1.
Reporting mark
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A reporting mark is an alphabetic code of one to four letters used to identify owners or lessees of rolling stock and other equipment used on certain railroad networks. In North America the mark, which consists of an code of one to four letters, is stenciled on each piece of equipment. The Association of American Railroads assigns marks to all carriers, under authority granted by the U. S, surface Transportation Board, Transport Canada, and Mexican Government. Under current practice, the first letter must match the initial letter of the railroad name, as it also acts as a Standard Carrier Alpha Code, the reporting mark cannot conflict with codes in use by other nonrail carriers. In another example, the mark for state-funded Amtrak services in California is CDTX because the state transportation agency owns the equipment used in these services. This is why the reporting mark for CSX Transportation, which is a railroad, is CSXT instead of CSX. This often resulted in five-letter reporting marks, an option not otherwise allowed by the AAR, the standard ISO6346 covers identifiers for intermodal containers. When the owner of a mark is taken over by another company. For example, when the Union Pacific Railroad acquired the Chicago and North Western Railway in the 1990s, some companies own several marks that are used to identify different classes of cars, such as boxcars or gondolas. If the acquiring company discontinues the name or mark of the acquired company, occasionally, long-disused marks are suddenly revived by the companies which now own them. For example, in recent years, the Union Pacific Railroad has begun to use the mark CMO on newly built covered hoppers, gondolas, CMO originally belonged to a predecessor of the CNW, which passed it on to them, from which the UP inherited it. Some of these still retain their temporary NYC marks. Because of its size, this list has been split into subpages based on the first letter of the reporting mark, railinc, a subsidiary of the AAR, maintains the active reporting marks for the North American rail industry. Railinc offers a free online look-up of reporting marks and other industry reference files through the Railincs Freight Rail 411 website, a railway vehicle must be registered in a national vehicle register using a 12-digit number derived from the old UIC system of vehicle numbering. The number contains the country in the third and fourth digit. The VKM must not contain special signs or digits, the VKM is preceded by the code for the country, where the vehicle is registered and a hyphen. Some examples, When a vehicle is sold it does not normally be transferred to another register, the Czech railways bought large numbers of coaches from ÖBB. The number remained the same but the VKM changed from A-ÖBB to A-ČD, the UIC introduced a uniform numbering system for their members based on a 12-digit number, largely known as UIC number
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
4.
Plant System
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The Plant System named after its owner, Henry B. Plant, was a system of railroads and steamboats in the U. S. South, the original line of the system was the Savannah, Florida and Western Railway, running across southern Georgia. The Plant Investment Company was formed in 1882 to lease and buy other railroads, other major lines incorporated into the system include the Savannah and Charleston Railroad and the Brunswick and Western Railroad. The Atlantic and Gulf Railroad went bankrupt on January 1,1877, Plant bought the Savannah and Charleston Railroad in 1880, reorganizing it as the Charleston and Savannah Railway. That acquisition extended the line from Savannah northeast to Charleston, South Carolina, the Waycross and Florida Railroad and East Florida Railroad were chartered in February 1880, forming the Georgia and Florida parts of the Waycross Short Line. That line, running from the line at Waycross southeast to Jacksonville, Florida. At River Junction, the Louisville and Nashville Railroads Pensacola and Atlantic Railroad continued west, the Live Oak and Rowlands Bluff Railroad and Live Oak, Tampa and Charlotte Harbor Railroad were chartered in 1881 to continue the short Florida Branch south from Live Oak further into Florida. At the time, the connection between this system, with a main line from Sanford west to Tampa, was via steamboats on the St. Johns River from Jacksonville to Sanford. The Plant Investment Company was formed in 1882 to lease and buy other railroads, the various lines of the SF&W were consolidated into one company in 1884. In 1886, the system was changed to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge, in 1887 the Green Pond, Walterboro and Branchville Railway opened as a short branch of the main line to Walterboro, South Carolina. The Walterborough and Western Railroad continued that line to Ehrhardt in 1896, the Tallahassee Branch was never built, but the Monticello Branch opened in 1888. Plant obtained a controlling interest in the Alabama Midland Railway in July 1890 and that line continued the main line from Bainbridge west to Montgomery, Alabama. The Southwestern Alabama Railway and Abbeville Southern Railway, two branches of line, were acquired in the 1890s. In 1890, the 3 ft narrow gauge Florida Southern Railway went into receivership, during this time, its Charlotte Harbor branch operated independently and converted this portion of the line to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. In 1892, Plant bought the Florida Southern Railway under foreclosure, the Florida Southern Railroad was integrated with the rest of the Plant System in 1896 and was converted to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in that same year. The Silver Springs, Ocala and Gulf Railroad was chartered in 1877 and opened in 1892, running from Ocala west to Dunnellon and then south to Homosassa, a connection was built from Inverness to the South Florida Railroad at Pemberton Ferry. The Winston and Bone Valley Railroad, opened in 1892 to serve phosphate mines near Lakeland, the Tampa and Thonotosassa Railroad was incorporated in 1893, running northeast from the South Florida Railroad in Tampa to the small town of Thonotosassa. In 1895, Plant bought the 3 ft narrow gauge Sanford and St. Petersburg Railroad in 1895, the most profitable section of this line was immediately converted to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in, leaving the remaining section from Trilby to Sanford in its original gauge
5.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
6.
5 ft and 1520 mm gauge railways
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Railways with a railway track gauge of 5 ft/1,524 mm were first constructed in the United Kingdom and the United States. This gauge is commonly called Russian gauge because this gauge was later chosen as the common track gauge for the Russian Empire. The gauge was redefined by Russian Railways to be 1520 mm, the primary region where Russian gauge is used is the former Soviet Union, Mongolia and Finland, with about 225,000 km of track. Russian gauge is the second most common gauge in the world, in 1748, the Wylam waggonway was built to a 5 ft gauge for the shipment of coal from Wylam to Lemington down the River Tyne. In 1839, the Eastern Counties Railway was constructed, and in 1840, in 1844, both lines were converted to 1,435 mm standard gauge. In 1903, the East Hill Cliff Railway, a funicular, was opened. In 1827, Horatio Allen, the engineer of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company, prescribed the usage of 5 ft gauge. The presence of several distinct gauges was a disadvantage to the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. In 1886, when around 11,500 miles of 5 ft gauge track existed in the United States, while of almost no practical importance the railway did demonstrate that this gauge was viable. The second railway in the Russian Empire was the Warsaw–Vienna railway which was built to 1,435 mm, for the building of Russias first major railway, the Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway, engineer Pavel Melnikov hired as consultant George Washington Whistler, a prominent American railway engineer. Melnikov, of the Construction Commission overseeing the railway, recommended 6 ft following the example of the first railway and his study of US Railways. Following a report sent by Whistler the head of the Main Administration of Transport and Buildings recommended 5 ft and it was approved for the railway by Tsar Nicholas I on February 14,1843. The next lines built were also approved with this gauge but it was not until March 1860 that a Government decree stated all major railways in Russia would be 5 ft gauge. It is widely and incorrectly believed that Imperial Russia chose a gauge broader than standard gauge for military reasons, in 1841 a Russian army engineer wrote a paper stating that such a danger did not exist since railways could be made dysfunctional by retreating forces. Finally for the Moscow - Saint Petersburg Railway, which became the benchmark, despite this the difference in gauge did play a role in hindering invading armies, especially in World War II, it was just not selected with that in mind. The 5-foot gauge became the standard in the whole Russian Empire and that includes the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus, the Caucasian and Central Asian republics, Finland, and in the once Soviet-influenced Mongolia. This formed a break of gauge between Changchun and Kuancheng, until the rest of the former Chinese Eastern Railway was converted to standard gauge, unlike in South Manchuria, the Soviet Unions reconquest of southern Sakhalin from Japan did not result in regauging of the railway system. Southern Sakhalin has continued with the original Japanese 1,067 mm gauge simultaneously with the Russian gauge railway, constructed in the northern part of the island in 1930-1932
7.
Savannah, Georgia
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Savannah is the oldest city in the U. S. state of Georgia and is the county seat of Chatham County. Established in 1733 on the Savannah River, the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia, a strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War, Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgias fifth-largest city and third-largest metropolitan area, Downtown Savannah largely retains the original town plan prescribed by founder James Oglethorpe. Savannah was the host city for the sailing competitions during the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta. On February 12,1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship Anne landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi, the Yamacraws, Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah was founded on that date, along with the colony of Georgia, in 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony and Savannah was made the colonial capital of Georgia. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port of the Thirteen Colonies, British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year a combined force of American and French soldiers failed to rout the British at the Siege of Savannah. The British did not leave the city until July 1782, Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacys sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Shermans March to the Sea. Early on December 21,1864, local authorities negotiated a surrender to save Savannah from destruction. Savannah was named for the Savannah River, which derives from variant names for the Shawnee. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo, and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah Rivers navigation on the fall line and these Shawnee, whose Native name was Ša·wano·ki, were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only southerners, Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 108.7 square miles. Savannah is the port on the Savannah River and the largest port in the state of Georgia. It is also located near the U. S. Intracoastal Waterway, Georgias Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles south of downtown Savannah. Savannahs climate is classified as humid subtropical, in the Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records few days of freezing temperatures each year, due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgias interior. Nevertheless, the temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F, on July 20,1986, down to 3 °F
8.
