internal well deck
36.
Anti-submarine warfare carrier
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An anti-submarine warfare carrier is a type of small aircraft carrier whose primary role is to hunt and destroy submarines. This type of came into existence during the Cold War as a development of the escort carriers used in the ASW role in the North Atlantic during World War II. After World War II, the naval threat to most Western nations was confrontation with the Soviet Union. This trend in ASW force draw-down only accelerated with the reduction in the operational Soviet/Russian submarine fleet. Ships that could be called dedicated ASW carriers are now found within the Japan MSDF. Aircraft carriers and helicopter carriers that had primary ASW duties from the mid-1960s onward, Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Hyūga class. ASW, utility, and sea mine clearing helicopters Izumo class, ASW, utility, and sea mine clearing helicopters Spanish Navy Dédalo - one ship ASW helicopter carrier 1967-1976, STOVL carrier 1976-1989. HMS Hermes, Centaur-class aircraft carrier converted to helicopter ASW in 1976, Invincible class - three ships Strike/ASW/Amphibious Assault STOVL and helicopters. After the Falklands War they were used as conventional, albeit light, HMS Invincible and HMS Ark Royal retired/scrapped, HMS Illustrious converted to amphibious assault ship. Escort carrier Helicopter carrier Light aircraft carrier
37.
Balloon carrier
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A balloon carrier or balloon tender was a ship equipped with a balloon, usually tied to the ship by a rope or cable, and usually used for observation. During the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, later, during the American Civil War, about the time of the Peninsula Campaign, gas-filled balloons were being used to perform reconnaissance on Confederate positions. The battles turned inland into the forested areas of the Virginia Peninsula where balloons could not travel. A coal barge, the George Washington Parke Custis, was cleared of all deck rigging to accommodate the gas generators, from this ship, professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, Chief Aeronaut of the Union Army Balloon Corps, made his first ascents over the Potomac River, other barges were converted to assist with the other military balloons transported about the eastern waterways. None of these Civil War craft ever sailed on the high seas. Balloons launched from ships led to the development of balloon carriers, or balloon tenders, during World War I, by the navies of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia. About 10 such balloon tenders were built with their objective being aerial observation posts. These ships were decommissioned or converted to seaplane tenders after the War
38.
CAM ship
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CAM ships were World War II-era British merchant ships used in convoys as an emergency stop-gap until sufficient escort carriers became available. CAM ship is an acronym for catapult aircraft merchant ship, a CAM ship was equipped with a rocket-propelled catapult launching a single Hawker Hurricane, dubbed a Hurricat or Catafighter. CAM ships continued to carry their normal cargoes after conversion, the German Luftwaffe had Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft with a range of nearly 2,000 nautical miles. After the Fall of France, these aircraft could operate from western France against British merchant ships in the Atlantic, flying from Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport, Fw 200s of I/KG40 could reach the convoy lanes west of Britain while staying outside the range of British land-based fighters. The Royal Navy had no aircraft available to provide close air cover for the convoys. The Fw 200s could shadow convoys, directing U-boat attacks on them, or drop bombs on convoy ships, without opposition and to deadly effect. To counter this threat, the Admiralty developed the fighter catapult ship – a converted freighter, manned by a naval crew, when an enemy bomber was sighted, the fighter would be launched into the air with rockets, and fly up to destroy or drive away the bomber. Being large and slow, the Fw 200 became a rather vulnerable target, after the combat, the fighter pilot would bail out or ditch in the ocean near the convoy, and be picked up if all went well. The Admiralty had already experimented with this system and they ordered 50 rocket-propelled aircraft catapults to be fitted to merchant ships. The planes were Hurricane Mark Is, converted to Sea Hurricane IAs, the pilots for these aircraft were drawn from the Royal Air Force. The RAF formed the Merchant Ship Fighter Unit on 5 May 1941 in RAF Speke by the River Mersey in Liverpool, moulton-Barrett commanded the unit providing training for volunteer pilots, Fighter Direction Officers, and airmen. After training, MSFU crews were posted to Liverpool, Glasgow, each team consisted of one pilot for Atlantic runs, with one fitter, one rigger, one radio-telephone operator, one FDO, and a seaman torpedoman who worked on the catapult as an electrician. MSFU crews signed ships articles as civilian crew members under the authority of the ships master. The ships chief engineer responsible for the catapult, and the first mate acted as Catapult Duty Officer. The single Hurricane fighter was launched only when enemy aircraft were sighted and agreement was reached via hand, the first four or five ships were taken into Royal Navy service as Auxiliary Fighter Catapult Ships, and later conversions were officially named CAMs manned by merchant crews. The first CAM ship, Michael E, was sponsored by the Royal Navy while the RAF MSFUs were working up, after a trial launch off Belfast, Michael E sailed with convoy OB327 on 28 May 1941. She was sunk by U-108 on 2 June, the first RAF trial CAM launch was from Empire Rainbow, at Greenock on the River Clyde on 31 May 1941, the Hurricane landed at Abbotsinch. Six CAM ships joined convoys in June 1941, when a CAM ship arrived at its destination, the pilot usually launched and landed at a nearby airfield to get in as much flight time as possible before his return trip
39.
