1.
Robot welding
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Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools, which completely automate a welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part. Processes such as gas metal arc welding, while often automated, are not necessarily equivalent to robot welding, robot welding is commonly used for resistance spot welding and arc welding in high production applications, such as the automotive industry. Robot welding is a new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced into US industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s, since then, both the number of robots used in industry and the number of their applications has grown greatly. In 2005, more than 120,000 robots were in use in North American industry, growth is primarily limited by high equipment costs, and the resulting restriction to high-production applications. Robot arc welding has begun growing quickly just recently, and already it commands about 20% of industrial robot applications, the major components of arc welding robots are the manipulator or the mechanical unit and the controller, which acts as the robots brain. The robot may weld a pre-programmed position, be guided by machine vision, weld quality assurance FANUC KUKA Robotic welding video FANUC welding robots FANUC arc welding robots FANUC spot welding robots Robotic Friction Stir Welding video
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Robot
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A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer—capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. Robots can be guided by a control device or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed to take on human form but most robots are designed to perform a task with no regard to how they look. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, many of todays robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. These robots have also created a branch of robotics, soft robotics. From the time of ancient civilization there have many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling animals and humans. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control. The word robot was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 play R. U. R. by the Czech writer, Karel Čapek but it was Karels brother Josef Čapek who was the words true inventor. Electronics evolved into the force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was named the Unimate, there are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising unemployment as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions, the use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction, the word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots. Closely related to the concept of a robot is the field of Synthetic Biology, the idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and inventors from ancient civilizations, including Ancient China, Ancient Greece, since circa 400 BC, myths of Crete include Talos, a man of bronze who guarded the Cretan island of Europa from pirates. In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer Ctesibius applied a knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics to produce the first organ, in the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called The Pigeon. Hero of Alexandria, a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, the 11th century Lokapannatti tells of how the Buddhas relics were protected by mechanical robots, from the kingdom of Roma visaya, until they were disarmed by King Ashoka. Yan Shi proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork made of leather, wood, in 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built a water clock in the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines which chimed the hours
3.
Coupling
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A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during operation, however there are torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when some torque limit is exceeded. The primary purpose of couplings is to two pieces of rotating equipment while permitting some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By careful selection, installation and maintenance of couplings, substantial savings can be made in reduced maintenance costs, shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes. The most common of which are the following, to transfer power from one end to another end. To provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured separately such as a motor and generator, to provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical flexibility. To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another, to alter the vibration characteristics of rotating units. To connect driving and the driven part slips when overload occurs Clamped or compression rigid couplings come in two parts and fit together around the shafts to form a sleeve and they offer more flexibility than sleeved models, and can be used on shafts that are fixed in place. They consist of short sleeves surrounded by a perpendicular flange, one coupling is placed on each shaft so the two flanges line up face to face. A series of screws or bolts can then be installed in the flanges to hold them together, because of their size and durability, flanged units can be used to bring shafts into alignment before they are joined together. Rigid couplings are used when precise shaft alignment is required, shaft misalignment will affect the performance as well as its life. Examples, A sleeve coupling consists of a pipe whose bore is finished to the required tolerance based on the shaft size, based on the usage of the coupling a keyway is made in the bore in order to transmit the torque by means of the key. Two threaded holes are provided in order to lock the coupling in position, sleeve couplings are also known as Box Couplings. In this case shaft ends are coupled together and abutted against each other which are enveloped by muff or sleeve, a gib head sunk keys hold the two shafts and sleeve together. In other words, this is the simplest type of the coupling and it is made from the cast iron and very simple to design and manufacture. It consists of a pipe whose inner diameter is same as diameter of the shafts. The hollow pipe is fitted over a two or more ends of the shafts with the help of the taper sunk key. a key and sleeve are useful to transmit power from one shaft to another shaft. In this coupling, the muff or sleeve is made into two parts of the cast iron and they are joined together by means of mild steel studs or bolts
4.
Legged robot
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Legged robots are a type of mobile robot. They are somewhat a recent innovation in robotics, however, many or all bipedal models are not practical because they are cumbersome and slow. Most successful legged robots have four or six legs for further stability and this legs-over-wheels approach lends itself for use in all-terrain purposes because legs are more effective in an uneven environment than wheels. Leg mechanism Boston Dynamics Humanoid robot Klann linkage Jansens linkage Robot locomotion Walker Mecha Whegs
5.
Industrial robot
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An industrial robot is a robot system used for manufacturing. Industrial robots are automated, programmable and capable of movement on two or more axes and they can help in material handling and provide interfaces. The most commonly used robot configurations are articulated robots, SCARA robots, delta robots, in the context of general robotics, most types of robots would fall into the category of robotic arms. Robots exhibit varying degrees of autonomy, Some robots are programmed to carry out specific actions over and over again without variation. These actions are determined by programmed routines that specify the direction, acceleration, velocity, deceleration, for example, for more precise guidance, robots often contain machine vision sub-systems acting as their visual sensors, linked to powerful computers or controllers. Artificial intelligence, or what passes for it, is becoming an important factor in the modern industrial robot. The earliest known industrial robot, conforming to the ISO definition was completed by Bill Griffith P. Taylor in 1937 and published in Meccano Magazine, the crane-like device was built almost entirely using Meccano parts, and powered by a single electric motor. Five axes of movement were possible, including grab and grab rotation, Automation was achieved using punched paper tape to energise solenoids, which would facilitate the movement of the cranes control levers. The robot could stack wooden blocks in pre-programmed patterns, the number of motor revolutions required for each desired movement was first plotted on graph paper. This information was transferred to the paper tape, which was also driven by the robots single motor. Chris Shute built a replica of the robot in 1997. George Devol applied for the first robotics patents in 1954, the first company to produce a robot was Unimation, founded by Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger in 1956. Unimation robots were also called programmable transfer machines since their use at first was to transfer objects from one point to another. They used hydraulic actuators and were programmed in joint coordinates, i. e. the angles of the joints were stored during a teaching phase. They were accurate to within 1/10,000 of an inch, Unimation later licensed their technology to Kawasaki Heavy Industries and GKN, manufacturing Unimates in Japan and England respectively. For some time Unimations only competitor was Cincinnati Milacron Inc. of Ohio and this changed radically in the late 1970s when several big Japanese conglomerates began producing similar industrial robots. In 1969 Victor Scheinman at Stanford University invented the Stanford arm and this allowed it accurately to follow arbitrary paths in space and widened the potential use of the robot to more sophisticated applications such as assembly and welding. Scheinman then designed a second arm for the MIT AI Lab, Industrial robotics took off quite quickly in Europe, with both ABB Robotics and KUKA Robotics bringing robots to the market in 1973
6.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
7.
Robotic arm
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A robotic arm is a type of mechanical arm, usually programmable, with similar functions to a human arm, the arm may be the sum total of the mechanism or may be part of a more complex robot. The links of such a manipulator are connected by joints allowing either rotational motion or translational displacement, the links of the manipulator can be considered to form a kinematic chain. The terminus of the chain of the manipulator is called the end effector. The end effector, or robotic hand, can be designed to any desired task such as welding, gripping, spinning etc. depending on the application. For example, robot arms in automotive assembly lines perform a variety of such as welding and parts rotation. In some circumstances, close emulation of the hand is desired, as in robots designed to conduct bomb disarmament. Cartesian robot / Gantry robot, Used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations, handling machine tools and its a robot whose arm has three prismatic joints, whose axes are coincident with a Cartesian coordinator. Cylindrical robot, Used for assembly operations, handling at machine tools, spot welding and its a robot whose axes form a cylindrical coordinate system. Spherical robot / Polar robot Used for handling tools, spot welding, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding. Its a robot whose axes form a coordinate system. SCARA robot, Used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations and this robot features two parallel rotary joints to provide compliance in a plane. Articulated robot, Used for assembly operations, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding, arc welding and its a robot whose arm has at least three rotary joints. Parallel robot, One use is a mobile platform handling cockpit flight simulators and its a robot whose arms have concurrent prismatic or rotary joints. Anthropomorphic robot, It is shaped in a way that resembles a hand, i. e. with independent fingers. The Curiosity rover on the planet Mars also uses a robotic arm, in the decade of 2010 the availability of low-cost robotic arms increased substantially. Although such robotic arms are mostly marketed as hobby or educational devices, applications in laboratory automation have been proposed, robot Arm Types How to build your printed robot arm assistant
8.