Screven, Georgia
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Screven is a city in Wayne County, Georgia, United States. The population was 702 at the 2000 census, although it was a railroad town as early as 1847, it was not officially chartered until August 19,1907. In 1857 the Savannah, Albany and Gulf Railroad Companys line from Savannah, prior to this, the tracks connected the town to Thomasville, then a popular resort destination for wealthy Northerners and Europeans. The town was named for Dr. James Proctor Screven of the Atlantic, after Dr. Screvens death in 1859, his son John Bryan Screven took over the railroad and continued its development. Both men served as mayor of Savannah, a section of the tracks just outside Screven on the Little Satilla is still known as the Abutment, the name it was given during the construction of the tracks. The town was originally in the 4th land District of Appling County, the Confederate States Army had a training camp, Camp Harrison, in Screven for a short time in the Fall of 1860. The soldiers came by train to Screven, following the Civil War, Captain Christopher Columbus Grace, one of the Immortal 600, came to Screven and established himself in the turpentine, ginning and trade store business. In 1877, he erected a sawmill that spurned the communitys growth, in 1880, he was a founding member of the Screven Methodist Episcopal Church, the first church established in the town of Screven. Other men of commerce came to join Captain Grace in the town of Screven, hilton building the communitys first brick store and operated a hardware store in later years. The J. H. Walker Company opened a business in 1876. Hatcher opened a store in 1899, in the mid-1890s, the Royal family relocated to Screven to work with the Atlantic Coastline Railroad. Railroad history was made on Screvens tracks in March 1901 in an event that still holds forth in railroad lore, the Spanish–American War had ended, but occupation troops were to remain in Cuba until 1902. The Havana mail would depart from Jacksonville, actually, Seaboard was favored because of her more direct route. The Plant Road detoured over 30 miles from Savannah to Waycross then to Jacksonville, and it was Jacksonville where the steam packet to Havana waited to load the mail. Both trains left Union Station in Savannah at 3,00 a. m, the SF&Ws route was a longer one since it traveled through Jesup, Screven, and Waycross before cutting over southwest to Folkston to travel on to Jacksonville. Twelve miles out of Savannah, the SF&W’s engines ran hot, after one attempt at repairing the engine failed, Engineer Albert Lodge made the decision to switch engines and start again making it from Fleming to Jesup in less than 33 minutes. Knowing he must make up an hour of if they were to have a shot at the mail contract, Lodge ripped out of Jesup on Number 111. There is a curve just after passing over the river
9.
Bainbridge, Georgia
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Bainbridge is a city in Decatur County, Georgia, United States. The city is the county seat of Decatur County, as of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 12,697. The town was named after U. S. Navy Commodore William Bainbridge, commander of the USS Constitution, in 1824, Bainbridge was designated seat of the newly formed Decatur County. Bainbridge is located in the center of Decatur County, the city is in southwestern Georgia along U. S. Routes 27 and 84, which form a bypass around the part of the city. Bainbridge is 40 miles northwest of Tallahassee, Florida,82 miles west of Valdosta, and 54 miles east-southeast of Dothan, Alabama. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 20.1 square miles, of which 18.8 square miles is land and 1.3 square miles. Bainbridge is located on the Flint River, which flows southwest to meet the Chattahoochee, together they form the Apalachicola River which flows to the Gulf of Mexico. At the junction of the two rivers, the Jim Woodruff Dam forms Lake Seminole, a system of locks at the dam allows barge traffic to travel between the inland port at Bainbridge and the Gulf of Mexico. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 12,697 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 54. 4% Black,39. 6% White,0. 1% Native American,0. 7% Asian,0. 1% from some other race and 1. 0% from two or more races. 4. 1% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 11,722 people,4,444 households, and 3,013 families residing in the city. There were 5,051 housing units at a density of 285.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 50. 34% African American,47. 48% White,0. 12% Native American,0. 64% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 78% from other races, and 0. 61% from two or more races. 2. 00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the family size was 3.09. In the city, the population was out with 28. 0% under the age of 18,9. 9% from 18 to 24,26. 9% from 25 to 44,19. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 84.3 males
10.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
11.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
12.
Henry B. Plant
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Henry Bradley Plant, was involved with many transportation projects, mostly railroads, in the U. S. state of Florida. Eventually he owned the Plant System of railroads became part of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. Plant City, located near Tampa, was named after him, Plant became famous as president of the Plant System of railway and steamer lines, and also the Southern and Texas Express Co. He went south in 1853 and established express lines on various southern railways, in 1879 he purchased, with others, the Atlantic and Gulf Railroad of Georgia, and later reorganized the Savannah, Florida and Western Railroad, of which he became president. He purchased and rebuilt, in 1880, the Savannah and Charleston Railroad, now Charleston and Savannah. Not long after this he organized the Plant Investment Co. to control these railroads and advance their interests generally, from 1853 until 1860 he was general superintendent of the southern division of the Adams Express Co. and in 1867 became president of the Texas Express Co. The Plant system of railway, steamer and steamship lines is one of the greatest business corporations of the southern states, Henry Bradley Plant was founder of the Plant System of railroads and steamboats. He attended Loudoun County High School in Leesburg, Virginia, and was a stellar student and he was born in Branford, Conn. the son of Betsey and Anderson Plant, a farmer in good circumstances. He was the descendant of John Plant who probably emigrated from England and settled at Hartford, when the boy was six, his father and younger sister died of typhus. Several years later his mother married again and took him to live first at Martinsburg, N. Y. and later at New Haven, among his various duties was the care of express parcels. This line of business, hitherto neglected, he organized effectively, Plant was transferred from steamboats to railroads. After a few years he was put in charge of the old York office of the company, in 1853 his wife, Ellen Elizabeth Plant was ordered South for her health. After a journey of eight days, the Plants arrived in Jacksonville in March and spent several months at a home near Jacksonville. Plant was impressed with the possibilities of the development of Florida. At the approach of the Civil War the directors of Adams Express, fearing the confiscation of their Southern properties, with Southern stockholders of the company he organized in 1861 the Southern Express Company, a Georgia corporation, and named himself president. In 1863, claiming a serious illness, he left his home in Augusta with a safe passage document signed by Jefferson Davis, after spending a month there, he traveled to Canada, Connecticut, and then England. When in France, he was informed that his Confederate passport was not valid, after the war, Plant returned to the South in February,1865 to reclaim his business interests, primarily the Southern Express. The railroads of the South had been ruined and many railroads went bankrupt in the depression of 1873
13.
CSX Transportation
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CSX Transportation is a Class I railroad in the United States. The main subsidiary of the CSX Corporation, the railroad is headquartered in Jacksonville, Florida, CSX operates one of the three Class I railroads serving most of the East Coast, the other two being the Norfolk Southern Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway. It also serves the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, together CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway have a duopoly over all east-west freight rail traffic east of the Mississippi River. As of October 1,2014, CSXs total public stock value was slightly over $32 billion, CSX Transportation was formed on July 1,1986, by combining the Chessie System and Seaboard System Railroad. The origin of the Chessie System was the former Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, which had merged with the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, on June 6,1998, the STB approved the CSX–NS application and set August 22,1998, as the effective date of its decision. CSX acquired 42 percent of Conrails assets, and NS received the remaining 58 percent, as a result of the transaction, CSXs rail operations grew to include some 3,800 miles of the Conrail system. CSX began operating its trains on its portion of the Conrail network on June 1,1999, CSX now serves much of the eastern U. S. with a few routes into nearby Canadian cities. The name came about during merger talks between Chessie System, Inc. and Seaboard System Railroad, Inc. commonly called Chessie, the company chairmen said it was important for the new name to include neither of those names because it was a partnership. Employees were asked for suggestions, most of which consisted of combinations of the initials, at the same time a temporary shorthand name was needed for discussions with the Interstate Commerce Commission. CSC was chosen but belonged to a company in Virginia. The lawyers decided to use CSX, and the name stuck, in the public announcement, it was said that CSX is singularly appropriate. C can stand for Chessie, S for Seaboard, and X, however, in the August 9,2016 article on the Railway Age website stated that. And the X was for Consolidated, the T had to be added to CSX when used as a reporting mark because reporting marks that end in X means that the car is owned by a leasing company or private car owner. Its current slogan, How Tomorrow Moves, appeared in 2008, in 2014 Canadian Pacific Railway approached CSX with an offer to merge the two companies, but CSX declined and in 2015 Canadian Pacific made an attempt to purchase and merge with Norfolk Southern. In 2017 CSX announced Hunter Harrison as its new chief executive, CSX added 5 new directors to their board, including Harrison and Mantle Ridge founder Paul Hilal. Mantle Ridge owns 4.9 percent of CSX, CSX operates two regions of five divisions each, the Northern, based in Calumet City, Illinois, and Southern, based in Jacksonville, Florida. The CEO of CSX is Hunter Harrison as of Feb 2017, o823, Q740 and Q741, Q743, and Q745—which consists of Tropicana cars that carry fresh orange juice between Bradenton, Florida, and the Greenville section of Jersey City, New Jersey. The train also runs from Bradenton to Fort Pierce, Florida, in the 21st century, the Juice Train has been studied as a model of efficient rail transportation that can compete with trucks and other modes in the perishable-goods trade
14.
