1.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
2.
Video for Windows
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Video for Windows is a multimedia framework developed by Microsoft that allows Windows to play and encode digital video. Video for Windows was first introduced in November 1992 and it was developed as a reaction to Apple Computers QuickTime technology, which added digital video to the Macintosh platform. Costing around $200, the product included editing and encoding programs for use with video input boards. A runtime version for viewing videos only was made available as a free add-on to Windows 3.1 and Windows 3.11, it then became an integral component of Windows 95. Video for Windows was mostly replaced by the July 1996 release of ActiveMovie and it was first released as a beta version along with the second beta of Internet Explorer 3. ActiveMovie was released as a download, either standalone or bundled with Internet Explorer. ActiveMovie, however, did not support video capture, video for Windows was still used for video capture until the release of Windows Driver Model capture drivers, which only started to become popular in 2000. In March 1997, Microsoft announced that ActiveMovie would become part of the DirectX5, and around July started referring to it as DirectShow
3.
Computer file
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A computer file is a computer resource for recording data discretely in a computer storage device. Just as words can be written to paper, so can information be written to a computer file, there are different types of computer files, designed for different purposes. A file may be designed to store a picture, a message, a video. Some types of files can store different several types of information at once, by using computer programs, a person can open, read, change, and close a computer file. Computer files may be reopened, modified, and copied a number of times. Typically, computer files are organised in a system, which keeps track of where the files are. The word file derives from the Latin filum, such a file now exists in a memory tube developed at RCA Laboratories. Electronically it retains figures fed into calculating machines, holds them in storage while it memorizes new ones - speeds intelligent solutions through mazes of mathematics, in 1952, file denoted, inter alia, information stored on punched cards. In early use, the hardware, rather than the contents stored on it, was denominated a file. For example, the IBM350 disk drives were denominated disk files, although the contemporary register file demonstrates the early concept of files, its use has greatly decreased. On most modern operating systems, files are organized into one-dimensional arrays of bytes, for example, the bytes of a plain text file are associated with either ASCII or UTF-8 characters, while the bytes of image, video, and audio files are interpreted otherwise. Most file types also allocate a few bytes for metadata, which allows a file to some basic information about itself. Some file systems can store arbitrary file-specific data outside of the file format, on other file systems this can be done via sidecar files or software-specific databases. All those methods, however, are susceptible to loss of metadata than are container. At any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, in most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. Many older operating systems kept track only of the number of blocks or tracks occupied by a file on a storage device. In such systems, software employed other methods to track the exact byte count, the general definition of a file does not require that its size have any real meaning, however, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage. A special case is a zero byte file, these files can be newly created files that have not yet had any data written to them, or may serve as some kind of flag in the file system, or are accidents
4.
DVD-Video
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DVD-Video is a consumer video format used to store digital video on DVD discs, and as of 2003 is the dominant consumer video format in Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia. Discs using the DVD-Video specification require a DVD drive and an MPEG-2 decoder, commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats. Typically, the rate for DVD movies ranges from 3 Mbit/s to 9.5 Mbit/s. It was first available in November 1996 in Japan, the DVD-Video specification was created by DVD Forum and can be obtained from DVD Format/Logo Licensing Corporation for a fee of $5,000. The specification is not publicly available and every subscriber must sign a non-disclosure agreement, certain information in the DVD Book is proprietary and confidential. To record moving pictures, DVD-Video uses either H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression at up to 9.8 Mbit/s or MPEG-1 Part 2 compression at up to 1.856 Mbit/s. DVD-Video supports video with a bit depth of 8-bits per color YCbCr with 4,2,0 chroma subsampling,704 ×480 pixels 352 ×480 pixels. Widescreen video is supported only in D-1 resolutions, the MPEG-1 Part 2 format does not support interlaced video. The H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 format supports both interlaced and progressive-scan content, Content with a frame rate different from one of the rates shown above can be encoded to H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 by using pulldown. This is most commonly used to encode 23.976 frame/s content for playback at 29.97 frame/s. Alternately, the content can be encoded on the disc itself at one of several alternate frame rates, such flags can be added in video stream by the H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 encoder. A DVD player uses these flags to convert progressive content into interlaced video in real-time during playback and these flags also allow reproducing progressive content at their original, non-interlaced format when used with compatible DVD players and progressive-scan television sets. The audio data on a DVD movie can be PCM, DTS, MPEG-1 Audio Layer II, a similar standard exists in countries using the NTSC system, though with no requirement mandating the use of or support for the MP2 format. DTS audio is optional for all players, as DTS was not part of the draft standard and was added later, thus. Only PCM and DTS support 96 kHz sampling rate, because PCM, being uncompressed, requires a lot of bandwidth and DTS is not universally supported by players,96 kHz sampling rate is rare for DVDs. The vast majority of commercial DVD-Video releases today employ AC-3 audio. The official allowed formats for the tracks on a DVD Video are, PCM,48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling rate,16 bit or 24 bit Linear PCM,2 to 6 channels, up to 6,144 kbit/s. DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content and this is most commonly used for different audio formats – DTS5.1, AC-32.0 etc. – as well as for commentary and audio tracks in different languages
5.
