1.
Parke-Davis
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Parke-Davis is a subsidiary of the pharmaceutical company Pfizer. Although no longer an independent corporation, it was once Americas oldest and largest drug maker, Parke-Davis was acquired by Warner–Lambert in 1970, which in turn was bought by Pfizer in 2000. Parke-Davis and Company was founded in Detroit, Michigan by Dr. Samuel P. Duffield, in 1860 Dr. Duffield owned a small drugstore at the corner of Gratiot and Woodward Avenues. Dr. Duffield made a variety of preparations, including Hoffman’s anodyne and mercurial ointment. A partnership of Dr. Duffield and Hervey Coke Parke was formed in October 1866, Parke was a businessman looking for business opportunities and Davis an ambitious man with skills in sales. Duffield withdrew in 1869 because of health and an interest in practicing medicine. The name Parke, Davis & Company was formally adopted in 1871, in 1871 the company sent expeditions to Central and South America and the West Indies in search of medicinal plants. The company produced an herbal laxative drug Cascara found from Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, the Parke-Davis Research Laboratory is a National Historic Landmark, the surrounding Parke-Davis and Company Pharmaceutical Company Plant is on the National Register of Historic Places. The production facility on Parkdale Road in what was then Avon Township MI was also a landmark in that vicinity, Parke-Davis was acquired by Warner-Lambert in 1970. Warner-Lambert was bought by Pfizer in 2000, in the case of Franklin v. Parke-Davis the company was accused of illegal marketing practices, including the promotion of off-label uses of its anticonvulsant medication Neurontin. The drug had only approved for use in patients with epilepsy. As announced on January 22,2007, Pfizer closed its facilities in Ann Arbor. One of Parke-Davis early products was an amylase isolated from Aspergillus oryzae by Dr. Jokichi Takamine, the enzyme was originally intended for use in distilleries, but was more successfully marketed as Taka-diastase for dyspepsia. In addition, Parke-Davis distributed Coleys toxins, the first cancer vaccine, in addition, the company entered into a distribution agreement with the Inoculation Department of St Marys and distributed a number of vaccines for infectious diseases and even acne and cancer. Another of the products developed by Takamine was a pure form of adrenaline. The compound was patented in 1900 and trademarked as Adrenalin, because of the similarity of this name to Adrenaline, the use of the alternative name epinephrine for generics was mandated in the United States and is used to this day. Parke-Davis filed a lawsuit against H. K. Mulford Company alleging infringement of its Adrenalin patents, the ruling in favor of Parke-Davis by judge Learned Hand is considered crucial to modern patent law. The company promised that its products would supply the place of food, make the coward brave
2.
Recreational drug use
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Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to alter ones mental state in a way that modifies emotions, perceptions, and feelings for recreational purposes. When a substance enters the body, it brings on an intoxicating effect. Generally, people use drugs that fall into three categories, depressants, stimulants, and psychedelic drugs. In popular usage, it is considered to be a tolerated social behaviour rather than a serious medical condition such as self-medication. The substances classified as controlled and illegal drugs vary by country, in 2009 it was estimated that about 3% to 6% of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once. International and domestic law enforcement agencies are perpetually occupied with interdiction efforts against illegal use, manufacture. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use, there has not been agreement around any one single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model, any number of these factors are likely to influence an individual’s drug use as they are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of genetics, mental health or traumatic experiences, social factors play a role in exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status. Plant says, “From the users point of there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure, becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience. ”Anthropological research has suggested that humansmay have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins. The ability to use chemicals to serve the function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasised the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs, severity and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all drugs, only heroin, crack cocaine. Researcher David Nutt stated that studies showing benefits for moderate alcohol consumption lacked control for the variable of what the subjects were drinking
3.