Degrees of freedom (engineering)
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In physics, the degree of freedom of a mechanical system is the number of independent parameters that define its configuration. The position of a car moving along a track has one degree of freedom because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has one degree of freedom because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of the track. An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a body traveling on a plane. This body has three independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and one angle of rotation, skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobiles three independent degrees of freedom. The position and orientation of a body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom. The exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device, the number of rotational degrees of freedom comes from the dimension of the rotation group SO. A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles, when motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study, a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body in order to simplify the analysis. The degree of freedom of a system can be viewed as the number of coordinates required to specify a configuration. This reduces the degree of freedom of the system to five, see also Euler angles The trajectory of an airplane in flight has three degrees of freedom and its attitude along the trajectory has three degrees of freedom, for a total of six degrees of freedom. The mobility formula counts the number of parameters that define the configuration of a set of bodies that are constrained by joints connecting these bodies. Consider a system of n rigid bodies moving in space has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative to a fixed frame. In order to count the degrees of freedom of this system, include the frame in the count of bodies. Then the degree-of-freedom of the system of N = n +1 is M =6 n =6. Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom, specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joints freedom f, where c =6 − f. In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have f =1, the result is that the mobility of a system formed from n moving links and j joints each with freedom fi, i =1. J, is given by M =6 n − ∑ i =1 j =6 + ∑ i =1 j f i Recall that N includes the fixed link, there are two important special cases, a simple open chain, and a simple closed chain
9.
Spaceflight
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Spaceflight is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board, examples of human spaceflight include the U. S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth and these operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous. Spaceflight is used in exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites, a spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled, some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. The first theoretical proposal of space using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch. More well-known is Konstantin Tsiolkovskys work, Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами, spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddards publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space, nonetheless and his attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11,1918 armistice with Germany. Nonetheless, Goddards paper was influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, von Brauns V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers on a June 1944 test flight. At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon. Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond, other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. Spaceports are situated away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities, a launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself, once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit
10.
Canadarm
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The Shuttle Remote Manipulator System, also known as Canadarm, is a series of robotic arms that were used on the Space Shuttle orbiters to deploy, maneuver and capture payloads. In 1969, Canada was invited by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to participate in the Space Shuttle program, at the time what that participation would entail had not yet been decided but a manipulator system was identified as an important component. Canadian company, DSMA ATCON, had developed a robot to load fuel into CANDU nuclear reactors, in 1975, NASA and the Canadian National Research Council signed a memorandum of understanding that Canada would develop and construct the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System. NRC awarded the contract to Spar Aerospace. Anthony “Tony” Zubrzycki, an engineer at DSMA ATCON, while seconded to SPAR, originated the concept for the Canadarm End Effector. Tony formally presented this concept to NASA officials, frank Mee, head of the SPAR mechanical development laboratory, built the end effector prototypebased on Tony’s concept and is credited by SPAR as the inventor of the Canadarm End Effector. The three-wire crossover design won over the mechanisms and others, such as the camera iris model. The main controls algorithms were developed by SPAR and by subcontractor Dynacon Inc. of Toronto, CAE Electronics Ltd. in Montreal provided the display and control panel and the hand controllers located in the Shuttle aft flight deck. Other electronic interfaces, servoamplifiers and power conditioners located on the Canadarm were designed, rockwell Internationals Space Transportation Systems Division designed, developed, tested and built the systems used to attach the Canadarm to the payload bay of the orbiter. An acceptance ceremony for NASA was held at Spars RMS Division in Toronto on the 11th of February 1981, here Larkin Kerwin, then the head of the NRC, gave the SRMS the informal name, Canadarm. The first remote manipulator system was delivered to NASA in April 1981, in all, five arms were built and delivered to NASA. Arm 302 was lost in the Challenger accident, the original Canadarm was capable of deploying and retrieving payloads weighing up to 332.5 kg in space. In the mid-1990s the arm control system was redesigned to increase the capability to 3,293 kg in order to support space station assembly operations. While able to maneuver payloads with the mass of a bus in space. NASA therefore developed a model of the arm for use at its training facility within the Johnson Space Center located in Houston, most of the time, the arm operators see what they are doing by looking at the Advanced Space Vision System screen next to the controllers. One crew member operates the Canadarm from the aft flight deck control station, the Canadarm is outfitted with an explosive-based mechanism to allow the arm to be jettisoned. This safety system allows the Orbiters payload bay doors to be closed in the event that the arm fails in a position and is not able to be retracted. The Canadarm is 15.2 m long and 38 cm diameter with six degrees of freedom and it weighs 410 kg by itself, and 450 kg as part of the total system
11.
Mobile Servicing System
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The Mobile Servicing System, is a robotic system on board the International Space Station. Astronauts receive specialized training to them to perform these functions with the various systems of the MSS. The MSS is composed of three components - the Space Station Remote Manipulator System, known as Canadarm2, the Mobile Remote Servicer Base System and the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator. The system can move along rails on the Integrated Truss Structure on top of the US provided Mobile Transporter cart which hosts the MRS Base System, the systems control software was written in the Ada 95 programming language. The MSS was designed and manufactured by MDA Space Missions for the Canadian Space Agencys contribution to the International Space Station, launched on STS-100 in April 2001, this second generation arm is a larger, more advanced version of the Space Shuttles original Canadarm. Canadarm2 is 17.6 m when fully extended and has seven motorized joints and it has a mass of 1,800 kg and a diameter of 35 cm. The arm is capable of handling large payloads of up to 116,000 kg and was able to assist with docking the space shuttle. Officially known as the Space Station Remote Manipulator System, it is self-relocatable, in this movement, it is limited only by the number of Power Data Grapple Fixtures on the station. PDGFs located around the station power, data and video to the arm through its Latching End Effectors. The arm can also travel the length of the space station truss using the Mobile Base System. In addition to moving itself around the station, the arm can move any object with a grapple fixture, in construction of the station the arm was used to move large segments into place. The arm is used to undock and release the spacecraft after use. On-board operators see what they are doing by looking at the three Robotic Work Station LCD screens, the MSS has two RWS units, one located in the Destiny module and the other in the Cupola. Only one RWS controls the MSS at a time, the RWS has two sets of control joysticks, one Rotational Hand Controller and one Translational Hand Controller. In addition to this is the Display and Control Panel and the Portable Computer System laptop, in recent years, the majority of robotic operations are commanded remotely by flight controllers on the ground at Mission Control Center, or from the Canadian Space Agency. Operators can work in shifts to accomplish objectives with more flexibility than when done by on-board crew operators, astronaut operators are used for time-critical operations such as visiting vehicle captures and robotics supported Extra-Vehicular Activity. The Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator, or Dextre, is a smaller two-armed robot that can attach to Canadarm2, the arms and its power tools are capable of handling the delicate assembly tasks and changing Orbital Replacement Units currently handled by astronauts during space walks. Although Canadarm2 can move around the station in an inchworm motion, testing was done in the space simulation chambers of the Canadian Space Agencys David Florida Laboratory in Ottawa
12.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
13.
European Robotic Arm
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The European Robotic Arm is a robotic arm to be attached to the Russian segment of the International Space Station. It will be the first robot arm able to work on the Russian space station segments, the ERA is designed and assembled by Airbus Defence and Space Netherlands. The ERA has several interesting features, the third arm is fixed on the Japanese Experiment Module, the Remote Manipulator System uses a similar grapple fixture to Canadarm2. In 2010, an elbow joint for the arm was launched preemptively. The MLM will also serve as base for ERA, originally. Astronauts can control the robot from both inside and outside the space station, control from inside the space station uses a laptop, which shows a model of the ERA and its surroundings
14.
Kibo (ISS module)
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The Japanese Experiment Module, nicknamed Kibo, is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, the first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127, the Pressurized Module is the core component connected to the port hatch of the Node 2 Module. The racks are placed 6-6-6-5 along the four walls of the module, the end of the JEM-PM has an airlock and two window hatches. The Exposed Facility, Experiment Logistics Module and the Remote Manipulator System all connect to the pressurized module, Kibo is also the location for many of the press conferences that take place on board the station. The Exposed Facility, also known as Terrace, is located outside the cone of the PM. The EF has 12 EFU ports that attach to PIU connectors on EF-EEUs, all experiment payloads are fully exposed to the space environment. For proper functioning of these experiments, the payload requires an ORU which consists of the EPS, CT, of the 12 ORUs, eight are replaceable by the JEMRMS while the other four are EVA-replaceable. The Experiment Logistics Module includes two sections, The Japanese Experiment Logistics Module, Pressurized Section –- also called the JLP –- is an addition to the PM. The module is a facility that provides storage space for experiment payloads, samples. The unpressurized section serves the EF as a storage and transportation module, the Remote Manipulator System is a 10m long robotic arm, mounted at the port cone of the PM, intended to service the EF and to move equipment from and to the ELM. The RMS control console was launched while inside the ELM-PS, the main arm was launched with the PM. The Small Fine Arm, is 2m long and attaches to the end effector of the arm, was launched aboard. The free end of the arm is able to use the type of grapple fixtures that the Canadarm2 uses, NASA launched the JEM complex over three flights using the Space Shuttle. The shuttle had a payload bay which carried the modules into orbit along with the crew. This is in contrast to the Russian modules, which are launched into orbit on multistage Proton rockets and then rendezvous, on 12 March 2007, the Experiment Logistics Module Pressurized Section, the main laboratory, arrived at the Kennedy Space Center from Japan. It was stored in the Space Station Processing Facility until launched into orbit aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour as part of the STS-123 mission, on 30 May 2003, the Pressurized Module arrived at KSC from Japan. It was stored at the Space Station Processing Facility until launched into orbit aboard Space Shuttle Discovery as part of the STS-124 mission, on 3 June 2008 the PM was attached to the Harmony module
15.