Matrox
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Matrox is a producer of video card components and equipment for personal computers. Based in Dorval, Quebec, Canada it was founded by Lorne Trottier, Matrox is an umbrella name for two legal entities, Matrox Graphics Inc. the entity most recognized by the public which has been making graphics cards for over 30 years Matrox Electronic Systems Ltd. Matroxs first graphics card product was the ALT-256 for S-100 bus computers, the ALT-256 produced a 256 by 256 pixel monochrome display using an 8 kilobyte frame buffer consisting of 16 TMS4027 DRAM chips. An expanded version followed, the ALT-512, both available for Intel SBC bus machines as well, through the 1980s, Matroxs cards followed changes in the hardware side of the market, to Multibus and then the variety of PC standards. During the 1990s, the Matrox Millennium series of cards attracted buyers willing to pay for a higher quality, in 1994 Matrox introduced the Matrox Impression, an add-on card that worked in conjunction with a Millennium card to provide 3D acceleration. The Impression was aimed primarily at the CAD market, a later version of the Millennium included features similar to the Impression but by this time the series was lagging behind emerging vendors like 3dfx Interactive. Matrox made several attempts to increase its share of the market for 3D-capable cards, the Matrox Mystique, released in 1996, was the companys first attempt to make a card with good gaming performance and with pricing suitable for that market. Another attempt was the Matrox G100 and G200, the G200 was sold as two models, the Millennium G200 was a higher-end version typically equipped with 8 MB SGRAM memory, while the Mystique G200 used slower SDRAM memory but added a TV-out port. The G200 offered competent 3D performance for the first time, but was released shortly before a new generation of cards from Nvidia and ATI which completely outperformed it. Later versions in the Matrox G400 series were never able to regain the crown, since then, Matrox has continued to shift the focus of its card designs towards specialized, niche markets, moving more deeply into enterprise, industrial, and government applications. In recent years they have no more than a 3–5% share of the total video card market. Matrox is now divided in three divisions, Matrox Graphics, Matrox Video, and Matrox Imaging and these drivers were tested and are allegedly supported for quite old distributions. They do not work on newer Linux kernels and X. Org Server versions, in addition to the proprietary drivers provided by Matrox, the DRI community has provided drivers under the GPL license for many more of the devices. Computer graphics Graphics chip Graphics processing unit Matrox RT
6.