Flint River (Georgia)
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The Flint River is a 344-mile-long river in the U. S. state of Georgia. Along with the Apalachicola and the Chattahoochee rivers, it part of the ACF basin. In its upper course through the red hills of the Piedmont, it is considered especially scenic, historically, it was also called the Thronateeska River. The Flint River rises in west central Georgia in the city of East Point in southern Fulton County on the outskirts of the Atlanta metropolitan area as ground seepage. The exact start can be traced to the field located between Plant Street, Willingham Drive, Elm Street, and Vesta Avenue and it travels under the runways of the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport. Flowing generally south through rural western Georgia, the passes through Sprewell Bluff State Park. Farther south, it comes within 5 miles of Andersonville, the site of the Andersonville prison during the Civil War, in southwestern Georgia, the river flows through downtown Albany, the largest city on the river. At Bainbridge it joins Lake Seminole, formed at its confluence with the Chattahoochee River upstream from the Jim Woodruff Dam, from this confluence, the Apalachicola River flows south from the reservoir through Florida to the Gulf of Mexico. The Flint River is fed by Kinchafoonee Creek just north of Albany, in addition to Lake Seminole, the Flint River is impounded approximately 15 miles upstream from Albany to form the Lake Blackshear reservoir. The Flint River is one of only 40 rivers in the nation to flow more than 200 miles unimpeded by dams or other manmade systems, and is increasingly valued for that. In the 1970s, a plan by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers to build a dam at Sprewell Bluff in Upson County was defeated by the Jimmy Carter, Governor of Georgia, carters hometown of Plains is located near the Flint River. The river is considered to have three sections as it flows southward through western Georgia. In its upper reaches in the red hills of the Piedmont, south of its fall line near Culloden, the channel transforms to a broad, forested swampy flood plain. South of Lake Blackshear, it again, flowing through a channel in limestone rock above the Upper Floridan Aquifer below southwestern Georgia. The river has been prone to floods throughout its history, in 1994, during flooding from Tropical Storm Alberto, the river crested at 43 feet in Albany, resulting in the emergency evacuation of over 23,000 residents. It caused one of the worst natural disasters in the states history, interstate 75 was closed in Macon, and Albany State University was also seriously flooded, as the river became a few miles or several kilometers wide in some places. The water lifted caskets from cemeteries and left them, along with drowned cattle and other livestock, stuck in trees, montezuma, Georgia was completely inundated after the Flint River topped the 29-foot levee protecting the town from floodwater. The official depth of the river at the height of the flood was estimated at 34 feet, the nearby gauge was underwater, making it impossible to get an accurate reading
15.
Albany, Georgia
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Albany is a city in the U. S. state of Georgia, and is the seat of Dougherty County. Located in southwest Georgia, it is the city of the Albany. The population was 77,434 at the 2010 U. S. Census, the area where Albany is located was formerly inhabited by the Creek Indians, who called it Thronateeska after their word for flint because of the mineral flint that was found near the river. The Creeks used this flintstone to make tools and weapons such as arrowheads, American settlement began with Nelson Tift, from Groton, Connecticut, who took land along the Flint River in October 1836 after Indian removal. The Creek were forced to relocate to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River, Tift named his new town Albany after the capital of New York, both were located at the navigable heads of rivers. Alexander Shotwell laid out the town in 1836 and it was incorporated as a city by an act of the General Assembly of Georgia on December 27,1838. Tift for decades was the citys leading entrepreneur, an ardent booster, he promoted education, business, and railroad construction. During the Civil War he provided naval supplies and helped build two ships and he opposed Radical Reconstruction inside the state and in Congress, and was scornful of the Yankee carpetbaggers who came in. John Fair concludes that Tift became more Southern than many natives and his pro-slavery attitudes before the war and his support for segregation afterward made him compatible with Georgias white elite. The area was developed by planters using slave labor for clearing land, by 1840, Dougherty Countys majority population was black, composed overwhelmingly of slaves. The market center for cotton plantations, Albany was in a location for shipping cotton to markets by steamboats on the river. In 1858, Tift hired Horace King, a slave and bridge builder. Kings bridge toll house still stands, already important as a shipping port, Albany later became an important railroad hub in southwestern Georgia. Seven lines were constructed to the town, an exhibit on trains is located at the Thronateeska Heritage Center in the former railroad station. While integral to the life of the town, the Flint River has flooded regularly. There was extensive property damage in 1841 and 1925, some late twentieth-century floods were extreme. In 1994, a flood was caused by rainfall from Tropical Storm Alberto, it killed 14 people. The state supported a $150 million renovation of the Albany State University campus to repair storm damage, New housing was built on the south side of town to replace what had been destroyed
16.
Apalachicola Bay
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Apalachicola Bay is an estuary and lagoon located on the northwest coast of the U. S. state of Florida. The Apalachicola Bay system also includes St. George Sound, St. Vincent Sound and East Bay, covering an area of about 208 square miles. Four islands St. Vincent Island to the west, Cape St. George Island and St. George Island to the south, water exchange occurs through Indian Pass, West Pass, East Pass and the Duer Channel. The lagoon has been designated as a National Estuarine Research Reserve, the region features 1,162 species of plants, and includes the largest natural stand of tupelo trees in the world. The Apalachicola Bay produces 90 percent of Florida’s oysters, Apalachicola Bay is part of The National Estuarine Research Reserve System. Apalachicola U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Apalachicola Bay Apalachicola River Watershed - Florida DEP Oyster Rules for Apalachicola Bay
17.
Brunswick, Georgia
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Brunswick /ˈbrʌnzwɪk/ is a city in and the county seat of Glynn County, Georgia, United States. As the major urban and economic center of the lower southeast, it is the second-largest urban area on the Georgia coast after Savannah. British colonists settled the peninsula in 1738 as a buffer to Spanish Florida and it came under provincial control in 1771 and was founded as Brunswick after the German duchy of Brunswick–Lüneburg, the ancestral home of the House of Hanover. It was incorporated as a city in 1856. S, Brunswick supports a progressive economy largely based on tourism and logistics, with a metropolitan GDP of $3.9 billion. The Port of Brunswick handles approximately 10 percent of all U. S. roll-on/roll-off trade—third in the U. S. behind the ports of Los Angeles and Newark. In the 2010 U. S. census, the population of the city proper was 15,383, the area,51,024. Brunswick is located on a harbor of the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 40 mi north of Florida and 80 mi south of South Carolina, Brunswick is bordered on the west by Oglethorpe Bay, the East River, and the Turtle River. It is bordered on the south by the Brunswick River and on the east by the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway in the Mackay River, the Mocama, a Timucua-speaking people, originally occupied the lands in what is now Brunswick. The Spanish established missions in Timucuan villages beginning in 1568, during this time, much of the Native American population was depleted through enslavement and disease. Three years after the Province of Georgia was founded in 1733, James Oglethorpe had the town of Frederica built on St. Simons Island, marys River and south of the Savannah River were designated as Georgia. The areas first European settler, Mark Carr, arrived in 1738, Carr, a Scotsman, was a captain in Oglethorpes Marine Boat Company. Upon landing, he established his 1, 000-acre tobacco plantation, the Province of Georgia purchased Carrs fields in 1771 and laid out the town of Brunswick in the grid plan akin to that of Savannah, with large, public squares at given intervals. The town was named for the duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg in Germany, the home of George III. Brunswick was a tract of land consisting of 383.5 acres. The first lot was granted on June 30,1772,179 lots were granted in the first three years, from 1783 to 1788 a number of these lots were regranted and there collected in Brunswick a few families who desired proper education for their children. By the act of the General Assembly on February 1,1788, eight town commissioners were appointed and Glynn Academy was chartered, Brunswick was recognized as an official port of entry in 1789 by an act of the United States Congress. In 1797 the General Assembly transferred the seat of Glynn County from Frederica to Brunswick, at the end of the eighteenth century, a large tract of land surrounding Brunswick on three sides had been laid off and designated as Commons. Commissioners were named in 1796 to support these efforts, the General Assembly authorized them to sell 500 acres of Commons, one-half of the proceeds to go to the construction of the courthouse and jail and one-half to the support of the academy
18.