Escort carrier
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They were typically half the length and a third the displacement of larger fleet carriers. While they were slower, carried fewer planes and were well armed and armored, escort carriers were cheaper and could be built quickly. Escort carriers could be completed in greater numbers as a stop-gap when fleet carriers were scarce, however, the lack of protection made escort carriers particularly vulnerable and several were sunk with great loss of life. The light carrier was a concept to escort carriers in most respects. Most often built on a ship hull, escort carriers were too slow to keep up with the main forces consisting of fleet carriers, battleships. Instead, they were used to escort convoys, defending them from threats such as submarines and planes. In the invasions of mainland Europe and Pacific islands, escort carriers provided air support to forces during amphibious operations. Escort carriers also served as aircraft transports for fleet carriers. In the Battle of the Atlantic, escort carriers were used to protect convoys against U-boats, initially escort carriers accompanied the merchant ships and helped to fend off attacks from aircraft and submarines. As numbers increased later in the war, escort carriers formed part of hunter-killer groups that sought out submarines instead of being attached to a particular convoy. In the Pacific theater, CVEs provided air support of troops in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. They lacked the speed and weapons to enemy fleets, relying on the protection of a Fast Carrier Task Force. However, at the Battle off Samar, one U. S. task force of escort carriers managed to defend itself against a much larger Japanese force of battleships. The Japanese met a furious defense of carrier aircraft, screening destroyers, of the 151 aircraft carriers built in the U. S. during World War II,122 were escort carriers. Though no examples survive to this day, the Casablanca class was the most numerous class of aircraft carrier, second was the Bogue class, with 45 launched. In the early 1920s, the Washington Naval Treaty imposed limits on the maximum size, later treaties largely kept these provisions. As a result, construction between the World Wars had been insufficient to meet needs for aircraft carriers as World War II expanded from Europe. The foregoing mission requirements limited use of fleet carriers′ unique offensive strike capability demonstrated at the Battle of Taranto, conversion of existing ships provided additional aircraft carriers until new construction became available
40.
Fleet carrier
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A fleet carrier is an aircraft carrier designed to operate with the main fleet of a nations navy. The term was developed during World War II, to distinguish it from the carrier and other lesser types. In addition to many medium-sized carriers, supercarriers, as well as light carriers, are also classed as fleet carriers. Aircraft carriers evolved in the years between World War I and World War II, the most successful of these early aircraft carriers were built from battlecruisers. Battlecruisers typically had a speed of about 30 knots, which was several knots faster than the speed of contemporary battleships, the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited the displacement of purpose-designed aircraft carriers to 23,000 tons. The idea of a fleet carrier was developed in 1931 by Admirals J. J. Clark. Fleet carriers instead of operating as scouts for the fleet, would operate in unison with the fleet, to ward off air attacks, cruisers and destroyers would protect fleet carriers. The place of fleet carriers would then displace battleships as the preeminent assets of the surface fleet, a fleet carrier would carry more than 50 aircraft, and be fast enough to keep up with other major elements of the fleet, such as cruisers and battleships. Ships of similar speed carrying fewer aircraft were identified as light aircraft carriers, fleet aircraft carrier became the term to distinguish front-line aircraft carriers from the generic description of any warship carrying aircraft. In the post-war era, the United States Navy sought to give aircraft carriers a strategic bombing capability in addition to their tactical role, the earliest carrier aircraft were designed as fighters, scouts and gunfire observers. Torpedo bombers were developed to slow enemy ships so friendly battleships might catch, the fleet carriers longer range bombers were often used for the scouting role. By the time of the Korean War, the typical United States Navy fleet carrier embarked two squadrons of jet fighters, two squadrons of piston fighter-bombers, and a squadron of attack planes. As improved aircraft sensors became available, one or more squadrons of fighters and bombers became capable of night operations. Escort carrier Helicopter carrier List of aircraft carriers Seaplane tender
41.