Extensible Metadata Platform
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XMP standardizes a data model, a serialization format and core properties for the definition and processing of extensible metadata. Therefore, the non-XMP metadata have to be reconciled with the XMP properties, although metadata can alternatively be stored in a sidecar file, embedding metadata avoids problems that occur when metadata is stored separately. The XMP data model, serialization format and core properties is published by the International Organization for Standardization as ISO 16684-1,2012 standard, the defined XMP data model can be used to store any set of metadata properties. These can be simple name-value pairs, structured values or lists of values, the data can be nested as well. The XMP standard also defines particular namespaces for defined sets of core properties, custom namespaces can be used to extend the data model. An instance of the XMP data model is called an XMP packet, adding properties to a packet does not affect existing properties. Software to add or modify properties in an XMP packet should leave properties that are unknown to it untouched, XMP allows each software program or device along the workflow to add its own information to a digital resource, which carries its metadata along. Prerequisite is that all involved editors either actively support XMP, or at least do not delete it from the resource, the abstract XMP data model needs a concrete representation when it is stored or embedded into a file. As serialization format, a subset of the W3C RDF/XML syntax is most commonly used and it is a syntax to express a Resource Description Framework graph in XML. There are various equivalent ways to serialize the same XMP packet in RDF/XML, the most common metadata tags recorded in XMP data is that from the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, which include things like title, description, creator, and so on. The standard is designed to be extensible, allowing users to add their own types of metadata into the XMP data. XMP generally does not allow binary data types to be embedded and this means that any binary data one wants to carry in XMP, such as thumbnail images, must be encoded in some XML-friendly format, such as Base64. XMP metadata can describe a document as a whole, but can also describe parts of a document and this architecture makes it possible to retain authorship and rights information about, for example, images included in a published document. Similarly, it permits documents created from several documents to retain the original metadata associated with the parts. The specification used to describe the space for example can be found here. In a typical edited JPEG file, XMP information is included alongside Exif. For more details, the XMP Specification, Part 3, Storage in Files listed below has details on embedding in specific file formats, the XMP Toolkit implements metadata handling in two libraries, XMPCore for creation and manipulation of metadata that follows the XMP Data Model. XMPFiles for embedding serialized metadata in files, and for retrieving embedded metadata, Adobe provides the XMP Toolkit free of charge under a BSD license
7.
Aspect ratio
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The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side – the ratio of width to height. The aspect ratio is expressed as two separated by a colon. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, as an example,8,5,16,10 and 1.6,1 are three ways of representing the same aspect ratio. In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side. The term is most commonly used reference to, Graphic / image Image aspect ratio Display aspect ratio. A square has the smallest possible ratio of 1,1. An ellipse with a ratio of 1,1 is a circle. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1, a square has a DWAR of sqrt. The Cube-Volume Aspect Ratio of a set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1, a circle has a CVAR of sqrt. An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of sqrt = sqrt, if the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors. Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x, y, in digital images there is a subtle distinction between the Display Aspect Ratio and the Storage Aspect Ratio, see Distinctions. Ratio Equidimensional ratios in 3D List of film formats Squeeze mapping Vertical orientation
8.
Ogg
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Ogg is a free, open container format maintained by the Xiph. Org Foundation. The creators of the Ogg format state that it is unrestricted by software patents and is designed to provide for efficient streaming and its name is derived from ogging, jargon from the computer game Netrek. The Ogg container format can multiplex a number of independent streams for audio, video, text, in the Ogg multimedia framework, Theora provides a lossy video layer. The audio layer is most commonly provided by the music-oriented Vorbis format or its successor Opus, lossless audio compression formats include FLAC, and OggPCM. Before 2007, the. ogg filename extension was used for all files whose content used the Ogg container format, since 2007, the Xiph. Org Foundation recommends that. ogg only be used for Ogg Vorbis audio files. As of August 4,2011, the current version of the Xiph. Org Foundations reference implementation, is libogg 1.3.0, another version, libogg2, has been in development, but is awaiting a rewrite as of 2008. Both software libraries are free software, released under the New BSD License, Ogg reference implementation was separated from Vorbis on September 2,2000. It is sometimes assumed that the name Ogg comes from the character of Nanny Ogg in Terry Pratchetts Discworld novels, Ogg is derived from ogging, jargon from the computer game Netrek, which came to mean doing something forcefully, possibly without consideration of the drain on future resources. At its inception, the Ogg project was thought to be somewhat ambitious given the power of the PC hardware of the time, still, to quote the same reference, Vorbis, on the other hand is named after the Terry Pratchett character from the book Small Gods. The Ogg Vorbis project started in 1993 and it was originally named Squish but that name was already trademarked, so the project underwent a name change. The new name, OggSquish, was used until 2001 when it was changed again to Ogg, Ogg has since come to refer to the container format, which is now part of the larger Xiph. org multimedia project. Today, Squish refers to an audio coding format typically used with the Ogg container format. The Ogg bitstream format, spearheaded by the Xiph, the format consists of chunks of data each called an Ogg page. Each page begins with the characters, OggS, to identify the file as Ogg format, a serial number and page number in the page header identifies each page as part of a series of pages making up a bitstream. Multiple bitstreams may be multiplexed in the file where pages from each bitstream are ordered by the time of the contained data. Bitstreams may also be appended to existing files, a known as chaining. A BSD-licensed library, called libvorbis, is available to encode and decode data from Vorbis streams, independent Ogg implementations are used in several projects such as RealPlayer and a set of DirectShow filters. Mogg, the Multi-Track-Single-Logical-Stream Ogg-Vorbis, is the multi-channel or multi-track Ogg file format, the following is the field layout of an Ogg page header, Capture pattern –32 bits The capture pattern or sync code is a magic number used to ensure synchronization when parsing Ogg files
9.