Dextre
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It was launched March 11,2008 on mission STS-123. Dextre is part of Canadas contribution to the ISS and is named to represent its dexterous nature and it is sometimes also referred to as the SPDM. Dextre is the third Canadian robotic arm used on the ISS, preceded by the Space Shuttles Canadarm, Dextre was designed and manufactured by MacDonald Dettwiler. In the early morning of February 4,2011, Dextre completed its first official assignment which consists of unpacking two pieces for Kounotori 2 while the crew was sleeping. Dextre resembles a gigantic torso fitted with two extremely agile,3.5 metres arms, the 3.5 metre long body pivots at the waist. The other end of the body has an end effector virtually identical to that of Canadarm2. At the end of Dextres arms are ORU/Tool Changeout Mechanisms, the OTCM has built-in grasping jaws, a retractable socket drive, a monochrome TV camera, lights, and an umbilical connector that can provide power, data, and video to/from a payload. Dextre moves one arm at a time, while one arm may hold onto the station for stability the other is available to perform tasks. The lower body of Dextre has a pair of orientable colour TV cameras with lights, a platform for stowing ORUs, the tool holster is equipped with two Robotic Micro Conical Tools, which allow an arm to grasp additional types of ORU fixtures. The Socket Extension Tool extends the length of the socket on an arm. Several new tools were added as part of the 2011 Robotic Refueling Mission, a Wire Cutter, Safety Cap Removal Tool, EVR Nozzle Tool and a Multifunction Tool with several adapters. Robotic Refueling Mission — Phase 2 will use the Visual Inspection Poseable Invertebrate Robot VIPIR borescope camera with a 34 inch long flexible tube, SARAH is a three fingered hand that is designed to attach to the end of Dextres arm. It has not been delivered to the ISS and it completed all necessary testing and was delivered to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, in mid-June 2007. Once at KSC, it underwent flight testing followed by shuttle integration. Dextre was launched to the ISS on March 11,2008 aboard Endeavour on mission STS-123 and it woke up and activated heaters needed for keeping its joints and electronics warm after receiving power from the space stations Canadarm2 on March 14. After the spacewalk, crew members hooked Dextre back up to the robotic arm to keep it warm. Later that day, the crew tested all of its joints, astronauts finished outfitting the robot during a third spacewalk on March 17,2008. Dextre is designed to handle Orbital replacement units, many spares are stored on the ISS and Dextre is able to carry them to and from worksites, before Dextre arrived astronauts were required to perform space walks to carry out this work
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Russian Orbital Segment
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The Russian Orbital Segment is the name given to the components of the International Space Station constructed in Russia and operated by the Russian Federal Space Agency. The ROS handles Guidance, Navigation & Control for the entire Station, the segment currently consists of five modules, which together essentially comprise the base configuration of the cancelled Russian space station Mir-2. The segment is controlled directly from Roskosmoss Mission Control Center in Moscow, zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System. Now primarily used for storage, Zarya provides ports for Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, ships boosting the stations orbit dock to the aft port. The FGB is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian Salyut program,5.4 tons of propellant fuel can be stored and transferred automatically to and from ships docked. Zarya was originally intended as a module for the Russian Mir space station, developed by Russia and the former Soviet Union, construction of Zarya was funded by the United States and NASA, and Zarya remains a US-owned module. The third module, Pirs, functions as the ROSs airlock, storing EVA spacesuits and it also serves as a docking compartment for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. The fourth module, Poisk, is similar to Pirs, redundancy in airlocks allows one airlock to be repaired internally and externally whilst crew use the other airlock to exit and re-enter the station. The fifth module, Rassvet, is used for cargo storage. Nauka, also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module or FGB-2, is the major Russian laboratory module which will take the place of Pirs, in October 2011, it was reported that Nauka was expected to be launched in December 2013. Prior to the arrival of the MLM, a Progress robotic spacecraft will dock with PIRS, depart with that module, Nauka will then use its own engines to attach itself to the ROS. This module will be separated from the ISS before de-orbit with support modules and it contains an additional set of life support systems and orientation control. Power provided by its solar arrays will mean the ROS no longer relies on power from the USOS main arrays, naukas mission has changed over time. During the mid-1990s, it was intended as a backup for the FGB and its docking ports will be able to support automatic docking of both space craft, additional modules and fuel transfer. The Oka-T-MKS is a planned companion module to the ISS, which is as of December 2012 under construction. The module will be free-floating most of the time as an orbital space laboratory for the conduction of experiments. The Oka-T-MKS space laboratory was contracted to Energia by Roscosmos in 2012, originally projected for a 2015 launch date, this has been pushed back by a couple of years. As proposed, the Nodal Module would be launched during 2013 by a Soyuz launcher in a fashion to how the Pirs
17.
Robotics
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Robotics is the interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as systems for their control, sensory feedback. These technologies are used to develop machines that can substitute for humans, Robots can be used in any situation and for any purpose, but today many are used in dangerous environments, manufacturing processes, or where humans cannot survive. Robots can take on any form but some are made to resemble humans in appearance and this is said to help in the acceptance of a robot in certain replicative behaviors usually performed by people. Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech, cognition, many of todays robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. Throughout history, it has been assumed that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, Robotics is also used in STEM as a teaching aid. The word robotics was derived from the robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R. U. R. which was published in 1920. The word robot comes from the Slavic word robota, which means labour, the play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans – very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word and he wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, published in May 1941 in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term, since the science and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimovs other works, he states that the first use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround, however, the original publication of Liar. Predates that of Runaround by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the words origin, in 1942, the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov created his Three Laws of Robotics. In 1948, Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics, fully autonomous only appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine, commercial and industrial robots are widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply, more accurately and more reliably, than humans. They are also employed in jobs which are too dirty, dangerous. For example, a designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud
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Outline of robotics
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These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behaviour, and or cognition. Many of todays robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics, the word robot was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R. U. R. The term robotics was coined by Isaac Asimov in his 1941 science fiction short-story Liar, Robotics can be described as, An applied science – scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. For example, as an aircraft flies, its mass will slowly decrease as a result of fuel consumption, aerial robotics – development of unmanned aerial vehicles, commonly known as drones, aircraft without a human pilot aboard. Their flight is controlled autonomously by onboard computers or by the remote control of a pilot on the ground or in another vehicle. Android science – interdisciplinary framework for studying human interaction and cognition based on the premise that a very humanlike robot can elicit human-directed social responses in human beings, anthrobotics – science of developing and studying robots that are either entirely or in some way human-like. Artificial intelligence – the intelligence of machines and the branch of science that aims to create it. Behavior-based robotics – the branch of robotics that incorporates modular or behavior based AI, bio-inspired robotics – making robots that are inspired by biological systems. Biomimicry and bio-inspired design are sometimes confused, biomimicry is copying the nature while bio-inspired design is learning from nature and making a mechanism that is simpler and more effective than the system observed in nature. Biomorphic robotics – a sub-discipline of robotics focused upon emulating the mechanics, sensor systems, biorobotics – a study of how to make robots that emulate or simulate living biological organisms mechanically or even chemically. Cognitive robotics – views animal cognition as a point for the development of robotic information processing. Clustering – Computational neuroscience – study of function in terms of the information processing properties of the structures that make up the nervous system. Digital image processing – the use of algorithms to perform image processing on digital images. Dimensionality reduction – the process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration, distributed robotics – Electronic stability control – is a computerized technology that improves the safety of a vehicles stability by detecting and reducing loss of traction. This includes both the design of linkages to perform motion, their power, control and stability, also their planning, the intention is to allow a user to directly manipulate objects presented to them, using actions that correspond at least loosely to the physical world. Motor control – information processing related activities carried out by the nervous system that organize the musculoskeletal system to create coordinated movements. Nanorobotics – the emerging technology field creating machines or robots whose components are at or close to the scale of a nanometer, Artificial neural networks – a mathematical model inspired by biological neural networks. Passive dynamics – refers to the behavior of actuators, robots
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Glossary of robotics