Helicopter carrier
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A helicopter carrier is a type of aircraft carrier whose primary purpose is to operate helicopters. Helicopter carriers have been used as anti-submarine warfare carriers and amphibious assault ships, a full-length deck maximises deck space for helicopter landing spots. Such a design allows for a hangar deck. Pure helicopter carriers are difficult to define in the 21st century, only smaller carriers unable to operate the Harrier and older pre-Harrier-era carriers can be regarded as true helicopter carriers. In many cases, other carriers, able to operate STOVL aircraft, are classified as aircraft carriers. Other vessels, such as the Wasp class, are capable of embarking troops such as marines and landing them ashore. HMS Hermes and two of her sisters were 22,000 ton fleet carriers converted to commando carriers only able to operate helicopters, Hermes was later converted to a STOVL carrier. HMS Illustrious An Invincible-class light aircraft carrier, which operated as a helicopter carrier when HMS Ocean was being refitted, originally two ships were under construction for the Russian Navy. As of September 23,2015, the sale to Russia was cancelled, the two ships were to be sold to Egypt instead. Amphibious assault ship ASW carrier Landing Platform Helicopter Light aircraft carrier Media related to Helicopter carriers at Wikimedia Commons
42.
Light aircraft carrier
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A light aircraft carrier, or light fleet carrier, is an aircraft carrier that is smaller than the standard carriers of a navy. The precise definition of the type varies by country, light carriers typically have a complement of aircraft only one-half to two-thirds the size of a fleet carrier. In World War II, the United States Navy produced a number of light carriers by converting cruiser hulls. The Independence-class ships, however, had the virtue of being available at a time when available carrier decks had been reduced to Enterprise and Saratoga in the Pacific, in addition, unlike escort carriers, they had enough speed to take part in fleet actions with the larger carriers. Late in the war, a follow on design to the Independence-class, two vessels in this class—Saipan and Wright—were completed after the wars end. After very brief lives as carriers, the Saipans were converted to command, the British 1942 design light fleet carrier was a scaled-down version of their Illustrious-class fleet carrier. The design could be built in a yard with little or no experience of warship construction, although built to merchant standards, the design incorporated better watertight subdivision. Expected to have a lifetime of three years, the last of the design was taken out of service in 2001. The first eight were built as the Colossus but revisions upgrading the design to larger and heavier aircraft led to the remainder being the Majestic class. In the post-war period, the Royal Navy operated a force of ten Colossus class carriers including the two maintenance carriers, by 1939 HMS Hermes was being considered as equivalent to a light aircraft carrier, due to her small size and lack of armour. Currently five light carriers are in service. The newest light carriers are the Italian Cavour and the Spanish Juan Carlos I, aircraft Carriers of the World,1914 to the Present. Watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II
43.