MPEG-4 Part 14
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MPEG-4 Part 14 or MP4 is a digital multimedia container format most commonly used to store video and audio, but can also be used to store other data such as subtitles and still images. Like most modern formats, it allows streaming over the Internet. The only official filename extension for MPEG-4 Part 14 files is. mp4, MPEG-4 Part 14 is a standard specified as a part of MPEG-4. Some devices advertised as MP4 Players are simply MP3 Players that also play AMV video or some other video format, MPEG-4 Part 14 is an instance of the more general ISO/IEC 14496-12,2004 which is directly based upon the QuickTime File Format. MPEG-4 Part 14 is essentially identical to the QuickTime file format, MPEG-4 Part 14 revises and completely replaces Clause 13 of ISO/IEC 14496-1, in which the file format for MPEG-4 content was previously specified. The MPEG-4 file format specification was based on the QuickTime format specification published in 2001, the MPEG-4 file format, version 1 was published in 2001 as ISO/IEC 14496-1,2001, which is a revision of the MPEG-4 Part 1, Systems specification published in 1999. In 2003, the first version of the MP4 file format was revised and replaced by MPEG-4 Part 14, MP4 file format, the MP4 file format was generalized into the ISO Base Media File format ISO/IEC 14496-12,2004, which defines a general structure for time-based media files. It in turn is used as the basis for file formats in the family. Some of these extensions are used by other formats based on ISO base media file format. A list of all registered extensions for ISO Base Media File Format is published on the registration authority website. The registration authority for code-points in MP4 Family files is Apple Inc. codec designers should register the codes they invent, but the registration is not mandatory and some invented and used code-points are not registered. When someone is creating a new specification derived from the ISO Base Media File Format, if an existing specification already covers how a particular media type is stored in the file format, that definition should be used and a new one should not be invented. Audio-only MPEG-4 files generally have a. m4a extension and this is especially true of non-protected content. MPEG-4 files with audio streams encrypted by FairPlay Digital Rights Management as were sold through the iTunes Store use the. m4p extension, iTunes Plus tracks, that the iTunes Store currently sells, are unencrypted and use. m4a accordingly. Audiobook and podcast files, which contain metadata including chapter markers, images, and hyperlinks, can use the extension. m4a. An. m4a audio file cannot bookmark, whereas. m4b extension files can, the Apple iPhone uses MPEG-4 audio for its ringtones but uses the. m4r extension rather than the. m4a extension. Raw MPEG-4 Visual bitstreams are named. m4v but this extension is sometimes used for video in MP4 container format. Mobile phones use 3GP, an implementation of MPEG-4 Part 12 and these files also store non-MPEG-4 data
10.