Altamaha River
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The Altamaha River /ˈɑːltəməhɑː/ is a major river in the U. S. state of Georgia. It flows generally eastward for 137 miles from its origin at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River towards the Atlantic Ocean, there are no dams directly on the Altamaha, though there are some on the Oconee and the Ocmulgee. Including its tributaries, the Altamaha Rivers drainage basin is about 14,000 square miles in size and it is reportedly the third largest contributor of fresh water to the Atlantic Ocean from North America. The beginning of the Colorado River of Texas is just within New Mexico, the long Mobile-Alabama-Coosa River system, mostly in Alabama, originates a short distance within Georgia. The Altamaha River traverses an area of low population density with few significant towns or cities along its course. There are some along its tributaries, such as the fall line cities of Milledgeville on the Oconee. Centuries ago, riverboats used the Altamaha to reach those towns and the plantations founded along the rivers, which were the main transportation routes. According to the USGS, variant and historical names of the Altamaha River include A-lot-amaha, Alatahama, Alatamaha, Allamah, Frederica River, Rio Al Tama, Rio de Talaje, and Talaxe River. The 1, 759-megawatt Plant Hatch nuclear power plant sits on the bank of the Altamaha River in Appling County. The Altamaha River originates at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River, at its source, the Altamaha River forms the border between Jeff Davis County to the south and Montgomery County to the north. On the north side, Toombs County gives way to Tattnall County, the Big Hammock Wildlife Management Area and Big Hammock Natural Area are located along the Altamaha at the Ohoopee confluence. Big Hammock Natural Area is a National Natural Landmark site, noted for its biodiversity and many rare plant species. Below Big Hammock, the tributary Beards Creek joins the Altamaha River from the north, the Altamaha passes through Griffin Ridge Wildlife Management Area before flowing by Doctortown, near Jesup. A wide and swampy floodplain surrounds the river in this area, several miles below Doctortown Wayne County gives way to McIntosh County on the north side of the river. From this point to the mouth there are numerous wildlife management areas. The Sansaville Wildlife Management Area lies on the side of the river, while the Altamaha Wildlife Management Area lies on the north. Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge occupies Wolf Island on the Atlantic coast, in its last several miles, the Altamaha River marks the boundary between McIntosh County on the north and Glynn County on the south. The town of Darien lies just north of the Altamaha Rivers mouth, several miles to the south lies the larger city of Brunswick
19.
Ocmulgee River
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The Ocmulgee River is a western tributary of the Altamaha River, approximately 255 mi long, in the U. S. state of Georgia. It is the westernmost major tributary of the Altamaha, the Ocmulgee River and its tributaries provide drainage for some 6,180 square miles in parts of 33 Georgia counties, a large section of the Piedmont and coastal plain of central Georgia. The name of the river may have come from a Hitchiti words oki plus molki, the river rises at a point in north central Georgia southeast of Atlanta, at the confluence of the Yellow, South, and Alcovy rivers. Since the construction of the Lloyd Shoals Dam in the early 20th century, the rivers source is formed at an elevation of around 530 feet above sea level. The Ocmulgee River flows from the dam southeast past Macon, which was founded on the fall line and it joins the Oconee from the northwest to form the Altamaha near Lumber City. Four power plants in the Ocmulgee basin that use the water, including the coal-fired Plant Scherer in Juliette. A diverse array of species in twenty-one families—inhabit the Ocmulgee River basin. The family with the largest representation in the basin is Cyprinidae. It is followed by Centrarchidae, which has 22 species, the Ocmulgee basin contains ten species in the family Ictaluridae and eight species of in the family Catostomidae. The river basin is inhabited by one State of Georgia-designated endangered fish species. The world record for largest recorded catch of a largemouth bass was achieved in 1932 in Montgomery Lake, the record-setting fish, caught by farmer George Washington Perry, weighted 22 pounds, six ounces. There are some fifteen invasive species of fish inhabit the river basin. According to a Georgia Department of Natural Resources report, many of species are well-established and are detrimental to native fish populations. Archeological evidence shows that Native Americans first inhabited the Ocmulgee basin about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago, scraping tools and flint spearpoints from nomadic Paleoindians hunters have been discovered in the Ocmulgee floodplain. In the Archaic period which followed, hunter-gatherers in Ocmulgee basin used fiber-tempered pottery, during the Woodland period, there were various villages in the area, evidenced by earthen mounds and pottery sherds. These areas are now part of the Ocmulgee National Monument, a National Park Service-administered protected area established in 1936, the Ichisi served corncakes, wild onion, and roasted venison to De Soto and his party. Over the next hundred years, however, the Native Americans in the area were devastated from disease, eli Whitneys invention of the cotton gin stimulated development of short-staple cotton plantations in the uplands, where it grew well. The gin mechanized processing of the cotton and made it profitable, demand for land in the Southeast increased, as well as demand for slave labor in the Deep South
20.
Central of Georgia Railway
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The Central of Georgia Railway started as the Central Rail Road and Canal Company in 1833. As a way to attract investment capital, the railroad changed its name to Central Rail Road. This railroad was constructed to join the Macon and Western Railroad at Macon, Georgia and this created a rail link from Chattanooga, on the Tennessee River, to seaports on the Atlantic Ocean. It took from 1837 to 1843 to build the railroad from Savannah to the bank of the Ocmulgee River at Macon. During the Savannah Campaign of the American Civil War, conducted during November and December 1864, Federal troops tore up the rails, the famous passenger train the Nancy Hanks ran from Atlanta to Savannah, via Macon. Another notable train was the Man o War, a Columbus - Atlanta route, both of these trains were named after prize-winning racehorses. In 1907 railroad magnate and financier E. H. Harriman gained a controlling interest in the railway, and in 1909 sold his interest to the Illinois Central Railroad, which he also controlled. In 1932, during the Great Depression, the CofG went into receivership, at the end of 1956 the CofG operated 1,764 miles of road and 2,646 miles of track, that year it reported 3208 million net ton-miles of revenue freight and 73 million passenger-miles. Those totals do not include the 144-mile S&A, the 10-mile L&W, the Central became a Southern Railway subsidiary on June 17,1963. In 1971 the Southern formed the Central of Georgia Railroad to merge the Central of Georgia Railway, the Savannah and Atlanta Railway, today the Central of Georgia exists only as a paper railroad within the Norfolk Southern Railway group. 42 miles of the CofGs former mainline are currently leased by the Chattooga and Chickamauga Railway from the State of Georgia, a number of former properties of Central of Georgia are preserved as historic sites. It was the fourth of twenty units that NS painted in the colors of their predecessors, roundhouse Railroad Museum Leesburg Depot, in southwest Georgia Central of Georgia Historical Society Extensive history at RailGA
21.
Chattahoochee River
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The Chattahoochee River forms the southern half of the Alabama and Georgia border, as well as a portion of the Florida border. The Chattahoochee River is about 430 miles long, the Chattahoochee, Flint, and Apalachicola rivers together make up the Apalachiacola–Chattahoochee–Flint River Basin. The Chattahoochee makes up the largest part of the ACFs drainage basin and its headwaters flow south from ridges that form the Tennessee Valley Divide. The Appalachian Trail crosses the rivers uppermost headwaters, the Chattahoochees source and upper course lies within Chattahoochee National Forest. From its source in the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Chattahoochee River flows southwesterly to Atlanta and it eventually turns due south to form the southern half of the Georgia/Alabama state line. Flowing through a series of reservoirs and artificial lakes, it flows by Columbus, the second-largest city in Georgia, at Columbus, it crosses the Fall Line of the eastern United States. From Lake Oliver to Fort Benning, the Chattahoochee Riverwalk provides cycling, rollerblading, farther south, it merges with the Flint River and other tributaries at Lake Seminole near Bainbridge, to form the Apalachicola River that flows into the Florida Panhandle. Although the same river, this portion was given a different name by separated settlers in different regions during the colonial times, the name Chattahoochee is thought to come from a Muskogean word meaning rocks-marked, from chato plus huchi. This possibly refers to the many colorful granite outcroppings along the northeast-to-southwest segment of the river, much of that segment of the river runs through the Brevard fault zone. A local Georgia nickname for the Chattahoochee River is The Hooch, the vicinity of the Chattahoochee River was inhabited in prehistoric times by indigenous peoples since at least 1000 BC. Among the historical nations, the Chattahoochee served as a line between the Muscogee and the Cherokee territories in the Southeast. The Muscogee were first removed from the side of the river. The Chattahoochee River was of strategic importance during the Atlanta Campaign by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman of the American Civil War. A month prior to the Battle of Atlanta, Shoup talked with Johnston on June 18,1864 about building fortifications, Johnston agreed, and Shoup supervised the building of 36 small elevated earth and wooden triangular fortifications, arranged in a sawtooth pattern to maximize the crossfire of defenders. Sherman tried to avoid the Shoupade defenses by crossing the river to the northeast, the nine remaining Shoupades consist of the earthworks portion of the original earth and wooden structures, they are endangered by land development in the area. Since the nineteenth century, early improvements and alterations to the river were for the purposes of navigation, the river was important for carrying trade and passengers and was a major transportation route. Creating the manmade,46, 000-acre Walter F. George Lake required evacuating numerous communities, including the historically majority-Native American settlement of Oketeyeconne, the lakes were complete in 1963, covering over numerous historic and prehistoric sites of settlement. In 2010 a campaign to create a course was launched in the portion of the Chattahoochee River that runs through Columbus
22.