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Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots. Robotics is related to the sciences of electronics, engineering, mechanics, the following is a list of common definitions related to the Robotics field. Actuator, a motor that translates control signals into mechanical movement, the control signals are usually electrical but may, more rarely, be pneumatic or hydraulic. The power supply may likewise be any of these and it is common for electrical control to be used to modulate a high-power pneumatic or hydraulic motor. Aerobot a robot capable of independent flight on other planets, arduino The current platform of choice for small-scale robotic experimentation and physical computing. Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of science that aims to create it. Aura a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA in 2004 which collects data from Earth. Automaton, an early self-operating robot, performing exactly the same actions, autonomous vehicle a vehicle equipped with an autopilot system, which is capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator. These systems and their data may be integrated into robotic operations, Čapek, Karel, Czech author who coined the term robot in his 1921 play, Rossums Universal Robots. Chandra X-ray Observatory a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA in 1999 to collect astronomical data, cloud robotics, robots empowered with more capacity and intelligence from cloud. Combat, robot, a hobby or sport event where two or more robots fight in an arena to disable each other and this has developed from a hobby in the 1990s to several TV series worldwide. Cruise missile a robot-controlled guided missile that carries an explosive payload, cyborg also known as a cybernetic organism, a being with both biological and artificial parts. Degrees of freedom - the extent to which a robot can move itself, expressed in terms of Cartesian coordinates, delta robot - a tripod linkage, used to construct fast-acting manipulators with a wide range of movement. Drive Power - The energy source or sources for the robot actuators, emergent behaviour, a complicated resultant behaviour that emerges from the repeated operation of simple underlying behaviours. Envelope, Maximum The volume of space encompassing the maximum designed movements of all parts including the end-effector, workpiece. Forward chaining a process in which events or received data are considered by an entity to intelligently adapt its behavior, gynoid A humanoid robot designed to look like a human female. Haptic tactile feedback technology using the sense of touch. Also sometimes applied to robot manipulators with their own touch sensitivity, Hexapod A movable platform using six linear actuators
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History of robots
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The history of robots has its origins on the ancient world. The modern concept began to be developed with the onset of the Industrial Revolution which allowed for the use of complex mechanics and this made it possible to power machines with small compact motors. In the early 20th century, the notion of a machine was developed. Today, it is now possible to envisage human sized robots with the capacity for human thoughts. The first uses of modern robots were in factories as industrial robots – simple fixed machines capable of manufacturing tasks which allowed production without the need for human assistance, digitally controlled industrial robots and robots making use of artificial intelligence have been built since the 1960s. Chinese legend relates that in the 10th century BC, Yan Shi made an automaton resembling a human in an account from the Lie Zi text. In Greek mythology, Hephaestus created utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power and a man, Talos. Talos was eventually destroyed by Media who cast a lightning bolt at his single vein of lead, to take the golden fleece Jason was also required to tame two fire breathing bulls with bronze hooves, and like Cadmus he sowed the teeth of a dragon into soldiers. The Indian Lokapannatti tells the story of King Ajatashatru of Magadha, the Buddhas relics were protected by mechanical robots, from the kingdom of Roma visaya, until they were disarmed by King Ashoka. In Christian legend, several of the men associated with the introduction of Arabic learning to medieval Europe devised brazen heads that could answer questions posed to them. Albertus Magnus was supposed to have constructed an entire android who could perform some domestic tasks, the most famous legend concerned a bronze head devised by Roger Bacon which was destroyed or scrapped after he missed its moment of operation. Automata were popular in the worlds of medieval literature. For instance, the Middle Dutch tale Roman van Walewein described mechanical birds, yet another early automaton was the clepsydra, made in 250 BC by Ctesibius of Alexandria, a physicist and inventor from Ptolemaic Egypt. Hero of Alexandria made numerous innovations in the field of automata, the Cosmic Engine, a 10-metre clock tower built by Su Song in Kaifeng, China, in 1088, featured mechanical mannequins that chimed the hours, ringing gongs or bells among other devices. Al-Jazari, a Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of machines, including kitchen appliances. One particularly complex automaton included four automatic musicians that floated on a lake, heros works on automata were translated into Latin amid the 12th century Renaissance. The early 13th-century artist-engineer Villard de Honnecourt sketched plans for several automata, at the end of the thirteenth century, Robert II, Count of Artois, built a pleasure garden at his castle at Hesdin that incorporated a number of robots, humanoid and animal. One of the first recorded designs of a robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci in around 1495
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Geography of robotics
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Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots. Robotics is related to the sciences of electronics, engineering, mechanics, robots of the United States include simple household robots such as Roomba to sophisticated autonomous aircraft such as the MQ-9 Reaper that cost 18 million dollars per unit. The first industrial robot, robot company and exoskeletons as well as the first dynamically balancing, organic, Japan has a long robotics history and high reputation in the robotics area. Approximately 700,000 industrial robots were used all over the world in 1995, list of robots Media related to Robotics at Wikimedia Commons
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Robot Hall of Fame
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The Robot Hall of Fame is an American hall of fame that recognizes notable robots in various scientific fields and general society, as well as achievements in robotics technology. The idea for the Robot Hall of Fame was conceived by Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science dean James H, the first induction ceremony was held at the Carnegie Science Center on November 10,2003. Thirty robots – both existent and fictional – have been inducted into the Robot Hall of Fame since its inception, an exhibit named Roboworld was later established at the Carnegie Science Center in June 2009, featuring a physical embodiment of the hall of fame. From 2003 to 2010, inductees to the Robot Hall of Fame were selected by a panel of jurists. The opportunity to nominate a robot for induction into the hall of fame was made open to the public. Officials subsequently derive the final list of inductees from both the survey and the public vote. Robot Hall of Fame director Shirley Saldamarco said of the changes, The technology and art of robotics are advancing at a rapid rate. As more students, workers and consumers become accustomed to robots, Official website Official page for Roboworld at the Carnegie Science Center
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Robot ethics
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Robot ethics is a sub-field of ethics of technology, specifically information technology, and it has close links to legal as well as socio-economic concerns. While the issues are as old as the robot, serious academic discussions started around the year 2000. Since antiquity, the discussion of ethics in relation to the treatment of non-human and even non-living things, with the development of machinery and eventually robots, this philosophy was also applied to robotics. These three laws were altered by Asimov, and a fourth, or zeroth law, was eventually added to precede the first three. In the context of his fiction works. The short term roboethics was probably coined by Gianmarco Veruggio, after two days of intense debating, anthropologist Daniela Cerqui identified three main ethical positions emerging from two days of intense debate, Those who are not interested in ethics. They consider that their actions are strictly technical, and do not think they have a social or a moral responsibility in their work and those who are interested in short-term ethical questions. According to this profile, questions are expressed in terms of “good” or “bad, ”, for instance, they feel that robots have to adhere to social conventions. This will include “respecting” and helping humans in areas such as implementing laws or in helping elderly people. Those who think in terms of ethical questions, about, for example. They are aware of the gap between industrialized and poor countries, and wonder whether the former should not change their way of developing robotics in order to be useful to the South. They do not formulate explicitly the question what for, but we can consider that it is implicit and these are some important events and projects in robot ethics. Further events in the field are announced by the euRobotics ELS topics group and those Laws get reused for later works of robot-related science fiction by Asimov. 2004, Fukuoka World Robot Declaration, issued on February 25,2004 from Fukuoka,2005, ICRA05, Barcelona, the IEEE RAS TC on Roboethics organized a Workshop on Roboethics. The Euron Project, coordinated by School of Robotics, involved a number of roboticists. 2006, BioRob2006, Pisa, Italy, February 20,2006,2006, International Workshop Ethics of Human Interaction with Robotic, Bionic, and AI Systems, Concepts and Policies, Naples, 17–18 October 2006. The workshop was supported by the ETHICBOTS European Project,2007 ICRA07, Rome, the IEEE RAS TC on Roboethics organized a Workshop on Roboethics. 2007 ICAIL07, International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, Stanford University, Palo Alto, USA,2007 International European Conference on Computing and Philosophy E-CAP ‘07, University of Twente, Netherlands, 21–23 June 2007
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Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence
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There are a number of competitions and prizes to promote research in artificial intelligence. The David E. Rumelhart prize is an award for making a significant contemporary contribution to the theoretical foundations of human cognition. The Human-Competitive Award is an annual challenge started in 2004 to reward results competitive with the work of creative and inventive humans, entries are required to use evolutionary computing. The IJCAI Award for Research Excellence is an award given at the IJCAI conference to researcher in artificial intelligence as a recognition of excellence of their career. The Machine Intelligence Prize is awarded annually by the British Computer Society for progress towards machine intelligence, the Kaggle - the worlds largest community of data scientists compete to solve most valuable problems. The General AI Challenge is a competition designed to tackle crucial research problems in human-level AI development. It is launched in 2017 by a Czech-based company GoodAI in partnership with Microsoft, the Loebner prize is an annual competition to determine the best Turing test competitors. This second prize has not yet been awarded, the International Aerial Robotics Competition is a long-running event begun in 1991 to advance the state of the art in fully autonomous air vehicles. This competition is restricted to university teams, key to this event is the creation of flying robots which must complete complex missions without any human intervention. Successful entries are able to interpret their environment and make decisions based only on a high-level mission directive. In 2000, a $30,000 prize was awarded during the 3rd Mission, while the first race had no winner, the second awarded a $2 million prize for the autonomous navigation of a hundred-mile trail, using GPS, computers and a sophisticated array of sensors. In November 2007, DARPA introduced the DARPA Urban Challenge, an urban area race requiring vehicles to navigate through traffic. Roborace will be a global motorsport championship with autonomously driving, electrically powered vehicles, the series will be run as a support series during the Formula E championship for electric vehicles. This will be the first global championship for driverless cars, the Netflix Prize was a competition for the best collaborative filtering algorithm that predicts user ratings for films, based on previous ratings. The competition was held by Netflix, an online DVD-rental service, the prize in 2007 was $22,000. The Face Recognition Grand Challenge aimed to promote and advance face recognition technology, the RoboCup and FIRA are annual international robot soccer competitions. The Herbrand Award is a given by CADE Inc. to honour persons or groups for important contributions to the field of automated deduction. The CADE ATP System Competition is a competition of fully automated theorem provers for classical first order logic associated with the CADE
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Humanoid
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A humanoid is something that has an appearance resembling a human being. The earliest recorded use of the term, in 1870, referred to indigenous peoples in areas colonized by Europeans, by the 20th century, the term came to describe fossils which were morphologically similar, but not identical, to those of the human skeleton. Although this usage was common in the sciences for much of the 20th century, American psychologist and Dinosaur intelligence theorist Harry Jerison suggested the possibility of sapient dinosaurs. In a 1978 presentation at the American Psychological Association, he speculated that dromiceiomimus could have evolved into an intelligent species like human beings. In his book, Wonderful Life, Stephen Jay Gould argues that if the tape of life were re-wound and played back, over geologic time, Russell noted that there had been a steady increase in the encephalization quotient or EQ among the dinosaurs. Russell had discovered the first Troodontid skull, and noted that, while its EQ was low compared to humans, if the trend in Troodon evolution had continued to the present, its brain case could by now measure 1,100 cm3, comparable to that of a human. Troodontids had semi-manipulative fingers, able to grasp and hold objects to a certain degree, Russell proposed that this Dinosauroid, like most dinosaurs of the troodontid family, would have had large eyes and three fingers on each hand, one of which would have been partially opposed. As with most modern reptiles, he conceived of its genitalia as internal, Russell speculated that it would have required a navel, as a placenta aids the development of a large brain case. However, it would not have possessed mammary glands, and would have fed its young, as birds do and he speculated that its language would have sounded somewhat like bird song. Russells thought experiment has been met with criticism from other paleontologists since the 1980s, gregory S. Paul and Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. A humanoid robot does not necessarily look convincingly like a real person, an android or gynoid is a humanoid robot designed to look as much like a real person as possible, although these words are frequently perceived to be synonymous with humanoid. While there are many humanoid robots in fictional stories, some humanoid robots have been developed since the 1990s. Similarly to robots, virtual avatars may also be called humanoid when resembling humans, deities are often imagined in human shape, sometimes as hybrids. In animism in general, the spirits innate in certain objects are typically depicted in human shape, e. g. spirits of trees, of the woodlands, of wells or waterways, many aliens in television and science fiction films are presented as humanoid. This is usually attributed to budget constraints, as human actors can more easily portray human-like aliens, in much of science fiction, the reason for the abundance of humanoid aliens is not explained and usually requires suspension of disbelief. In some cases, however, explanations have been offered for this, in the field of ufology, humanoid refers to any of the claimed extraterrestrials which abduct human victims, such as the Greys, the Reptilians, Nordics, and Martians. In fantasy settings the term humanoid is used to refer to a fantastical creature, such as a dwarf, elf, gnome, halfling, goblin, troll, orc or an ogre. Animals that are humanoid are also shown in fantasy, humanoids are also used in some old horror movies, for example in Creature From the Black Lagoon, made in 1954 by Jack Arnold
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Android (robot)
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An android is a humanoid robot or synthetic organism designed to look and act like a human, especially one with a body having a flesh-like resemblance. Historically, androids remained completely within the domain of science fiction where they are seen in film. Only recently have advancements in technology allowed the design of functional. The word was coined from the Greek root ἀνδρ-, man, while the term android is used in reference to human-looking robots in general, a robot with a female appearance can also be referred to as a gynoid. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the earliest use to Ephraim Chambers Cyclopaedia, the term android appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons. The term android was used in a modern sense by the French author Auguste Villiers de lIsle-Adam in his work Tomorrows Eve. This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly, as said by the officer in the story, In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls. Although Karel Čapeks robots in R. U. R, —the play that introduced the word robot to the world—were organic artificial humans, the word robot has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term android can mean one of these, while a cyborg would be a creature that is a combination of organic. The word android was used in Star Trek, The Original Series episode What Are Little Girls Made Of. The abbreviation andy, coined as a pejorative by writer Philip K. Dick in his novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep. has seen some further usage, authors have used the term android in more diverse ways than robot or cyborg. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only their appearance, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside, in other stories, authors have used the word android to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other fictional depictions of androids fall somewhere in between, several projects aiming to create androids that look, and, to a certain degree, speak or act like a human being have been launched or are underway. In 2006, Kokoro Co. developed a new DER2 android, the height of the human body part of DER2 is 165 cm. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet, the air servosystem which Kokoro Co. developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion, compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice, the Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science, has developed an android head called Saya, which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama, Japan
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Cyborg
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A cyborg is a being with both organic and biomechatronic body parts. The term was coined in 1960 by Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Kline, while cyborgs are commonly thought of as mammals, including humans, they might also conceivably be any kind of organism. In popular culture, some cyborgs may be represented as visibly mechanical or as almost indistinguishable from humans, Cyborgs in fiction often play up a human contempt for over-dependence on technology, particularly when used for war, and when used in ways that seem to threaten free will. Cyborgs are also portrayed with physical or mental abilities far exceeding a human counterpart. According to some definitions of the term, the physical attachments humanity has with even the most basic technologies have made them cyborgs. Implants, especially cochlear implants, that combine mechanical modification with any kind of response are also cyborg enhancements. Some theorists cite such modifications as contact lenses, hearing aids, as cyborgs currently are on the rise some theorists argue there is a need to develop new definitions of aging and for instance a bio-techno-social definition of aging has been suggested. The term is used to address human-technology mixtures in the abstract. When augmented with these technologies and connected in communication with people in times and places. This is like a computer, which gains power by using Internet protocols to connect with other computers, bruce Sterling in his universe of Shaper/Mechanist suggested an idea of alternative cyborg called Lobster, which is made not by using internal implants, but by using an external shell. Unlike human cyborgs that appear human externally while being synthetic internally, Lobster looks inhuman externally, the computer game Deus Ex, Invisible War prominently featured cyborgs called Omar, where Omar is a Russian translation of the word Lobster. The concept of a man-machine mixture was widespread in science fiction before World War II, as early as 1843, Edgar Allan Poe described a man with extensive prostheses in the short story The Man That Was Used Up. In 1911, Jean de la Hire introduced the Nyctalope, a science fiction hero who was perhaps the first literary cyborg, edmond Hamilton presented space explorers with a mixture of organic and machine parts in his novel The Comet Doom in 1928. He later featured the talking, living brain of an old scientist, Simon Wright, floating around in a transparent case, in all the adventures of his famous hero, Captain Future. cybernetic organisms. In the short story No Woman Born in 1944, C. L. Moore wrote of Deirdre, the term was coined by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. The term first appears in print five months earlier when The New York Times reported on the Psychophysiological Aspects of Space Flight Symposium where Clynes, a book titled Cyborg, Digital Destiny and Human Possibility in the Age of the Wearable Computer was published by Doubleday in 2001. Some of the ideas in the book were incorporated into the 35 mm motion picture film Cyberman, Cyborgs tissues structured with carbon nanotubes and plant or fungal cells have been used in artificial tissue engineering to produce new materials for mechanical and electrical uses. The work was presented by Di Giacomo and Maresca at MRS2013 Spring conference on Apr, 3rd, the cyborg obtained is inexpensive, light and has unique mechanical properties
28.