Hallucinogen
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A hallucinogen is a psychoactive agent which can cause hallucinations, perceptual anomalies, and other substantial subjective changes in thoughts, emotion, and consciousness. The common types of hallucinogens are psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants, although hallucinations are a common symptom of amphetamine psychosis, amphetamines are not considered hallucinogens, as they are not a primary effect of the drugs themselves. While hallucinations can occur when abusing stimulants, the nature of stimulant psychosis is not unlike delirium, a debate persists on criteria which would easily differentiate a substance which is psychedelic from one hallucinogenic. Sir Thomas Browne in 1646 coined the term hallucination from the Latin word alucinari meaning to wander in the mind, the term psychedelic is derived from the Ancient Greek words psychē and dēloun, or mind-revealing. A hallucinogen and a psychedelic may refer correctly to the same substance, hallucinations and psychedelia may both refer to the same aspects of subjective experience in a given instance. A hallucinogen in this sense refers to any substance which causes changes in perception or hallucinations. In contrast to Hollisters original criteria, adverse effects may predominate with some hallucinogens with this application of the term, the word psychedelic was coined to express the idea of a drug that makes manifest a hidden but real aspect of the mind. One explanatory model for the experiences provoked by psychedelics is the reducing valve concept, in this view, the drugs disable the brains filtering ability to selectively prevent certain perceptions, emotions, memories and thoughts from ever reaching the conscious mind. This effect has been described as mind expanding, or consciousness expanding, many designer drugs and research chemicals are hallucinogenic in nature, such as those in the 2C and NBOMe families. Dissociatives produce analgesia, amnesia and catalepsy at anesthetic doses, dissociative symptoms include the disruption or compartmentalization of. the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception. p. 523 Dissociation of sensory input can cause derealization, the perception of the world as being dream-like or unreal. The primary dissociatives achieve their effect through blocking the signals received by the NMDA receptor set and include ketamine, methoxetamine, phencyclidine, dextromethorphan, however, dissociation is also remarkably administered by salvinorin As potent κ-opioid receptor agonism. Some dissociatives can have CNS depressant effects, thereby carrying similar risks as opioids, DXM in higher doses can increase heart rate and blood pressure and still depress respiration. Inversely, PCP can have unpredictable effects and has often been classified as a stimulant. While many have reported that they feel no pain while under the effects of PCP, DXM and Ketamine, this does not fall under the usual classification of anesthetics in recreational doses. Rather, true to their name, they process pain as a kind of far away sensation, pain, although present, becomes a disembodied experience, as for probably the most common dissociative, nitrous oxide, the principal risk seems to be due to oxygen deprivation. Injury from falling is also a danger, as nitrous oxide may cause loss of consciousness. Because of the level of physical activity and relative imperviousness to pain induced by PCP
4.
Scientific method
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The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the method is the experiment. The scientific method is a process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so often come up with questions about things they see or hear. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, in general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the hypothesis may require refinement. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a theory may be developed. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features are shared in common between them. The overall process of the method involves making conjectures, deriving predictions from them as logical consequences. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question, the hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments, the purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take anywhere from a college lab to CERNs Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is presented as a fixed sequence of steps. Not all steps take place in scientific inquiry, and are not always in the same order. Some philosophers and scientists have argued there is no scientific method, such as Lee Smolin. Nola and Sankey remark that For some, the idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-years debate
5.
Chemist
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A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
6.
Euphoria
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Euphoria is an affective state in which a person experiences pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain drugs, many of which are addictive, can cause euphoria, similarly, certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to emotionally arousing music, music-making, and dancing, can induce a state of euphoria. Euphoria is also a symptom of certain neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders, romantic love and components of the human sexual response cycle are also associated with the induction of euphoria. According to Kent Berridge, an affective neuroscientist, intense euphoria occurs from the activation of every hedonic hotspot within the brains reward system. The word euphoria is derived from the Ancient Greek terms εὐφορία, εὖ eu meaning well and it is semantically opposite to dysphoria. A1706 English dictionary defined euphoria as the bearing of the Operation of a Medicine. A1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as pleasant excitement, in 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as a high sounding name meaning feeling fit, normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. In 1940 The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a state of well being. However, in 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable, the 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria a mood of contentment and well-being, with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. As a sign of disease, it was described as bland and out of context. Many different types of stimuli can induce euphoria, including drugs, natural rewards. Affective disorders such as mania or bipolar disorder can involve euphoria as a symptom. Euphoria can occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure. Pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the pathways that project to the striatum. A euphoriant is a type of drug which tends to induce euphoria. Most euphoriants are addictive drugs due to their properties and ability to activate the brains reward system. Dopaminergic stimulants like amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, MDMA, nicotine is a parasympathetic stimulant that acts as a mild euphoriant in some people. Certain depressants can produce euphoria, some of the euphoriant drugs in this class include drinking alcohol in moderate doses, γ-hydroxybutyric acid, some barbiturates and benzodiazepines may cause euphoria
7.