Nelson Tift
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Nelson Tift was an American jurist, businessman, sailor and politician from the state of Georgia. Tift was born in Groton, Connecticut and moved with his family to Key West, Florida in 1826, in October 1835, Tift moved to Augusta, Georgia. He then moved to Hawkinsville, Georgia in March 1836, in October of that year, Tift founded Albany, Georgia and became justice of the peace. On July 5,1840, he was elected to the Baker County, in 1840, he owned 11 slaves. In 1840, Tift was elected as a colonel of the unit of the Georgia Militia. In 1841, he was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives and was re-elected to that position in 1847,1851. Although not an advocate of secession, he accepted the final decision. Tift founded, edited and published the Albany Patriot newspaper from 1845 until 1858, in 1850, he owned 8 slaves. In 1860, he owned 9 slaves in Albany, Georgia, during the American Civil War, Tift was a Captain in the Confederate States Navy supply department. Tift built gunboats for the Confederate navy and supplied the Rebel army with beef and hardtack produced by his factories at Albany, after the war ended, he was elected to the 40th United States Congress as a U. S. Representative with the Democratic Party and served from July 25,1868 and he was not permitted to qualify for re-election in 1868 and unsuccessfully contested the election of his replacement, Richard H. Whiteley. After his congressional service, Tift worked in various businesses and he served as a delegate to the State constitutional convention in 1877. He died in Albany on November 21,1891 and was buried in that citys Oakview Cemetery, because H. H. Tift was living in 1905 when Tift County was founded, the county could not be named after him. Wanting the county to honor the Tifts, the delegates chose Nelson Tift as he was deceased, Tift helped to found Albany, Georgia, in 1836 and for decades was its leading entrepreneur. A booster, he promoted education, business, and railroad construction, during the Civil War he provided naval supplies and helped build two ships. He opposed Radical Reconstruction inside the state and in Congress and was scornful of the Yankee carpetbaggers who came in, fair concludes that Tift became more Southern than many natives. His pro-slavery attitudes before the war and his support for segregation afterward made him compatible with Georgias white elite, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
23.
Alexander Lawton
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Alexander Robert Lawton was a lawyer, politician, diplomat, and brigadier general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Lawton was born in the Beaufort District of South Carolina and he was the son of Alexander James Lawton and Martha Mosse. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1839, placing 13th out of 31 in his class and he served as a second lieutenant in the 1st U. S. Artillery until resigning his commission in 1840 to study law and he attended the Harvard Law School, graduating in 1842. He settled in Savannah, Georgia, and entered the fields of law, railroad administration, Lawton favored Georgias secession and became colonel of the 1st Georgia Volunteers. He commanded the Savannah troops that seized Fort Pulaski, the first conflict of the war in Georgia and he was commissioned a brigadier general in the Confederate Army on April 13,1861, and commanded the forces guarding Georgias seacoast before being reassigned to Virginia. He led his brigade effectively during Stonewall Jacksons Shenandoah Valley Campaign, the Seven Days Battles, and his last field service was at the Battle of Antietam, where he commanded the division of the wounded Maj. Gen. Richard S. Ewell. Lawton was seriously wounded early in the morning of September 17,1862, initially carried from the field to a temporary hospital, he spent months at home recuperating. In August 1863, Lawton became the Confederacys second Quartermaster-General, although he brought energy and resourcefulness to the position, he was unable to solve the problem of material shortages and poorly regulated railroads. In the years after the Civil War, Lawton became increasingly important as a figure in Georgia. He lost the 1880 election for the U. S. Senate in an election which seemed to represent a victory of the New South over the Old South and he was chosen President of the American Bar Association in 1882. Five years later, he was appointed Minister to Austria-Hungary and left that post in 1889, Lawton died in Clifton Springs, New York. List of American Civil War generals Battle of Fort Pulaski, Background, Eicher, John H. and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Who Was Who in the Civil War, New York, Facts On File,1988. Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray, Lives of the Confederate Commanders, baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press,1959. Appletons Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, six volumes, New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1887-1889. Archived from the original on 2008-02-08, cS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown
24.
Appling County, Georgia
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Appling County is a county located in the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 18,236, Appling County is named for Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Appling, a soldier in the War of 1812. Appling County, the 42nd county created in Georgia, was established by an act of the Georgia General Assembly on December 15,1818, the original county consisted of Creek lands ceded in the 1814 Treaty of Fort Jackson and the 1818 Treaty of the Creek Agency. On December 24,1825, Appling County land district 6 was added to Telfair County by an act of the Georgia General Assembly and this created an ambiguity of the border between Telfair County and Ware County that was later solved by additional legislation. On December 8,1828, Holmesville, Georgia was declared the county seat by the General Assembly, previously, court was held at residence of William Carter Jr. In 1836, the General Assembly appointed a commission to find a location for a more centrally located county seat than Holmesville. The need for a central county seat would remain a point of contention in county politics for several decades. On December 18,1857, the part of Appling County that was south of Lightseys Ford on Big Creek downstream to the Little Satilla River was taken from Appling County for the creation of Pierce County. At the time of the 1850 United States Census, Appling County had a population of 2,520, a slave population of 404. By the 1860 United States Census, the county had a population of 3,442, a slave population of 740. On August 27,1872, eastern sections of Appling land districts 3 and 4 were added to Wayne County and this area included Wayne Countys current county seat Jesup, Georgia, which became the new county seat of Wayne County in 1873. Also in August 1872, the General Assembly called for an election in Appling County to determine a new county seat, the town of Baxley, Georgia was selected as the new county seat. They amended the law a year later for the new location to read Baxley as it had originally been intended. On August 18,1905, Jeff Davis County was created from portions of Appling County. On July 27,1914, Bacon County was created from parts of Appling County, Pierce County, the remaining section of Appling County that had been south of Little Satilla River became part of Bacon County. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 512 square miles. The northern third of the county is located in the Altamaha River sub-basin of the basin by the same name, the population density was 34 people per square mile. There were 7,854 housing units at a density of 15 per square mile
25.
Ware County, Georgia
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Ware County is a county located in the southeast of the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 36,312, Ware County is part of the Waycross, Georgia Micropolitan Statistical Area. By geographic area, Ware County is the largest Georgia county, there is a local saying that the county seat of Waycross is the largest city in the largest county in the largest state, east of the Mississippi. Ware County, Georgias 60th county, was created on December 15,1824, the county is named for Nicholas Ware, the mayor of Augusta, Georgia from and United States Senator who represented Georgia from 1821 until his death in 1824. It is the largest county in Georgia by area, a large portion of the county lies within the Okefenokee Swamp and its federally protected areas. The eastern half of the portion of Ware County is located in the St. Marys River sub-basin of the St. Marys-Satilla River basin. The rest of the county, from just southeast to north, Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge As of the census of 2000, there were 35,483 people,13,475 households, and 9,297 families residing in the county. The population density was 39 people per square mile, there were 15,831 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile. 1. 94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. According to the census of 2000, the largest ancestry groups in Ware County were English 46. 13%, African 28. 01%, Scots-Irish 12. 29%, Scottish 4. 3%, Irish 2. 21% and Welsh 1. 9%. 27. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.01. In the county, the population was out with 24. 80% under the age of 18,9. 10% from 18 to 24,28. 10% from 25 to 44,22. 60% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 97.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $28,360, and the median income for a family was $34,372. Males had an income of $26,910 versus $20,424 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,384, about 15. 90% of families and 20. 50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30. 10% of those under age 18 and 16. 70% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 36,312 people,13,654 households, the population density was 40.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 16,326 housing units at a density of 18.3 per square mile
26.