Claytronics
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This idea is more broadly referred to as programmable matter. Claytronics has the potential to affect many areas of daily life, such as telecommunication, human-computer interfaces. Current research is exploring the potential of modular reconfigurable robotics and the software necessary to control the “shape changing” robots. “Locally Distributed Predicates or LDP is a distributed, high-level language for programming modular reconfigurable robot systems ”, there are many challenges associated with programming and controlling a large number of discrete modular systems due to the degrees of freedom that correspond with each module. For example, reconfiguring from one formation to one similar may require a complex path of movements controlled by a string of commands even though the two shapes differ slightly. Today, extensive research and experiments with claytronics are being conducted at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, mowry, Seth Goldstein, graduate and undergraduate students, and researchers from Intel Labs Pittsburgh. The driving force behind programmable matter is the hardware that is manipulating itself into whatever form is desired. Claytronics consists of a collection of components called claytronic atoms. In order to be viable, catoms need to fit a set of criteria, first, catoms need to be able to move in three dimensions relative to each other and be able to adhere to each other to form a three-dimensional shape. Second, the catoms need to be able to communicate each other in an ensemble and be able to compute state information. Fundamentally, catoms consist of a CPU, a device for communication, a single pixel display, several sensors, an onboard battery. The researchers at Carnegie Mellon University have developed prototypes of catoms. These vary from small cubes to giant helium balloons, the prototype that is most like what developers hope catoms will become is the planar catom. These take the form of 44 mm diameter cylinders and these cylinders are equipped with 24 electromagnets arranged in a series of stacked rings along the cylinder’s circumference. Movement is achieved by the catoms cooperatively enabling and disabling the magnets in order to roll along each other’s surfaces, only one magnet on each catom is energized at a time. These prototypes are able to reconfigure themselves quite quickly, with the uncoupling of two units, movement to another point, and recoupling taking only about 100 ms. Power is supplied to the catoms using pickup feet on the bottom of the cylinder, conductive strips on the table supply the necessary power. In the current design, the catoms are only able to move in two dimensions relative to each other, future catoms will be required to move in three dimensions relative to each other
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Animatronics
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Animatronics refers to the use of robotic devices to emulate a human or an animal, or bring lifelike characteristics to an otherwise inanimate object. A robot designed to be an imitation of a human is more specifically labeled as an android. Modern animatronics have found applications in movie special effects and theme parks and have, since their inception. Animatronics is a field which integrates anatomy, robots, mechatronics. Animatronic figures are often powered by pneumatics, hydraulics, and/or by electrical means, motion actuators are often used to imitate muscle movements and create realistic motions in limbs. Animatronics is portmanteau of animate and electronics The term audio-animatronics was coined by Walt Disney in 1961 when he started developing animatronics for entertainment, Audio-Animatronics does not differentiate between animatronics and androids. 1515, Leonardo da Vinci designed and built the Automata Lion,1738, The construction of automata begins in Grenoble, France by Jacques de Vaucanson. 1770, Pierre Jaquet-Droz and his son Henri-Louis Jaquet-Droz, both Swiss watchmakers, start making automata for European royalty, once completed, they had created three dolls. One doll was able to write, the other play music,1801, Joseph Jacquard builds a loom that is controlled autonomously with punched cards. The animatronic galloping horse was also on display at the 1939 Worlds Fair,1939 New York Worlds Fair 1961, Heinrich Ernst develops the MH-1, a computer-operated mechanical hand. 1961, Walt Disney coins the term audio-animatronics and begins developing modern animatronic technology,1963, The first animatronics, called Audio-Animatronics, created by Disney were the Enchanted Tiki Birds. Disneyland 1964, In the film Mary Poppins, animatronic birds are the first animatronics to be featured in a motion picture,1965, The first animatronics figure of a person is created by Disney and is Abraham Lincoln. 1968, The first animatronic character at a restaurant is created, goes by the name Golden Mario and was built by Team Built in 1968. 1977, Chuck E. Cheeses opens its doors, as the first restaurant with animatronics as an attraction,1980, ShowBiz Pizza Place opens with the Rock-afire Explosion 1982, Ben Franklin is the first animatronic figure to walk up a set of stairs. 1989, The first A-100 animatronic is developed for The Great Movie Ride attraction at the Disney-MGM Studios to represent The Wicked Witch of the West,1993, The largest animatronic figure ever built is the T. rex for the movie, Jurassic Park. 1998, Tiger Electronics begins selling Furby, a pet with over 800 English phrases or Furbish. Vernon Hills, Illinois May 11,1999, Sony releases the AIBO animatronics pet, tokyo, Japan 2008, Mr. Potato Head at the Toy Story exhibit features lips with superior range of movement to any other animatronic figure previously. Disneys Hollywood Studios October 31,2008 –July 1,2009, the Hall of Presidents September 28,2009, Disney develops Otto, the first interactive figure that can hear, see and sense actions in the room
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Domestic robot
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A domestic robot, or service robot, is an autonomous robot that is used for household chores. Thus far, there are only a few limited models, though speculators, Many domestic robots are used for basic household chores. Others are educational or entertainment robots, such as the HERO line of the 1980s, while most domestic robots are simplistic, some are connected to WiFi home networks or smart environments and are autonomous to a high degree. There were an estimated 3,540,000 service robots in use in 2006 and this type of domestic robot does chores around and inside homes. Different kinds include, Robotic vacuum cleaners and floor-washing robots that clean floors with sweeping, some use Swiffer or other disposable cleaning cloths to dry-sweep, or reusable microfiber cloths to wet-mop. Dressman is a robot to iron shirts using hot air, kitchen robots, such as Somabar, are some of the most funded robots on Kickstarter. Cat litter robots are automatic self-cleaning litter boxes that filter clumps out into a waste receptacle that can be lined with an ordinary plastic bag. Security robots which have a night-vision-capable wide-angle camera that detects movements and it can patrol places and shoot video of suspicious activities, too, and send alerts via email or text message, the stored history of past alerts and videos are accessible via the Web. The robot can also be configured to go into action at any time of the day, outdoor robots are domestic robots that perform different chores that exist outside of the house. Robotic lawn mowers are one type of robot that cut grass on their own without the need for a driver. Some models can mow complicated and uneven lawns that are up to three-quarters of an acre in size, others can mow a lawn as large as 40,000 square feet, can handle a hill inclined up to 27 degrees. Gutter-cleaning robots such as Looj use brushes and rubber blades to remove debris from rain gutters, users operate the device using a remote, a window-washing robot commonly uses two magnetic modules to navigate windows as it sprays cleaning solution onto microfiber pads to wash them. It covers about 1,601 square feet per charge, Robotic toys, such as the well known Furby, have been popular since 1998. There are also small humanoid remote controlled robots, electronic pets, such as robotic dogs, can be companions for children. They have also have used by many universities in competitions such as the RoboCup. There are also phone-powered robots for fun and games, such as Romo which is a robot that employs smartphones as its brain. By using another mobile device and an app, the user can drive it, make it produce animated facial expressions, direct it to dance. A social robot is a robot whose main objective is social interaction, Many of these robots are designed to help the elderly
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Entertainment robot
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Robotics technologies are applied in many areas of culture and entertainment. Relatively cheap, mass-produced entertainment robots are used as mechanical, sometimes interactive, the first commercial hit was, not surprisingly, modelled on the most popular pet, the canine. Robot dogs as a fad have been produced with little variation. These are some models, Teksta a toy robot dog popular in the 1990s which was intended to be able to perform card tricks. K-9 The Doctors portable computer and robot, from the British BBC Television series Doctor Who, preston - Wendolenes robot dog from the 1995 animated Wallace and Gromit film A Close Shave. Despite those humanoid robots for utilitarian uses, there are some humanoid robots which aims at entertainment uses, such as Sonys QRIO and they are usually capable of some advanced features like Voice Recognition or Walking. Nevertheless, in the mind of some users the things can hold the place of a pet. As usual in the entertainment industry, capital and creativity are invested to try, in fact, from their owners point of view this is a professional use, but the product is designed with as end use in mind its appreciation by the public. In 1956, Nicolas Schöffer created Cysp 1, a robot and dancer working together to create an abstract sculpture and these works could react to color, sound and light. Emergent Systems is creating large-scale interactive art environments where robots are able to respond to humans and each other as they react, /Autopoiesis was one such artificial life work that allowed a series of robots constructed of grapevines to both act as individuals and a group. Augmented Fish Reality allowed Siamese fighting fish to control their robots to meet across the gap of their glass fish bowls, intel Museum hosts the A. I. driven interactive robot, ARTI, which is short for artificial intelligence. ARTIs face is made out of a silicon wafer. Digital pet Domestic robot Humanoid robot List of robotic dogs Ludobot Virtual Woman
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Juggling robot
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A juggling robot is a robot designed to be able to successfully carry out bounce or toss juggling. Robots capable of juggling are designed and built both to increase and test understanding and theories of movement, juggling, and robotics. Juggling robots may include sensors to guide arm/hand movement or may rely on methods such as tracks or funnels to guide prop movement. Since true juggling requires more props than hands, many described as capable of juggling are not. A toss juggling robot that can do more than a two ball column has recently been built. However, Claude Shannon built the first juggling robot, a 3-ball bounce juggler, from an Erector Set, by 1992, Christopher G. Atkeson and Stefan K. Schaal of the Georgia Institute of Technology built a similar 5-ball bounce juggling robot. Decorated as and named W. C, fields, Shannons machine used grooved cups/tracks instead of sensors or feedback. Shannon also devised a juggling theorem, in 1989 Martin Bühler and Daniel E. Koditschek produced a juggler with one rotating bar, moving one way then the other, that bounces two-props in a fountain of indefinite length. Sakaguchi et al. and Miyazaki produced a one-armed two-ball fountain juggler with a funnel-shaped hand, kizaki and Namiki developed a fingered robot that does the same. Disney Research is developing a capable of pass juggling with the goal of being able to provide more physical interaction between visitors and mechanized characters. Contact juggling appears to be common among robots, as it is with people. Bipedal robot IEEE Motion capture Negative feedback Servomechanism Mason, Matt, a Survey Of Robotic Juggling And Dynamic Manipulation, Juggling. org