Merchant aircraft carrier
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A merchant aircraft carrier was a limited purpose aircraft carrier built on a British hull designed for bulk grain ships and oil tankers. This was adapted by adding a flight deck enabling it to operate anti-submarine aircraft in support of Allied convoys during the Battle of the Atlantic during World War II, despite their quasi-military function, MACs retained their mercantile status, continued to carry cargo and operated under civilian command. In 1940, Captain M. S. Slattery RN, Director of Air Material at the Admiralty, Slattery proposed fitting a flight deck equipped with two arrester wires and a safety barrier onto an existing merchant ship hull. The resulting auxiliary fighter carrier would be capable of operating six Hurricane fighters while retaining its cargo-carrying ability, the stumbling block for Slatterys proposal turned out to be objections from the Ministry of Supply that combining the merchant and aircraft carrier roles would be too complicated. Various people have been credited with re-inventing the idea, including Captain B. B, schofield RN, Director Trade Division, and John Lamb, Marine Technical Manager of the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company. Sir James Lithgow, Controller of Merchant Shipbuilding and Repair and joint-owner of Lithgows Ltd, ayre himself credits Sir Douglas Thomson of Ben Line and the Ministry of War Transport with having first suggested the idea. There was some resistance to the MAC concept, in particular through concerns about operating aircraft from short. The Admiralty considered that a deck length of 460 feet. By September 1942, the Admiralty was asking for about 50 MACs to be available, to allow one to be included in every North Atlantic convoy. In the event, all the MACs were built and/or converted in British shipyards, the first two MACs were ordered in June 1942 from the Burntisland Shipbuilding Company on the Firth of Forth and William Denny & Brothers of Dumbarton. These ships, which were not strictly conversions but brand-new grain ships that had not yet laid down, would eventually enter service as Empire MacAlpine. Empire MacAlpine was launched on 23 December 1942 and completed more-or-less on schedule on 21 April 1943, by late September 1942 it was finally agreed that tanker-MACs could be operated safely subject to various limitations about the cargoes they would be allowed to carry. Four new-build tankers were scheduled for conversion but work on these did not start until May 1943, Empire MacKay entered service in October 1943, followed at intervals by Empire MacCabe, Empire MacMahon and Empire MacColl in November 1943. Additional hulls were still needed, however, and it was decided that existing tankers would have to be withdrawn from trade, at about the same time however, a further three tankers of the same class as the Anglo-Saxon Triple Twelves were identified operating under Dutch registry. The Admiralty and Ministry of War Transport therefore agreed that the MACs would be civilian-manned, the potential for such action had been clearly demonstrated by the execution in 1916 of Captain Charles Fryatt, for attempting to ram a U-boat with his cross-Channel ferry. A. C. Crews by court martialling and shooting any Merchant Service personnel they may capture from such ships, the War Cabinet ordered a review of the situation but the manning difficulties could not be resolved. In the event, there is little to suggest that the MACs crews were formally notified that they might be at special risk. g. As late as September 1944, masters were reminded to point out to their crews the need to maintain secrecy about the MACs operations and functions, the standard design used for the new-build tankers enabled a longer flight deck of approximately 460 feet with minor variations between individual ships
44.
Seaplane tender
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A seaplane tender is a boat or ship that supports the operation of seaplanes. In maritime parlance a tender is a vessel that is used to support the operation of other vessels, in British usage, the term tender was used for small craft, with the term depot ship being used for large sea going vessels. Flying boats and float planes even when based at home in ports, British tenders were small craft of launch to pinnace size. All those functions that on land would require wheeled ground support equipment had a need for a watercraft equivalent. e and those functions which in a land based airfield would be fulfilled by buildings. The first seaplane carrier appeared in 1911 with the French Navy La Foudre, La Foudre carried float-equipped planes under hangars on the main deck, from where they were lowered on the sea with a crane. La Foudre was further modified in November 1913 with a 10 m -long flat deck to launch her seaplanes, another early seaplane carrier was HMS Hermes, an old cruiser converted and commissioned with a flying-off deck in mid-1913. However, HMS Ark Royal was the first ship in history designed, in the Battle of Tsingtao, from 5 September 1914, the Imperial Japanese Navy seaplane carrier Wakamiya conducted the worlds first naval-launched air raids from Kiaochow Bay. The four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German-held land targets and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September to 6 November 1914, when the Germans surrendered. On Christmas Day 1914, the British carried out the Cuxhaven Raid and these carriers had hangars for storing and maintaining the aircraft, but no flight deck as in a true aircraft carrier. Instead, they used cranes to lower the aircraft into the sea for takeoff, the ships were normally converted merchant vessels rather than specially constructed for the task. As aircraft improved the problems of using seaplanes became more of a handicap, the aircraft could only be operated in a smooth sea and the ship had to stop for launching or recovery, both of which took around 20 minutes. The tender was often stationed 10 mi or so in front of the battle fleet with the cruiser screen so that it would not fall hopelessly behind when it launched its aircraft. Seaplanes also had poorer performance than other aircraft because of the drag, the British HMS Ark Royal was a seaplane tender with a flying-off deck. In the inter-war years, it was common for cruisers and battleships to be equipped with catapult-launched reconnaissance seaplanes, a few navies — especially those without true aircraft carriers — also acquired catapult-equipped seaplane carriers for fleet reconnaissance. During the Second World War, both the American and the Japanese Navies built a number of tenders to supplement their aircraft carrier fleets. However, these often had their catapults removed, and were used as support vessels that operated seaplanes from harbours rather than in a seaway. These aircraft were generally for long range reconnaissance patrols, nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine in World War II did not operate any seaplane tenders. However, the Luftwaffe had nineteen seaplane tenders and these ships were mostly converted from existing civilian seaplane tenders, and were capable of carrying 1-3 seaplanes
45.