DV
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DV is a format for storing digital video. It was launched in 1995 with joint efforts of leading producers of video camera recorders, the original DV specification, known as Blue Book, was standardized within the IEC61834 family of standards. These standards define common features such as physical videocassettes, recording modulation method, magnetization, part 2 describes the specifics of 525-60 and 625-50 systems. The IEC standards are available as publications sold by IEC and ANSI, in 2003, DV was joined by a successor format HDV, which used the same tape format with a different video codec. Some cameras at the time had the ability to switch between DV and HDV recording modes, DV uses lossy compression of video while audio is stored uncompressed. An intraframe video compression scheme is used to video on a frame-by-frame basis with the discrete cosine transform. Closely following ITU-R Rec.601 standard, DV video employs interlaced scanning with the sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz. This results in 480 scanlines per complete frame for the 60 Hz system, in both systems the active area contains 720 pixels per scanline, with 704 pixels used for content and 16 pixels on the sides left for digital blanking. The same frame size is used for 4,3 and 16,9 frame aspect ratios, prior to the DCT compression stage, chroma subsampling is applied to the source video in order to reduce the amount of data to be compressed. Baseline DV uses 4,1,1 subsampling in its 60 Hz variant and 4,2,0 subsampling in the 50 Hz variant. Audio can be stored in either of two forms, 16-bit Linear PCM stereo at 48 kHz sampling rate, or four nonlinear 12-bit PCM channels at 32 kHz sampling rate. In addition, the DV specification also supports 16-bit audio at 44.1 kHz, in practice, the 48 kHz stereo mode is used almost exclusively. The audio, video, and metadata are packaged into 80-byte Digital Interface Format blocks which are multiplexed into a 150-block sequence. DIF blocks are the units of DV streams and can be stored as computer files in raw form or wrapped in such file formats as Audio Video Interleave, QuickTime. One video frame is formed from either 10 or 12 such sequences, depending on scanning rate, which results in a rate of about 25 Mbit/s for video. When written to tape, each corresponds to one complete track. This means that the sound may be +/- ⅓ frame out of sync with the video, however, this is the maximum drift of the audio/video synchronization, it is not compounded throughout the recording. Sony and Panasonic created their versions of DV, which use the same compression scheme
11.
Adobe Premiere Pro
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Adobe Premiere Pro is a timeline-based video editing app developed by Adobe Systems and published as part of the Adobe Creative Cloud licensing program. First launched in 2003, Adobe Premiere Pro is a successor of Adobe Premiere and it is geared towards professional video editing, while its sibling, Adobe Premiere Elements, targets consumers market. CNN was an early adopter of Adobe Premiere, also, in 2007, BBC adopted Premiere. It has been used to feature films, such as Gone Girl, Captain Abu Raed, and Monsters. Premiere Pro is the successor to Adobe Premiere, and was launched in 2003. Premiere Pro refers to versions released in 2003 and later, whereas Premiere refers to the earlier releases, Premiere was one of the first computer-based NLEs, with its first release on Mac in 1991. Up until version Premiere Pro 2.0, the packaging featured a galloping horse, in a nod to Eadweard Muybridges work. Premiere Pro supports high resolution video editing at up to 10,240 ×8,192 resolution, at up to 32-bits per channel color, audio sample-level editing, VST audio plug-in support, and 5.1 surround sound mixing are available. When used with Cineforms Neo line of plug-ins, it supports 3D editing with the ability to view 3D material using 2D monitors, while making individual left and right eye adjustments. After Effects Through Adobe Dynamic Link, compositions from Adobe After Effects may be imported and played directly on the Premiere Pro timeline. The After Effects composition can be modified, and after switching back to Premiere Pro, likewise, Premiere Pro projects can be imported into After Effects. Clips can be copied between the two applications while preserving clip attributes, Premiere Pro also supports many After Effects plug-ins. Photoshop Adobe Photoshop files can be opened directly from Premiere Pro to be edited in Photoshop, any changes will immediately be updated when the Photoshop file is saved and focus returns to Premiere Pro. Adobe Story, OnLocation and Prelude The Premiere Pro workflow takes advantage of metadata in the script of a video production. The script is created in or brought into Adobe Story, then passed to Adobe OnLocation to capture footage, finally, in Premiere Pro, speech recognition can match the audio to the dialogue from the script in the metadata. Clips can be searched based on their dialogue in Premiere Pro, Adobe Prelude replaces OnLocation in CS6 and above. Others There are other integration functions, such as Edit in Adobe Audition, Dynamic Link to Encore, an entry-level version, Adobe Premiere Elements is aimed at home users available on Microsoft Windows and macOS. Premiere Pro also has Encore, for more elaborate DVD and Blu-ray Disc authoring options, Encore was discontinued with the release of Adobe Creative Cloud
12.