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Military robot
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Military robots are autonomous robots or remote-controlled mobile robots designed for military applications, from transport to search & rescue and attack. Some such systems are currently in use, and many are under development, broadly defined, military robots date back to World War II and the Cold War in the form of the German Goliath tracked mines and the Soviet teletanks. The MQB-1 Predator drone was when CIA officers began to see the first practical returns on their decade-old fantasy of using robots to collect intelligence. The use of robots in warfare, although traditionally a topic for fiction, is being researched as a possible future means of fighting wars. Already several military robots have been developed by various armies, some believe the future of modern warfare will be fought by automated weapons systems. Military is investing heavily in research and development towards testing and deploying increasingly automated systems, the most prominent system currently in use is the unmanned aerial vehicle which can be armed with Air-to-ground missiles and remotely operated from a command center in reconnaissance roles. There have been some developments towards developing autonomous fighter jets and bombers, however, the largest draw back to robotics is their inability to accommodate for non-standard conditions. Advances in artificial intelligence in the future may help to rectify this. US Mechatronics has produced a working automated sentry gun and is developing it further for commercial. It alerts a human overseer when it detects movement in unauthorized areas, the operator can then instruct the robot to ignore the event, or take over remote control to deal with an intruder, or to get better camera views of an emergency. The robot would also regularly scan radio frequency identification tags placed on stored inventory as it passed and it consists of a remotely operated sniper rifle attached to an unmanned autonomous helicopter. It is intended for use in combat or for several other missions requiring snipers. Flight tests are scheduled to begin in Summer 2009, the Mobile Autonomous Robot Software research program was started in December 2003 by the Pentagon who purchased 15 Segways in an attempt to develop more advanced military robots. The program was part of a $26 million Pentagon program to develop software for autonomous systems, Autonomous robotics would save and preserve soldiers lives by removing serving soldiers, who might otherwise be killed, from the battlefield. I contend there are things we could do to improve the survivability of our service members, and you all know that’s true. Major Kenneth Rose of the US Armys Training and Doctrine Command outlined some of the advantages of robotic technology in warfare and they dont hide under trees when it rains and they dont talk to their friends. A humans attention to detail on guard duty drops dramatically in the first 30 minutes. Increasing attention is paid to how to make the robots more autonomous, with a view of eventually allowing them to operate on their own for extended periods of time
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Medical robot
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A medical robot is a robot used in the medical sciences. They include, but are not limited to, surgical robots and these are in most telemanipulators, which use the surgeons actions on one side to control the effector on the other side. Rehabilitation robots This group facilitates and supports the lives of infirm, elderly people and these robots are also used for rehabilitation and related procedures, such as training and therapy. Biorobots A group of robots designed to imitate the cognition of humans, telepresence robots Allow off-site medical professionals to move, look around, communicate, and participate from remote locations. Pharmacy automation Robotic systems to dispense oral solids in a retail pharmacy setting or preparing sterile IV admixtures in a hospital pharmacy setting, disinfection robot has the capability to disinfect a whole room in mere minutes, generally using ultraviolet light technology. They are being used to fight Ebola virus disease, pulsed light is a technique to decontaminate surfaces by killing MOs using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV-C light. UV-C is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to the band between 200 and 280 nm, PL works with Xenon flash lamps that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV light, biothreat Healthcare robot Hospi Open-source robotics Robot & Frank Medical Robotics Text Book Medical Robots Conference Robotic IV Automation - RIVA Where Are the Elder Care Robots
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Service robot
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Service robots assist human beings, typically by performing a job that is dirty, dull, distant, dangerous or repetitive, including household chores. They typically are autonomous and/or operated by a control system. The term service robot does not have a technical definition. The possible applications of robots to assist in human chores is widespread, at present there are a few main categories that these robots fall into. Domestic robots perform tasks that humans regularly perform in non-industrial environments, like peoples homes such as for cleaning floors, mowing the lawn, people with disabilities, as well as people who are older, may soon be able to use service robots to help them live independently. It is also possible to use robots as assistants or butlers, robotic systems perform many functions such as repetitive tasks performed in research. The ADAM at the University of Aberystwyth in Wales can logical assumptions based on information programmed into it about yeast metabolism and it then set about proving that its predictions were correct. Autonomous scientific robots perform tasks which humans would find difficult or impossible, the Woods Hole Sentry can descend to 4,500 metres and allows a higher payload as it does not need a support ship or the oxygen and other facilities demanded by human piloted vessels. Robots in space include the Mars rovers which could carry out sampling, domestic robot Home automation for the elderly and disabled Robot kit Haidegger T, Barreto M, Goncalves P, Habib MK, Ragavan SKV, Li H et al Applied ontologies and standards for service robots. Sprenger M, Mettler T Service Robots, Business & Information Systems Engineering,57, 271–274
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Disability robot
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A disability robot is a robot designed to help people who have physical disabilities that impede with daily tasks. The field of expertise that creates such robots is called disability robotics, disability robot has been proven to assist people who are recovering from strokes and people who have abstained injuries that effect their daily tasks. ”Researchers at the University developed and tested a robotic hand. Although it was never commercialized the concept is relevant for current, since this grant, many others have been written. If there is success in development of robotics, these products could assist tomorrow’s longer-living elderly individuals enough to postpone nursing home stays. Shortage of both paid personal assistants and available family members makes artificial assistance a necessity, children with severe disabilities can develop learned helplessness, which makes them lose interest in their environment. Robotic arms are used to provide a method to engage in joint play activities. These robotic arms allows children to manipulate objects in the context of play activities. Disability robotics is a category that includes wheelchairs, robotic arms. This section will provide examples of the types of robotic devices used to assist disabled persons. Persons with severe disabilities may be assisted with robotic wheelchairs when manual control is not possible and these devices can deter loss of residual skills and frustration. Traditionally wheelchairs either gave control to the person or robot depending on disability level, bodyweight-supported treadmill training are used to enhance walking ability of people with neurological injury. These machines are therapist-assisted devices that are used in the clinical setting, the BWSTT device, and many others like it, assist physical therapists by providing task-specific practice of walking in people following neurological injury. Powered exoskeleton Home automation Domestic robot Assistive technology
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Agricultural robot
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Agricultural robots or agbot is a robot deployed for agricultural purposes. The main area of application of robots in agriculture today is at the harvesting stage, a possible emerging application of robots or drones is for weed control. Fruit picking robots, driverless tractor / sprayer, and sheep shearing robots are designed to replace human labor, in most cases, a lot of factors have to be considered before the commencement of a task. Robots can be used for other tasks such as pruning, weeding, spraying and monitoring. Robots can also be used in applications such as automatic milking, washing and castrating. Robots like these have many benefits for the industry, including a higher quality of fresh produce, lower production costs. They can also be used to manual tasks, such as weed or bracken spraying. The mechanical design consists of an end effector, manipulator, several factors must be considered in the design of the manipulator, including the task, economic efficiency, and required motions. The end effector influences the value of the fruit and the grippers design is based on the crop that is being harvested. An end effector in a robot is the device found at the end of the robotic arm. Several different kinds of end effectors have been developed, in an agricultural operation involving grapes in Japan, end effectors are used for harvesting, berry-thinning, spraying, and bagging. Each was designed according to the nature of the task and the shape, for instance, the end effectors used for harvesting were designed to grasp, cut, and push the bunches of grapes. Berry thinning is another operation performed on the grapes, and is used to enhance the value of the grapes, increase the grapes size. For berry thinning, an end effector consists of an upper, middle, the upper part has two plates and a rubber that can open and close. The two plates compress the grapes to cut off the branches and extract the bunch of grapes. The middle part contains a plate of needles, a compression spring, when the two plates compress, the needles punch holes through the grapes. Next, the part has a cutting device which can cut the bunch to standardize its length. For spraying, the end consists of a spray nozzle that is attached to a manipulator
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Automated restaurant
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Automated restaurant or robotic restaurant is a restaurant that uses robots to do tasks such as delivering food and drinks to the tables and/or to cook the food. Restaurant automation means the use of restaurant management system to automate the major operations of a restaurant establishment, even in the early 1970s, a number of restaurants served foods solely through vending machines. Called automats, or in Japan shokkenki, customers ordered their foods directly through the machines, more recently, restaurants are opening that have completely or partially automated their services. These may include taking of orders, preparing of food, serving and billing, a few fully automated restaurants operate without any human intervention whatsoever. Robots are designed to help and sometimes replace human labour, automation of restaurants also allows the option for greater customization of an order. Automated restaurants have been opening in many countries, robot Chacha, the first robot restaurant of India is due to open in capital city, New Delhi. Across Europe, McDonalds plans on implementing 7,000 touch screen kiosks that will handle cashiering duties
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BEAM robotics