Wayne County, Georgia
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Wayne County is a county located in the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 30,099, Wayne County comprises the Jesup, Georgia Micropolitan Statistical Area. At the time of European contact, the area of what would become Wayne County was settled by the Guale people, the flags of France, Spain, England, and the Confederate States of America all flew over Wayne with little success. Seventy years after General James Oglethorpe settled the colony of Georgia and 27 years after that became one of the 13 original states. The county was named for Mad Anthony Wayne whose military career had him a well-known hero. When he surprised the British garrison at Stony Point on July 15,1779, as originally laid out, the new county – the 28th Georgia county – was a long narrow strip of land approximately 100 miles in length but with varying measures of width along the way. It was six miles as it stood just south of the Altamaha River, eight miles wide near the Satilla, all counties organized prior to 1802 were headright counties – no surveys were ever made of those counties. It was found that under the system more land was given away than actually existed. Although created in 1803, no valid lottery was done for the county until the Land Lottery Act of 1805. The 1805 Act divided the half million acres of Wayne County, formed the Tallassee Strip and it is the second date, December 7,1805, that the county chose to observe as the creation date. The area was not a one for lottery draws as the straws were drawn sight unseen. The county was slow in developing and those in the area were in no hurry to be concerned with matters governmental, court was to be held at the house of a Captain William Clements until a site was selected. In December 1823, the General Assembly appointed another board of commissioners to establish a county seat, the first post office in Wayne County was established at Tuckersville, sometimes seen as Tuckerville, on January 29,1814. Tuckersville acted as the county seat until Waynesville was so designated, john Tucker was the first postmaster and his service was followed by William A. Knight and Robert Stafford, Jr. before the service was discontinued in 1827. Tuckersville disappears from most maps by 1850 and its exact location remains a mystery although it is known it was 9 miles north of Waynesville on the Post Road near the ford of Buffalo Swamp. The intersection of Mount Pleasant Road and 10 Mile Road is a possible location and it was not until December 1829, that legislative action created a county seat. Waynesville was the site of Wayne Countys first school, which was called Mineral Springs Academy and it was named for the famous mineral springs which were a short distance east of the residential section of the town
27.
Fort Gaines, Georgia
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Fort Gaines is a city in Georgia, United States, with a population of 1,107 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of Clay County, the present town of Fort Gaines was founded in 1816 as protection against the indigenous Creeks and prospered due to riverboat trade. Though it was named for General Edmund Pendleton Gaines, he did not arrive there with the 4th Infantry of the United States Army until 1816, a fort of the same name had been built in 1814 nearby on the Chattachoochee River. In 1854, Fort Gaines was designated seat of the newly formed Clay County, Fort Gaines is located along the western edge of Clay County at 31°36′51″N 85°2′54″W. Its western boundary is the Chattahoochee River, which is also the line with Alabama. Walter F. George Lock and Dam crosses the river between the side of Fort Gaines and Alabama, forming Walter F. George Lake. According to the United States Census Bureau, Fort Gaines has an area of 7.7 square miles, of which 4.8 square miles is land and 2.9 square miles. At the 2000 census, there were 1,110 people,429 households and 287 families residing in the city, the population density was 231.6 per square mile. There were 519 housing units at a density of 108.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 67. 93% African American,31. 08% White,0. 18% Native American,0. 18% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 44% of the population. 31. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.07. Age distribution was 28. 7% under the age of 18,8. 7% from 18 to 24,21. 0% from 25 to 44,19. 5% from 45 to 64, the median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 72.4 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 65.8 males. The median household income was $18,30, and the family income was $20,909. Males had an income of $20,417 versus $14,875 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,481, about 34. 7% of families and 40. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 53. 2% of those under age 18 and 26. 7% of those age 65 or over. The Clay County School District holds pre-school to grade nine, and consists of one school, one middle school. The district has 27 full-time teachers and over 358 students, high school aged students attend 10-12th grade in adjoining Randolph County, Georgia
28.
Pensacola, Florida
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Pensacola is the westernmost city in the Florida Panhandle and the county seat of Escambia County, in the U. S. state of Florida. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 51,923. Pensacola is the city of the Pensacola metropolitan area, which had an estimated 461,227 residents in 2012. Pensacola is a sea port on Pensacola Bay, which is protected by the island of Santa Rosa. The main campus of the University of West Florida is situated north of the city center, the area was originally inhabited by Muskogean peoples. The Pensacola people lived there at the time of European contact, Spanish explorer Tristán de Luna founded a short-lived settlement in 1559. In 1698 the Spanish established a presidio in the area, from which the city gradually developed. The area changed several times as European powers competed in North America. During Floridas British rule, fortifications were strengthened, other nicknames include Worlds Whitest Beaches, Cradle of Naval Aviation, Western Gate to the Sunshine State, Americas First Settlement, Emerald Coast, Red Snapper Capital of the World, and P-Cola. The original inhabitants of the Pensacola Bay area were Native American peoples, at the time of European contact, a Muskogean-speaking tribe known to the Spanish as the Pensacola lived in the region. This name was not recorded until 1677, but the tribe appears to be the source of the name Pensacola for the bay and thence the city. Creek people, also Muskogean-speaking, came regularly from present-day southern Alabama to trade, so the peoples were part of a broader regional and even continental network of relations. The best-known Pensacola culture site in terms of archeology is the Bottle Creek site and this site has at least 18 large earthwork mounds, five of which are arranged around a central plaza. Its main occupation was from 1250 AD to 1550 and it was a ceremonial center for the Pensacola people and a gateway to their society. This site would have had access by a dugout canoe. The areas written recorded history begins in the 16th century, with documentation by Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to reach the area. The expeditions of Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539 both visited Pensacola Bay, the latter of which documented the name Bay of Ochuse. In 1559, Tristán de Luna y Arellano landed with some 1,500 people on 11 ships from Veracruz, Mexico
29.
Mobile, Alabama
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Mobile is the county seat of Mobile County, Alabama, United States. Alabamas only saltwater port, Mobile is located at the head of the Mobile Bay, Mobile is the principal municipality of the Mobile metropolitan area. This region of 412,992 residents is composed solely of Mobile County, Mobile is the largest city in the Mobile-Daphne−Fairhope CSA, with a total population of 604,726, the second largest in the state. As of 2011, the population within a 60-mile radius of Mobile is 1,262,907, Mobile began as the first capital of colonial French Louisiana in 1702. During its first 100 years, Mobile was a colony of France, then Britain, Mobile first became a part of the United States of America in 1813, with the annexation of West Florida under President James Madison. In 1861 Alabama joined the Confederate States of America, which surrendered in 1865, Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Carnival celebrations in the United States. The festival began to be celebrated in the first decade of the 18th century by its first French Catholic colonial settlers. Mobile was host to the first formally organized Carnival mystic society, known elsewhere as a krewe, to celebrate with a parade in the United States, in 2005 the first integrated mystic society had a parade for Mardi Gras. The city gained its name from the Mobile tribe that the French colonists encountered living in the area of Mobile Bay. The Mobile tribe, along with the Tohomé, obtained permission from the colonists, about seven years after the founding of the Mobile settlement, to settle near the fort. It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne dIberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, Bienville was appointed as royal governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobiles Roman Catholic parish was established on July 20,1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, the parish was the first French Catholic parish established on the Gulf Coast of the United States. In 1704 the ship Pélican delivered 23 French women to the colony, though most of the Pélican girls recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans contracted the disease in turn and died. This early period was also the occasion of the importation of the first African slaves, the population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet descending to 178 persons two years later due to disease. A new earth-and-palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time, by 1712, when Antoine Crozat was appointed to take over administration of the colony, its population had reached 400 persons. The capital of La Louisiane was moved in 1720 to Biloxi, leaving Mobile to serve as a regional military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years War, by this treaty, France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain
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Satilla River
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The Satilla River rises in Ben Hill County, Georgia, near the town of Fitzgerald, and flows in a mostly easterly direction to the Atlantic Ocean. Along its approximately 235-mile course are the cities of Waycross, Waynesville, the Satilla drains almost 4,000 square miles of land, all of it in the coastal plain of southeastern Georgia. It has white sandbars and is the largest blackwater river situated entirely within Georgia, the river derives its name from a Spanish officer named Saint Illa, and over a period of time the name was merged to form the word Satilla. The name St. Illa River was in use along side the name Satilla River in the nineteenth century. The Satilla enters the Atlantic Ocean about 10 miles south of Brunswick, Satilla River Marsh Island is one of the few places in Georgia for observing nesting sites of brown pelicans. In May 2010, the city of Waycross purchased the Bandalong Litter Trap and installed it in Tebeau Creek, the trap was invented in Australia, but is manufactured in the United States by Storm Water Systems. Governor Sonny Perdue said, “Water is one of Georgia’s most important, the litter trap installed by Waycross is a model of stewardship for the state and the nation. ”The Satilla River litter trap is the first in Georgia and only the second in the nation