Methoxetamine
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Methoxetamine, or 3-MeO-2-Oxo-PCE is a dissociative drug that has been sold as a designer drug. Methoxetamine differs from many such as ketamine and phencyclidine that were developed as pharmaceuticals in that it was designed for grey market distribution. Methoxetamine hydrochloride is soluble in ethanol up to 10 mg/ml at 25 °C, by July 2011, the EMCDDA had identified 58 websites selling the compound at a cost of 145–195 euros for 10 grams. MXE remains popular despite bans in many countries, Methoxetamine is reported to have a similar effect to ketamine, with increased potency and duration. Recreational use of Methoxetamine has been associated with hospitalizations from high and/or combined consumption in the US, acute reversible cerebellar toxicity has been documented in three cases of hospital admission due to methoxetamine overdose, lasting for between one and four days after exposure. Like ketamine, methoxetamine has been found to produce bladder inflammation and fibrosis after high dose, reports of urotoxicity in humans have yet to appear in the medical literature. It has been hypothesized that MXE may be an effective, fast-acting antidepressant like other NMDA antagonists with possibly even superior efficacy compared to ketamine and its activity at other receptors may contribute to this. Methoxetamine is one of a few substances which has been controlled under the UN1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances since its inception and it was made a schedule 2 drug in November 2016. It is an example of a drug being put into schedule II without having an existing medical use. MXE became classified as a narcotic in Brazil in February 2014, as of October 2015 MXE is a controlled substance in China. On 16 June 2014, the European Commission proposed that MXE be banned across the European Union and this is following the procedure for risk-assessment and control of new psychoactive substances set up by the Council, Decision 2005/387/JHA. Methoxetamine is a controlled substance making it illegal to produce, sell or possess in The Republic of Poland as of 1 July 2015, MXE became classified as a narcotic in Sweden in late February 2012. MXE became a substance in Japan from 1 July 2012. MXE has been a substance in Russia since October 2011. MXE has been illegal in Switzerland since December 2011, MXE became classified as an illegal narcotic in Israel on May 2012. Prior to March 2012, MXE was not controlled by the UKs Misuse of Drugs Act, in April 2012, methoxetamine was placed under temporary class drug control, which prohibits its import and sale for 12 months. The report went on to suggest that all analogues of MXE should also become class B drugs, MXE ceased to be covered by the temporary prohibition on 26 February 2013, when it became classified as a Class B drug. In September 2015, a bill was introduced into Congress that sought to make MXE a Schedule I substance, Methoxetamine is a Schedule I controlled substance in the state of Alabama making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in Alabama
8.
Phencyclidine
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Phencyclidine, also known as angel dust and Sernyl among others, is a dissociative drug. PCP was brought to market in the 1950s as a pharmaceutical drug but was taken off the market in 1965 due to the high prevalence of dissociative hallucinogenic side effects. Moreover, the discovery of ketamine by Parke-Davis researchers was thought to represent an alternative for use as an anesthetic medication. Since this time a number of derivatives of PCP have been sold as dissociative drugs for recreational and non-medical use. In chemical structure, PCP is a member of the arylcyclohexylamine class, PCP works primarily as an NMDA receptor antagonist. As an addictive drug, PCP is associated with compulsive abuse, as a recreational drug, PCP may be ingested orally, smoked, insufflated or injected. PCP began to emerge as a drug in major cities in the United States in 1967. In 1978, People magazine and Mike Wallace of 60 Minutes called PCP the countrys number one drug problem, although recreational use of the drug had always been relatively low, it began declining significantly in the 1980s. In surveys, the number of school students admitting to trying PCP at least once fell from 13% in 1979 to less than 3% in 1990. PCP comes in powder and liquid forms, but typically it is sprayed onto leafy material such as cannabis, mint, oregano, tobacco, parsley, or ginger leaves. PCP is a Schedule II substance in the United States and its ACSCN is 7471 and its manufacturing quota for 2014 was 19 grams. It is a Schedule I drug by the Controlled Drugs and Substances act in Canada, a List I drug of the Opium Law in the Netherlands, PCP can be ingested through smoking. Fry is a term for marijuana or tobacco cigarettes that are dipped in PCP. PCP hydrochloride can be insufflated, depending upon the purity, the free base is quite hydrophobic and may be absorbed through skin and mucus membranes. Behavioral effects can vary by dosage, low doses produce a numbness in the extremities and intoxication, characterized by staggering, unsteady gait, slurred speech, bloodshot eyes, and loss of balance. Moderate doses will produce analgesia and anesthesia, high doses may lead to convulsions. Users frequently do not know how much of the drug they are taking due to the tendency of the drug to be produced illegally in uncontrolled conditions, psychological effects include severe changes in body image, loss of ego boundaries, paranoia, and depersonalization. Hallucinations, euphoria, and suicidal impulses are also reported, as well as aggressive behavior
9.