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BEAM robotics is a style of robotics that primarily uses simple analogue circuits, such as comparators, instead of a microprocessor in order to produce an unusually simple design. While not as flexible as microprocessor based robotics, BEAM robotics can be robust, BEAM robots may use a set of the analog circuits, mimicking biological neurons, to facilitate the robots response to its working environment. The basic BEAM principles focus on a stimulus-response based ability within a machine, the underlying mechanism was invented by Mark W. Tilden where the circuit is used to simulate biological neuron behaviours. Some similar research was previously done by Ed Rietman in Experiments In Artificial Neural Networks, Tildens circuit is often compared to a shift register, but with several important features making it a useful circuit in a mobile robot. Besides the simple computational layer of Tildens Nervous Networks, BEAM has brought a multitude of tools to the roboticists toolbox. The Solar Engine circuit, many H-bridge circuits for small motor control, tactile sensor designs, being focused on reaction-based behaviors, BEAM robotics attempts to copy the characteristics and behaviours of biological organisms, with the ultimate goal of domesticating these wild robots. The aesthetics of BEAM robots derive from the form follows function modulated by the particular design choices the builder makes while implementing the desired functionality. Various people have varying ideas about what BEAM actually stands for, the most widely accepted meaning is Biology, Electronics, Aesthetics, and Mechanics. This term originated with Mark Tilden during a discussion at the Ontario Science Centre in 1990, Mark was displaying a selection of his original bots which he had built while working at the University of Waterloo. This design philosophy is closely echoed in the classic book Vehicles, through a series of thought experiments, this book explores the development of complex robot behaviours through simple inhibitory and excitory sensor links to the actuators. Microcontrollers and computer programming are not a part of a traditional BEAM robot due to the very low-level hardware-centric design philosophy. There are successful robot designs mating the two technologies and these hybrids fulfill a need for robust control systems with the added flexibility of dynamic programming, like the horse-and-rider topology BEAMbots. Horse behavior is implemented with traditional BEAM technology but a microcontroller based rider can guide that behavior so as to accomplish the goals of the rider, there are various -trope BEAMbots, which attempt to achieve a specific goal. Of the series, the phototropes are the most prevalent, as light-seeking would be the most beneficial behaviour for a solar-powered robot, audiophobes go away from sound sources. Photophobes go away from light sources, radiotropes react to radio frequency sources. Radiophobes go away from RF sources, thermophobes go away from heat sources. BEAMbots have a variety of movements and positioning mechanisms and these include, Sitters, Unmoving robots that have a physically passive purpose. Beacons, Transmit a signal for other BEAMbots to use, ornaments, A catch-all name for sitters that are not beacons or pummers
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Unmanned aerial vehicle
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An unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system, which include a UAV, a controller. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under control by a human operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously. Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions too dull, civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015. Multiple terms are used for unmanned vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept. The term drone, more used by the public, was coined in reference to the resemblance of navigation. The term has encountered opposition from aviation professionals and government regulators. This term emphasizes the importance of other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground stations, data links. A similar term is a vehicle system remotely piloted aerial vehicle. Many similar terms are in use, therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided. The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight, however, a radio-controlled aircraft becomes a drone with the addition of an autopilot artificial intelligence, and ceases to be a drone when an AI is removed. In 1849 Austria sent unmanned, bomb-filled balloons to attack Venice, UAV innovations started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time, the earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Lows Aerial Target in 1916. Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles in 1915. Advances followed during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, the first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935. More emerged during World War II – used both to train gunners and to fly attack missions
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Unmanned ground vehicle
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An unmanned ground vehicle is a vehicle that operates while in contact with the ground and without an onboard human presence. UGVs can be used for applications where it may be inconvenient, dangerous. The UGV is the counterpart to unmanned aerial vehicles and remotely operated underwater vehicles. Unmanned robotics are being developed for both civilian and military use to perform a variety of dull, dirty, and dangerous activities. A working remote controlled car was reported in the October 1921 issue of RCAs World Wide Wireless magazine, the car was unmanned and controlled wirelessly via radio, it was thought the technology could someday be adapted to tanks. In the 1930s, the USSR developed Teletanks, a machine gun-armed tank remotely controlled by radio from another tank and these were used in the Winter War against Finland and at the start of the Eastern Front after Germany invaded the USSR in 1941. During World War II, the British developed a control version of their Matilda II infantry tank in 1941. Known as Black Prince, it would have used for drawing the fire of concealed anti-tank guns. Due to the costs of converting the system of the tank to Wilson type gearboxes. From 1942, the Germans used the Goliath tracked mine for remote demolition work, the Goliath was a small tracked vehicle carrying 60 kg of explosive charge directed through a control cable. Their inspiration was a miniature French tracked vehicle found after France was defeated in 1940, the combination of cost, low speed, reliance on a cable for control, and poor protection against weapons meant it was not considered a success. Shakey was a platform that had a TV camera, sensors. The platform can be based on a vehicle design and includes the locomotive apparatus, sensors. Tracks, wheels, and legs are the forms of locomotion. In addition the platform may include a body and some are made to join with other units. A primary purpose of UGV sensors is navigation, another is environment detection, sensors can include compasses, odometers, inclinometers, gyroscopes, cameras for triangulation, laser and ultrasound range finders, and infrared technology. A remote-operated UGV is a vehicle that is controlled by a human operator via interface, all actions are determined by the operator based upon either direct visual observation or remote use of sensors such as digital video cameras. A basic example of the principles of remote-operation would be a remote controlled toy car, some examples of remote-operated UGV technology are, Unmanned Snatch Land Rover
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Mobile robot
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A mobile robot is an automatic machine that is capable of locomotion. Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical location, mobile robots can be autonomous which means they are capable of navigating an uncontrolled environment without the need for physical or electro-mechanical guidance devices. Alternatively, mobile robots can rely on devices that allow them to travel a pre-defined navigation route in relatively controlled space. By contrast, industrial robots are usually stationary, consisting of a jointed arm and gripper assembly. Mobile robots have become commonplace in commercial and industrial settings. Hospitals have been using autonomous robots to move materials for many years. Warehouses have installed mobile robotic systems to move materials from stocking shelves to order fulfillment zones. Mobile robots are also a focus of current research and almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot research. Mobile robots are also found in industrial, military and security settings, domestic robots are consumer products, including entertainment robots and those that perform certain household tasks such as vacuuming or gardening. The components of a robot are a controller, control software. The controller is generally a microprocessor, embedded microcontroller or a personal computer, mobile control software can be either assembly level language or high-level languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Fortran or special real-time software. The sensors used are dependent upon the requirements of the robot, the requirements could be dead reckoning, tactile and proximity sensing, triangulation ranging, collision avoidance, position location and other specific applications. Mobile robots may be classified by, The environment in which they travel and they are most commonly wheeled or tracked, but also include legged robots with two or more legs. There are many types of mobile robot navigation, A manually teleoperated robot is totally under control of a driver with a joystick or other control device. The device may be plugged directly into the robot, may be a wireless joystick, a tele-opd robot is typically used to keep the operator out of harms way. Examples of manual remote robots include Robotics Designs ANATROLLER ARI-100 and ARI-50, Foster-Millers Talon, iRobots PackBot, a guarded tele-op robot has the ability to sense and avoid obstacles but will otherwise navigate as driven, like a robot under manual tele-op. Few if any mobile robots offer only guarded tele-op, some of the earliest Automated Guided Vehicles were line following mobile robots. They might follow a line painted or embedded in the floor or ceiling or an electrical wire in the floor
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Mobile robot navigation
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For any mobile device, the ability to navigate in its environment is important. Avoiding dangerous situations such as collisions and unsafe conditions comes first, Robot navigation means the robots ability to determine its own position in its frame of reference and then to plan a path towards some goal location. In order to navigate in its environment, the robot or any other mobility device requires representation, i. e. a map of the environment, Robot localization denotes the robots ability to establish its own position and orientation within the frame of reference. Map building can be in the shape of a map or any notation describing locations in the robot frame of reference. However, there are a range of techniques for navigation and localization using vision information, in order to give an overview of vision-based navigation and its techniques, we classify these techniques under indoor navigation and outdoor navigation. The easiest way of making a go to a goal location is simply to guide it to this location. This guidance can be done in different ways, burying an inductive loop or magnets in the floor, painting lines on the floor, or by placing beacons, markers, such Automated Guided Vehicles are used in industrial scenarios for transportation tasks. There are a wider variety of indoor navigation systems. The basic reference of indoor and outdoor navigation systems is Vision for mobile robot navigation, also see Vision based positioning and AVM Navigator. Neato Robotics Mobile Robot Navigation Jonathan Dixon, Oliver Henlich -10 June 1997 BECKER, M. DANTAS, Carolina Meirelles, MACEDO, Weber Perdigão, in, Paulo Eigi Miyagi, Oswaldo Horikawa, Emilia Villani. ABCM Symposium Series in Mechatronics, Volume 2,1 ed. São Paulo - SP, ABCM,2006, v.2, p. 250-257. ISBN 978-85-85769-26-0 line tracking sensors for robots and its algorithms