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Lowndes County, Georgia
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Lowndes County is a county located in the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 Census the population was 109,233, the county was created December 23,1825. Lowndes County is included in the Valdosta, GA Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is located along the Florida border. The county is a commercial, educational, and manufacturing center of south Georgia with considerable forest products including pulpwood and naval stores, such as turpentine. Part of Grand Bay, a 13, 000-acre swamp, is located in Lowndes County, the land that became Lowndes County had historically been inhabited by the Timucua. During most the age of European colonization, the area of modern Lowndes County was part of the colony of Spanish Florida, in the centuries that followed, Timucua civilization collapsed due to slave raiding and disease. The Creek Nation peoples moved into the area and, by the early 19th century, on December 15,1818, European Americans organized what they called Irwin County, which had been settled by pushing out the Creek people. In the 1830s Georgia and the government completed Indian Removal of most of the Native Americans from what became the state. Lowndes County was established by an act passed by the Georgia legislature on December 23,1825 and it was formed out of the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 15th, and 16th land districts of Irwin County, Georgia. The county was named for William Jones Lowndes, a prominent South Carolina lawyer and his father Rawlins Lowndes had been a Revolutionary War leader and was elected as South Carolina Governor. The Coffee Road was a trail first cut by Georgia militia to supply federal troops in Florida during the Creek Wars. It was the first route through the area of Lowndes County, the first county seat was established at Franklinville by the Georgia General Assembly on December 16,1828. At the time of the 1830 federal census, Lowndes County had 1,072 white males,1,044 white females,156 male slaves,179 female slaves, and 4 free people of color, for a total population of 2,455. The introduction of steam-powered ships on the Withlacoochee and Little rivers led to a shift in the population toward the rivers, in December 1833, the state legislature passed a law establishing a new county seat at a place to be called to Lowndesville. The law called for a courthouse, a jail, and a town to be out within land lot 109 in the 12th land district. This land lot is near the present Timber Ridge Road in Lowndes County, in October 1836, another group of commissioners was advertising for contracting proposals for the construction of a brick courthouse at Troupville. By Summer 1837, Troupville and Franklinville were both serving as courthouse sites and this continued until at least 1838. In December 1837 Troupville was incorporated, in 1845, the remaining county-owned land at Franklinville was sold at the courthouse in Troupville
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Berrien County, Georgia
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Berrien County is a county located in the south central portion of the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 19,286, the county was created February 25,1856 out of portions of Coffee, Irwin and Lowndes Counties by an act of the Georgia General Assembly. It is named after Georgia senator John M. Berrien, by at least June 1853, citizens had petitioned to form a new county. The 1853 attempt of a new county failed, by 1856, a renewed attempt at the creation of a new county was successful. Berrien County lost a number of men in World War I in part because companies at that time were organized by militia districts at home. Eight weeks before the Armistice,25 Berrien County men were among the 200 recently enlisted soldiers who perished at sea off the coast of Scotland. Many of the bodies were returned to the soldiers hometowns for burial, the memorial was the first in a series of pressed copper sculptures by artist E. M. Viquesney entitled The Spirit of the American Doughboy. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 458 square miles. The western portion of Berrien County, from just north of U. S. Route 82, the eastern portion of the county is located in the Alapaha River sub-basin of the larger Suwannee River basin. The population density was 36 people per square mile, there were 7,100 housing units at an average density of 16 per square mile. 2. 37% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the family size was 3.03. In the county, the population was out with 27. 20% under the age of 18,8. 60% from 18 to 24,28. 70% from 25 to 44,22. 90% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 96.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.80 males, the median income for a household in the county was $30,044, and the median income for a family was $34,643. Males had an income of $25,559 versus $19,790 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,375, about 14. 60% of families and 17. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25. 40% of those under age 18 and 13. 00% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 19,286 people,7,443 households, the population density was 42.7 inhabitants per square mile
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Pinus palustris
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It reaches a height of 30–35 m and a diameter of 0.7 m. In the past, they grew to 47 m with a diameter of 1.2 m. The bark is thick, reddish-brown, and scaly, the leaves are dark green and needle-like, and occur in bundles of three. They often are twisted and 20–45 cm in length and it is one of the two southeastern U. S. pines with long needles, the other being slash pine. The cones, both female seed cones and male cones, are initiated during the growing season before buds emerge. Pollen cones begin forming in their buds in July, while seed conelets are formed during a short period of time in August. Pollination occurs early the spring, with the male cones 3–8 cm long. The seeds are 7–9 mm long, with a 25–40 mm wing, Longleaf pine takes 100 to 150 years to become full size and may live to be 500 years old. When young, they grow a long taproot, which usually is 2–3 m long and it grows on well-drained, usually sandy soil, often in pure stands. In northern Alabama, it occurs on clay soil. The scientific name meaning, of marshes, is a misunderstanding on the part of Philip Miller who described the species, Longleaf pine also is known as being one of several species grouped as a southern yellow pine or longleaf yellow pine, and in the past as pitch pine. Periodic natural wildfire selects for this species by killing other trees, new seedlings do not appear at all tree-like and resemble a dark green fountain of needles. This form is called the grass stage, during this stage, which lasts for 5–12 years, vertical growth is very slow, and the tree may take a number of years simply to grow ankle-high. After that it makes a growth spurt, especially if there is no tree canopy above it. In the grass stage, it is resistant to grass fires, which burn off the ends of the needles. Longleaf pine forests are rich in biodiversity and they are well-documented for their high levels of plant diversity, in groups including sedges, grasses, carnivorous plants and orchids. These forests also provide habitat for gopher tortoises, which, as keystone species, the red-cockaded woodpecker is dependent on mature pine forests and is now endangered as a result of this decline. Longleaf pine seeds are large and nutritious, forming a significant food source for birds, there are 9 salamander species and 26 frog species that are characteristic of pine savannas, along with 56 species of reptiles,13 of which could be considered specialists on this habitat
34.
Wetland
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A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding
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Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
36.
Du Pont, Georgia
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Du Pont is a town in Clinch County, Georgia, United States. The population was 120 at the 2010 census, according to the 1916 History of Clinch County the town was first settled around 1856 as Lawton, but was renamed in 1874 after J. P. A. DuPont, an early settler. It was incorporated as a city in 1889, Du Pont is located in northwestern Clinch County at 30°59. 4′N 82°52. 3′W. U. S. Route 84 passes through the center of the town, leading east 8 miles to Homerville, the county seat, according to the United States Census Bureau, Du Pont has a total area of 0.8 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 139 people,57 households, the population density was 176.8 people per square mile. There were 62 housing units at a density of 78.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 61. 87% White and 38. 13% African American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 16% of the population. 24. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.88. In the town, the population was out with 25. 2% under the age of 18,5. 0% from 18 to 24,30. 9% from 25 to 44,25. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.6 males, the median income for a household in the town was $34,375, and the median income for a family was $40,250. Males had an income of $22,250 versus $21,875 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,128, there were 23. 4% of families and 29. 3% of the population living below the poverty line, including 32. 5% of under eighteens and 53. 6% of those over 64
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Live Oak, Florida
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Live Oak is a city in Suwannee County, Florida, United States. The city is the county seat of Suwannee County and is located east of Tallahassee, as of 2010, the population recorded by the U. S. Census Bureau was 6,850. U. S. Highway 90, U. S. Highway 129 and it is served by the Suwannee County Airport as well as many private airparks scattered throughout the county. One other Florida county also has a community named Live Oak, the founding of Live Oak dates back to shortly before the Civil War. A large live oak tree located off the railways was a gathering and resting spot for many of the workers on the line, the tree was formerly located where the now-present Pepes Mexican Grocery on U. S.90 is located. In 1879, the legislature founded a normal school for blacks for the training of teachers, it developed as Florida Memorial University. Her husband Sam McCollum had made a fortune in gambling, ruby McCollum testified that Adams had repeatedly forced her to have sex and to bear his child. The case has been described as demonstrating white mens assumption of paramour rights in the segregated society and her trial was covered by journalist and novelist Zora Neale Hurston for the Pittsburgh Courier, among others. In 1944, Willie James Howard, a 15 year old African American resident of Live Oak, was lynched for sending a Christmas card to a white girl, mcCollums conviction and death sentence were overturned on appeal to the state supreme court in 1954. She was judged mentally incompetent to proceed and committed to the mental hospital. Her case has been the subject of books by journalist William Bradford Huie, who covered the appeal and second trial, C. Arthur Ellis and it has also been the subject of documentary films. Geographically, Suwannee County is situated on a limestone bed riddled with underground freshwater streams and this phenomenon of Karst topography gives the area a local supply of renewable fresh water and abundant sources of fishing. The county is known as a cave diving site for SCUBA enthusiasts. The Twin Rivers State Forest is a 14, 882-acre Florida State forest located in North Central Florida, as of the census of 2011, there were 6,918 people,2,361 households, and 1,562 families residing in the city. The population density was 931.7 per square mile, there were 2,951 housing units at an average density of 904.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 54. 4% White,35. 0% African American,0. 25% Native American,1. 0% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,2. 4% from other races, and 2. 4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16. 2% of the population,28. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the family size was 3.13