IEEE 1394
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IEEE1394 is an interface standard for a serial bus for high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data transfer. It was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple, the 1394 interface is also known by the brand i. LINK, and Lynx. The copper cable it uses in its most common implementation can be up to 4.5 metres long, power is also carried over this cable allowing devices with moderate power requirements to operate without a separate power supply. FireWire is also available in wireless, Cat 5, fiber optic, the 1394 interface is comparable to USB though USB requires a master controller and has greater market share. IEEE1394 replaced parallel SCSI in many applications, because of lower implementation costs, FireWire is Apples name for the IEEE1394 High Speed Serial Bus. IEEE1394 is a bus architecture for high-speed data transfer. FireWire is a bus, meaning that information is transferred one bit at a time. Parallel buses utilize a number of different physical connections, and as such are more costly and typically heavier. IEEE1394 fully supports both isochronous and asynchronous applications, Apple intended FireWire to be a serial replacement for the parallel SCSI bus while providing connectivity for digital audio and video equipment. Apples development began in the late 1980s, later presented to the IEEE, in 2007, IEEE1394 was a composite of four documents, the original IEEE Std. 1394-1995, the IEEE Std. 1394a-2000 amendment, the IEEE Std, 1394b-2002 amendment, and the IEEE Std. 1394c-2006 amendment. On June 12,2008, all these amendments as well as errata and some technical updates were incorporated into a superseding standard, Apple first included FireWire in some of its 1999 Macintosh models, and most Apple Macintosh computers manufactured in the years 2000 through 2011 included FireWire ports. However, in February 2011 Apple introduced the first commercially available computer with Thunderbolt, Apple released its last computers featuring FireWire late 2012. By 2014 Thunderbolt had become a feature across Apples entire line of computers effectively becoming the spiritual successor to FireWire in the Apple ecosystem. This style was added into the 1394a amendment. This port is sometimes labeled S100 or S400 to indicate speed in Mbit/s, the system was commonly used to connect data storage devices and DV cameras, but was also popular in industrial systems for machine vision and professional audio systems. Many users preferred it over the more common USB2.0 for its then greater effective speed, benchmarks show that the sustained data transfer rates are higher for FireWire than for USB2.0, but lower than USB3.0. Results are marked on Apple Mac OS X but more varied on Microsoft Windows, implementation of IEEE1394 is said to require use of 261 issued international patents held by 10 corporations
13.
Multimedia
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Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material, Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in art, for example. The term rich media is synonymous with interactive multimedia, the term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein to promote the July 1966 opening of his LightWorks at LOursin show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, two years later, in 1968, the term multimedia was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldsteins producers at LOursin. In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings, in the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s multimedia took on its current meaning, in the 1993 first edition of Multimedia, Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what, when you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia. The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the words significance, the institute summed up its rationale by stating has become a central word in the wonderful new media world. In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs, the term video, if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the format, delivery format. Multiple forms of content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of content with single methods of information processing are often called multimedia. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of content and media. Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, a broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed, streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand
14.