Analgesic
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An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems and they are distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate, sensation. Analgesics include paracetamol, the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as the salicylates, when choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent, the World Health Organization pain ladder specifies mild analgesics as its first step. Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provided pain relief in common such as muscle sprains. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions, each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects. Drugs for pain are typically classified by chemical structure and they may also be classified in other ways. Sometimes they are classified by use for classes of medical condition. Other times they are sorted by the needs of populations who would use them. They might be listed by availability in an area, perhaps to prevent recommending a drug which is illegal in one place even if it is easily available elsewhere. Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a used to treat pain. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain, in combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously, effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic, paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are a class that groups together drugs that provide analgesic and antipyretic effects. The most prominent members of group of drugs, aspirin. These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs, the cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions, COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme and these drugs are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular
10.
Aryl
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In the context of organic molecules, aryl is any functional group or substituent derived from an aromatic ring, usually an aromatic hydrocarbon, be it phenyl, naphthyl, thienyl, indolyl, etc. Aryl is used for the sake of abbreviation or generalization, a simple aryl group is phenyl, C6H5, it is derived from benzene. The tolyl group, CH3C6H4, is derived from toluene, the xylyl group, 2C6H3, is derived from xylene, while the naphthyl group, C10H7, is derived from naphthalene. Arylation is a process in which an aryl group is attached to a substituent. Alkyl Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a target for dioxins Arene compound
11.
Piperidine
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Piperidine is an organic compound with the molecular formula 5NH. This heterocyclic amine consists of a ring containing five methylene bridges. It is a liquid with an odor described as objectionable. The name comes from the genus name Piper, which is the Latin word for pepper, although, piperidine is a common organic compound, it is best known as a representative structure element within many pharmaceuticals and alkaloids. Piperidine was first reported in 1850 by the Scottish chemist Thomas Anderson and again, independently, in 1852 by the French chemist Auguste Cahours, both men obtained piperidine by reacting piperine with nitric acid. Piperidine itself has been obtained from black pepper, from Psilocaulon absimile, the piperidine structural motif is present in numerous natural alkaloids. These include piperine, which gives black pepper its spicy taste and this gave the compound its name. Piperidine prefers a chair conformation, similar to cyclohexane, unlike cyclohexane, piperidine has two distinguishable chair conformations, one with the N–H bond in an axial position, and the other in an equatorial position. After much controversy during the 1950s–1970s, the equatorial conformation was found to be stable by 0.72 kcal/mol in the gas phase. In nonpolar solvents, a range between 0.2 and 0.6 kcal/mol has been estimated, but in polar solvents the axial conformer may be more stable. In the case of N-methylpiperidine, the conformation is preferred by 3.16 kcal/mol. Piperidine is a widely used secondary amine and it is widely used to convert ketones to enamines. Enamines derived from piperidine can be used in the Stork enamine alkylation reaction, Piperidine can be converted to the chloramine C5H10NCl with calcium hypochlorite. The resulting chloramine undergoes dehydrohalogenation to afford the cyclic imine, 13C NMR,47.27.2,25.2 1H NMR,2.79,2.19,1.51 Piperidine is used as a solvent and as a base. A significant industrial application of piperidine is for the production of dipiperidinyl dithiuram tetrasulfide, Piperidine and its derivatives are ubiquitous building blocks in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals. Piperidine is also used as a base for the deprotection of Fmoc-amino acids used in solid-phase peptide synthesis