Submarine aircraft carrier
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A submarine aircraft carrier is a submarine equipped with aircraft for observation or attack missions. These submarines saw their most extensive use during World War II, the most famous of them were the Japanese I-400 class submarine and the French submarine Surcouf, although small numbers of similar craft were built for other nations navies as well. Most operational submarine aircraft carriers, with the exception of the I-400 and AM classes, used their aircraft for reconnaissance and this is in contrast to the typical surface aircraft carrier, whose main function is serving as a base for offensive aircraft.29 reconnaissance seaplanes in Zeebrugge. One of the first U-Boats to arrive at the Zeebrugge base was Kapitänleutnant Walther Forstmanns SM U-12, the unarmed FF-29 seaplanes were modified to carry 26 1⁄2-pound bombs. On 25 December 1915, one of the modified aircraft flew across the English Channel and up the River Thames, dropping bombs on the outskirts of London. Although pursued by British fighters, it returned to base safely, on this first bombing mission it was apparent that the aircraft suffered more from a lack of range. On 15 January 1915, U-12 left Zeebrugge with a single bomb-armed FF-29 on its deck, the submarine left the harbor, seemingly dwarfed by the 53 ft 2 in wingspan of the biplane, which stretched almost ⅓ of the 188 ft length of the small coastal patrol submarine. As soon as U-12 passed the safety of the breakwater however, heavy swells threatened to damage the aircraft, the subs forward tanks were flooded and despite the pitching of the boat, the seaplane floated off the deck without much difficulty and took off. Arnauld originally intended to rendezvous with the sub, but decided against it, after gaining altitude, Arnauld left for the British coast which he apparently flew along undetected before returning to Zeebrugge. Although the aircraft had carried out to sea and had safely floated off the submarines deck it was obvious improvements were needed in the procedure. Arnauld and Forstmann proposed further experiments to the German Naval Command, two of the aircraft designs created for that purpose were the biplane Hansa Brandenburg W.20 and low-wing monoplane Luftfahrzeug Gesellschaft L. F. G. The first type was designed in 1917 for use aboard the Cruiser submarines that never went into service and it was capable of launching two Sopwith Schneider floatplanes in 1916. However, just as in the German experiment, the aircraft were carried unprotected on the deck, Surcouf was a French submarine ordered in December 1927, launched 18 October 1929, and commissioned May 1934. At 4,000 tons displacement submerged, Surcouf was the largest submarine in the world at the start of World War II and her short wartime career is laced with controversy and conspiracy theories. Surcouf was designed as a cruiser, intended to seek. The guns were fed from a magazine holding 60 rounds and controlled by a director with a 16 ft 6 in rangefinder, in theory, the observation plane could direct fire out to the guns 15 mi maximum range. Anti-aircraft cannons and machine guns were mounted on the top of the hangar, the Regia Marina ordered the Ettore Fieramosca, a submarine with a waterproof hangar for a small reconnaissance seaplane in the late-1920s. The Japanese applied the concept of the aircraft carrier extensively, starting with the J2 Class I-6
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Supercarrier
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Supercarrier is an unofficial descriptive term for the largest type of aircraft carrier, typically those displacing over 70,000 short tons. Supercarriers are the largest warships ever built, larger than the largest battleships laid down by any country, outside the US, there are more light carriers closer to 30,000 tons, such as Italys Cavour. A few countries operate medium-sized fleet carriers of around 40,000 tons, such as the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle and the Indian Navy aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya. The first ship to be described by The New York Times as a supercarrier was HMS Ark Royal in 1938, with a length of 685 feet, in 1943 the superlative was transferred to the 45, 000-ton Midway-class carriers as a step-up from the 27, 