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Waycross, Georgia
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Waycross is the county seat of, and only incorporated city in, Ware County. In the U. S. state of Georgia, the population was 14,725 at the 2010 Census. Waycross includes two districts and several other properties that are on the National Register of Historic Places. Post Office and Courthouse, Lott Cemetery, the First African Baptist Church and Parsonage, the area now known as Waycross was first settled circa 1820, locally known as Old Nine or Number Nine and then Pendleton. It was renamed Tebeauville in 1857, incorporated under that name in 1866 and it was incorporated as Way Cross on March 3,1874. Waycross gets its name from the location at key railroad junctions. Waycross was the site of the 1948 Waycross B-29 crash, which led to the legal case United States v. Reynolds, during the 1950s the city had a tourist gimmick, local police would stop motorists with out-of-state license plates and escort them to downtown Waycross. There they would be met by the Welcome World Committee and given overnight lodging, dinner, the tradition faded away after the interstates opened through Georgia. During the mid-1990s, Waycross originated a frozen hamburger that needed no defrosting and this was the creation of Eaves Foods, Inc. a company that later changed to Bubba Foods, LLC. in 2000. Bubba Burgers are now sold nationwide as well as worldwide through the United States Military Commissary system, Waycross is located at 31°12′50″N 82°21′18″W and is the closest city to the Okefenokee Swamp. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 11.7 square miles. The closest major city is Jacksonville, Florida, which is roughly 81 miles away, in May 2010, the city purchased the Bandalong Litter Trap and installed it in Tebeau Creek, a tributary of the Satilla River. The trap was invented in Australia, but is manufactured in the United States, Georgia Governor Sonny Perdue said, “Water is one of Georgia’s most important and precious resources. The litter trap installed by Waycross is a model of stewardship for the state, part of Waycross was situated in Pierce County, but effective July 1,2015, Waycross was no longer located nor allowed to be located in Pierce County. State Rep. Chad Nimmer introduced HB523 during the 2015 Legislative Session without providing the required notice to the City of Waycross. HB523 de-annexed the portion of Waycross located in Pierce County, the three-story facility has a trauma unit, cancer care unit, outpatient surgery and imaging services. In 2012, Satilla Regional Medical Center joined the Mayo Clinic Health System, U. S. Highway 1 runs north–south through Waycross. U. S. Highway 82 is an east–west highway in Waycross, U. S. Highway 84 runs east–west through Waycross
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Atlanta Campaign
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The Atlanta Campaign was a series of battles fought in the Western Theater of the American Civil War throughout northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta during the summer of 1864. Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman invaded Georgia from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Tennessee, beginning in May 1864, Johnstons Army of Tennessee withdrew toward Atlanta in the face of successive flanking maneuvers by Shermans group of armies. In July, the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, replaced Johnston with the more aggressive John Bell Hood, Hoods army was eventually besieged in Atlanta and the city fell on September 2, setting the stage for Shermans March to the Sea and hastening the end of the war. The Atlanta Campaign followed the Union victory in the Battles for Chattanooga in November 1863, Chattanooga was known as the Gateway to the South, grants strategy was to apply pressure against the Confederacy in several coordinated offensives. While he, George G. Meade, Benjamin Butler, Franz Sigel, George Crook, at the start of the campaign, Shermans Military Division of the Mississippi consisted of three armies, Maj. Gen. James B. McPhersons Army of the Tennessee, including the corps of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan, Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge, when McPherson was killed at the Battle of Atlanta, Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard replaced him. Maj. Gen. John M. Schofields Army of the Ohio, consisting of Schofields XXIII Corps and a cavalry division commanded by Maj. Gen. George Stoneman. Maj. Gen. George H. Thomass Army of the Cumberland, including the corps of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, Maj. Gen. John M. Palmer, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, and Brig. Gen. Washington L. Elliott. After Howard took army command, David S. Stanley took over IV Corps, however, by June, a steady stream of reinforcements brought Shermans strength to 112,000. Opposing Sherman, the Army of Tennessee was commanded first by Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, the four corps in the 50, 000-man army were commanded by, Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee. When Polk was killed on June 14, Loring briefly took over as commander of the corps but was replaced by Alexander P. Stewart on June 23. But in Georgia, he faced the more aggressive Sherman. Johnstons army repeatedly took up strongly entrenched defensive positions in the campaign, Sherman prudently avoided suicidal frontal assaults against most of these positions, instead maneuvering in flanking marches around the defenses as he advanced from Chattanooga towards Atlanta. Whenever Sherman flanked the defensive lines, Johnston would retreat to another prepared position, both armies took advantage of the railroads as supply lines, with Johnston shortening his supply lines as he drew closer to Atlanta, and Sherman lengthening his own. Johnston had entrenched his army on the long, high mountain of Rocky Face Ridge, the two columns engaged the enemy at Buzzard Roost and at Dug Gap. In the meantime, the column, under McPherson, passed through Snake Creek Gap and on May 9 advanced to the outskirts of Resaca. Fearing defeat, McPherson pulled his column back to Snake Creek Gap, on May 10, Sherman decided to take most of his men and join McPherson to take Resaca. The next morning, as he discovered Shermans army withdrawing from their positions in front of Rocky Face Ridge, Union troops tested the Confederate lines around Resaca to pinpoint their whereabouts
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Sherman's March to the Sea
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The campaign began with Shermans troops leaving the captured city of Atlanta, on November 15 and ended with the capture of the port of Savannah on December 21. His forces destroyed military targets as well as industry, infrastructure, Shermans bold move of operating deep within enemy territory and without supply lines is considered to be one of the major achievements of the war. Shermans March to the Sea followed his successful Atlanta Campaign of May to September 1864, Sherman therefore planned an operation that has been compared to the modern principles of scorched earth warfare, or total war. The second objective of the campaign was more traditional, grants armies in Virginia continued in a stalemate against Robert E. Lees army, besieged in Petersburg, Virginia. Foragers, known as bummers, would provide food seized from local farms for the Army while they destroyed the railroads and the manufacturing and agricultural infrastructure of Georgia. In planning for the march, Sherman used livestock and crop production data from the 1860 census to lead his troops through areas where he believed they would be able to forage most effectively. The twisted and broken railroad rails that the troops heated over fires and wrapped around tree trunks, as the army would be out of touch with the North throughout the campaign, Sherman gave explicit orders, Shermans Special Field Orders, No. 120, regarding the conduct of the campaign, the following is an excerpt from the generals orders, The march was made easier by able assistants such as Orlando Poe, Chief of the bridge building and demolition team. Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman selected Poe as his chief engineer in 1864, Poe oversaw the burning of Atlanta, for which action he was honored by Sherman. He also continued to supervise destruction of Confederate infrastructure. [ Sherman, commanding the Military Division of the Mississippi, hazen, John E. Smith, and John M. Corse. XVII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Frank Blair, Jr. with the divisions of Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Mower, mortimer D. Leggett and Giles A. Smith. The left wing was the Army of Georgia, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, Davis, with the divisions of Brig. William P. Carlin, James D. Morgan, and Absalom Baird, XX Corps, commanded by Brig. Gen. Alpheus S. Williams, with the divisions of Brig. Nathaniel J. Jackson, John W. Geary, and William T. Ward, a cavalry division under Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick operated in support of the two wings. The Confederate opposition from Lt. Gen. William J. Hardees Department of South Carolina, Georgia, hood had taken the bulk of forces in Georgia on his campaign to Tennessee in hopes of diverting Sherman to pursue him. There were about 13,000 men remaining at Lovejoys Station, Maj. Gen. Gustavus W. Smiths Georgia militia had about 3,050 soldiers, most of whom were boys and elderly men. The Cavalry Corps of Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler, reinforced by a brigade under Brig. Gen. William H. Jackson, had approximately 10,000 troopers. During the campaign, the Confederate War Department brought in men from Florida and the Carolinas
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Battle of Altamaha Bridge
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On December 1,1864, the Georgia Militia Fourth Brigade under Brig. Gen. H. K. McKay arrived in Wayne County to prepare a defense of the Atlantic, the Confederates built earthworks on the north bank of Morgans Lake, which was bisected by the railroad and located just north of the river. On the southern side of the river, two 32-pounder rifled guns were mounted at Doctortown, to sweep the bridge if attacked, a light gun mounted on an engine supported two companies of Confederate militia at Morgans Lake. On December 16, General Sherman, stalled outside Savannah, sent Union troops to destroy the railroad from the Ogeechee River all the way to the bridge, the Federals withdrew to the Ogeechee River. War Department, The War of the Rebellion, a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901