000-ton Essex class. The Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano, launched in 1944, was the first aircraft carrier with a displacement of over 65,000 metric tons. The post-war standard for supercarriers was set by the proposed USS United States, Forrestal displaced 60,000 tons standard and 78,000 tons in deep load and is considered the first operational supercarrier in the present-day sense, as used by the US press. The similar-sized United States would have been in earlier, had it been completed. These ships are referred to as supercarriers by British legislators and the news media, the two Queen Elizabeth-class carriers will provide the Royal Navy with capabilities much closer to United States Navy carriers than the Invincible-class vessels retired in 2014. He is very keen for us to get these because he sees us slotting in with his carrier groups and he really wants us to have these, but he wants us to have the same sort of clout as one of their carriers. Future plans for supercarriers in the United States involve the construction of the U. S. Navys next generation of carriers, the Gerald R. Ford class, however, supercarrier advocates consider them to be more cost-effective than a larger number of smaller carriers. An American carrier strike group costs $25 million per week for routine operations, the mobile offshore base is an extension of the supercarrier concept, a modular floating military base as large as 10 aircraft carriers. If realized, it could be moved throughout the worlds oceans. The concept was studied in the 1990s by the U. S. government but was abandoned in 2001 as cost prohibitive
47.
Coastal defence ship
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Coastal defence ships were warships built for the purpose of coastal defence, mostly during the period from 1860 to 1920. They were small, often cruiser-sized warships that sacrificed speed and range for armour, the Nordic countries and Thailand found them particularly appropriate for their island-dotted coastal waters. Some vessels had limited capabilities, others operated in rivers. The coastal defence ships differed from earlier monitors by having a higher freeboard and they varied in size from around 1,500 tons to 8,000 tons. Their construction and appearance was often that of miniaturized pre-dreadnought battleships, in service they were mainly used as movable coastal artillery rather than instruments of sea control or fleet engagements like the battleships operated by blue-water navies. Few of these saw combat in the First World War. The last were scrapped in the 1970s, apart from specially built coastal defence ships, some navies used various obsolescent ships in this role. The Royal Navy deployed four Majestic-class battleships as guardships in the Humber at the start of the First World War, similarly, the U. S. Navy redesignated the Indiana and Iowa classes as Coast Defense Battleships in 1919. This type of vessel has always been categorized differently by different countries, due to treaties, differences in related to design or intended roles. In the United Kingdom the Scandinavian ships were known as coast defence ships, the Germans called these ships Küstenpanzerschiff. The Danes referred to their ships as Kystforsvarsskib and Panserskib, in Norway they were referred to as Panserskip. The Dutch called their ships Kruiser, Pantserschip or Slagschip, the Swedish term for these ships was initially 1, a klass Pansarbåt and later Pansarskepp. Note however, that the German Panzerschiffen of the Deutschland class were not designed as coastal defense ships, the Swedish Pansarskepp were an outgrowth of the earlier Swedish adoption of the monitor and were used for similar duties. The Pansarskepp or Pansarbåt, with the exception of the Sverige class, were relatively small vessels with limited speed, shallow draft. They were designed for close in-shore work in the zone of Scandinavia. The aim was to outgun any ocean-going warship of the draft by a significant margin, making it a very dangerous opponent for a cruiser. The limitations in speed and seaworthiness were a trade-off for the armament carried. Vessels similar to the Swedish Pansarskepp were also built and operated by Denmark, Norway, the Sverige-class ships differed in several ways from the classical coastal defence ship, having heavier armament as well as better speed and armor
48.
Dreadnought
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The dreadnought was the predominant type of battleship in the early 20th century. Dreadnoughts design had two features, an all-big-gun armament scheme, with more heavy-calibre guns than previous ships. As dreadnoughts became a symbol of power, the arrival of these new warships was a crucial catalyst in the intensifying naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany. With the launch of a ship, Dreadnought, the scales of naval power were reset overnight. As a result, dreadnought races sprang up around the world, including in South America, successive designs increased rapidly in size and made use of improvements in armament, armour, and propulsion throughout the dreadnought era. Within five years, new battleships had outclassed Dreadnought and these more powerful vessels were known as super-dreadnoughts. The only surviving dreadnought is USS Texas, located near the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, dreadnought-building consumed vast resources in the early 20th century, but there was only one battle between large dreadnought fleets. In the 1916 Battle of Jutland, the British and German navies clashed with no decisive result, some designs had an intermediate battery of 8-inch guns. Serious proposals for an all-big-gun armament were circulated in several countries by 1903, all-big-gun designs commenced almost simultaneously in three navies. In 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy authorized construction of Satsuma, work began on her construction in May 1905. The Royal Navy began the design of HMS Dreadnought in January 1905, finally, the US Navy gained authorization for USS Michigan, carrying eight 12-inch guns, in March 1905, with construction commencing in December 1906. The newest 12-inch guns had longer range and fired heavier shells than a gun of 10-inch or 9. 2-inch calibre, there is still debate as to whether this feature was important. At these ranges, lighter guns had good accuracy, and their rate of fire delivered high volumes of ordnance on the target. Naval gunnery was too inaccurate to hit targets at a longer range, by the early 20th century, British and American admirals expected future battleships would engage at longer distances. Newer models of torpedo had longer ranges, for instance, in 1903, the US Navy ordered a design of torpedo effective to 4,000 yards. Both British and American admirals concluded that they needed to engage the enemy at longer ranges, in 1900, Admiral Sir John Jackie Fisher, commanding the Royal Navy Mediterranean Fleet, ordered gunnery practice with 6-inch guns at 6,000 yards. By 1904 the US Naval War College was considering the effects on battleship tactics of torpedoes with a range of 7,000 yards to 8,000 yards, the range of light and medium-calibre guns was limited, and accuracy declined badly at longer range. At longer ranges the advantage of a rate of fire decreased, accurate shooting depended on spotting the shell-splashes of the previous salvo
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Fast battleship
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A fast battleship was a battleship which emphasised speed without – in concept – undue compromise of either armor or armament. Most of the early World War I-era dreadnought battleships were built with low design speeds. The extra speed of a fast battleship was normally required to allow the vessel to carry out additional roles besides taking part in the line of battle, such as escorting aircraft carriers. A fast battleship was distinguished from a battlecruiser in that it would have expected to be able to engage hostile battleships in sustained combat on at least equal terms. The requirement to deliver increased speed without compromising fighting ability or protection was the challenge of fast battleship design. Technological advancements such as improvements and light, high-strength armor plating were required in order to make fast battleships feasible. Unlike battlecruiser, which became official Royal Navy usage in 1911, the warships of the Queen Elizabeth class were collectively termed the Fast Division when operating with the Grand Fleet. Otherwise, fast battleships were not distinguished from conventional battleships in official documentation, there is no separate code for fast battleships in the US Navys hull classification system, all battleships, fast or slow, being rated as BB. The Warrior herself, at over 14 knots under steam, was the fastest warship of her day as well as the most powerful, due to the increasing weight of guns and armour, this speed was not exceeded until Monarch achieved 15 knots under steam. In these late pre-dreadnought designs, the speed may have been intended to compensate for their lesser staying power. From about 1900, interest in the possibility of an increase in the speed of Royal Navy battleships was provoked by Sir John Fisher. War games conducted by the General Board of the US Navy in 1903 and 1904 came to similar conclusions. Fisher appears to have been unimpressed by these demonstrations, and continued to press for radical increases in the speed of battleships. His ideas ultimately came to at least partial fruition in the Dreadnought of 1906, like Warrior before her, Dreadnought was the first major warship powered by turbines. She also included a number of features indicating an increased emphasis on speed, An improved hull form was developed. The thickness of the belt was reduced to 11 inches. The belt terminated at the deck, the usual upper belt being deleted The forecastle was raised. In the decade following the construction of the Dreadnought, the Royal Navys lead in capital ship speed was eroded, as a result, a number of potentially significant fast battleship designs failed to achieve fruition