Data compression
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In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy, no information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information, the process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called coding in opposition to channel coding. Compression is useful because it reduces resources required to store and transmit data, computational resources are consumed in the compression process and, usually, in the reversal of the process. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off, Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy, for example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels, instead of coding red pixel, red pixel. The data may be encoded as 279 red pixels and this is a basic example of run-length encoding, there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage, DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip, and PNG, LZW is used in GIF images. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data, for most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded, current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsofts CAB format, the best modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as a form of statistical modelling. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string, sequitur and Re-Pair are practical grammar compression algorithms for which software is publicly available. In a further refinement of the use of probabilistic modelling. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols
15.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
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International Electrotechnical Commission
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The IEC also manages three global conformity assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components conform to its International Standards. The first International Electrical Congress took place in 1881 at the International Exposition of Electricity, at that time the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units was agreed to. The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly Gauss, Hertz and it also first proposed a system of standards, the Giorgi System, which ultimately became the SI, or Système International d’unités. In 1938, it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify terminology relating to electrical, electronic and this effort continues, and the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries. The CISPR – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC, originally located in London, the commission moved to its current headquarters in Geneva in 1948. It has regional centres in Asia-Pacific, Latin America and North America, today, the IEC is the worlds leading international organization in its field, and its standards are adopted as national standards by its members. The work is done by some 10,000 electrical and electronics experts from industry, government, academia, test labs, IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as IEC60417, Graphical symbols for use on equipment. Following the Dresden Agreement with CENELEC the numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC27 became IEC60027. Standards of the 60000 series are also preceded by EN to indicate that the IEC standard is also adopted by CENELEC as a European standard. The IEC cooperates closely with the International Organization for Standardization and the International Telecommunication Union, Standards developed jointly with ISO such as ISO/IEC26300, ISO/IEC27001, and CASCO ISO/IEC17000 series, carry the acronym of both organizations. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix covers publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 - Information Technology, as well as conformity assessment standards developed by ISO CASCO, other standards developed in cooperation between IEC and ISO are assigned numbers in the 80000 series, such as IEC 82045-1. IEC standards are also being adopted by other certifying bodies such as BSI, CSA, UL & ANSI/INCITS, SABS, SAI, SPC/GB, IEC standards adopted by other certifying bodies may have some noted differences from the original IEC standard. The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, national committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, about 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry
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MPEG-1
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MPEG-1 is a standard for lossy compression of video and audio. Today, MPEG-1 has become the most widely compatible lossy audio/video format in the world, perhaps the best-known part of the MPEG-1 standard is the MP3 audio format it introduced. The MPEG-1 standard is published as ISO/IEC11172 – Information technology—Coding of moving pictures, MPEG was formed to address the need for standard video and audio formats, and to build on H.261 to get better quality through the use of more complex encoding methods. Development of the MPEG-1 standard began in May 1988, fourteen video and fourteen audio codec proposals were submitted by individual companies and institutions for evaluation. The codecs were extensively tested for computational complexity and subjective quality and this specific bitrate was chosen for transmission over T-1/E-1 lines and as the approximate data rate of audio CDs. The codecs that excelled in testing were utilized as the basis for the standard and refined further, with additional features. The reported completion date of the MPEG-1 standard varies greatly, a complete draft standard was produced in September 1990. The draft standard was publicly available for purchase, the standard was finished with the 6 November 1992 meeting. The Berkeley Plateau Multimedia Research Group developed an MPEG-1 decoder in November 1992, due in part to the similarity between the two codecs, the MPEG-2 standard includes full backwards compatibility with MPEG-1 video, so any MPEG-2 decoder can play MPEG-1 videos. This means that MPEG-1 coding efficiency can vary depending on the encoder used. The first three parts of ISO/IEC11172 were published in August 1993, the ISO patent database lists one patent for ISO11172, US4,472,747, which expired in 2003. The near-complete draft of the MPEG-1 standard was publicly available as ISO CD11172 by December 6,1991, a May 2009 discussion on the whatwg mailing list mentioned US5,214,678 patent as possibly covering MPEG audio layer II. Filed in 1990 and published in 1993, this patent is now expired, most popular software for video playback includes MPEG-1 decoding, in addition to any other supported formats. The popularity of MP3 audio has established a massive installed base of hardware that can play back MPEG-1 Audio, virtually all digital audio devices can play back MPEG-1 Audio. Many millions have been sold to-date, before MPEG-2 became widespread, many digital satellite/cable TV services used MPEG-1 exclusively. The widespread popularity of MPEG-2 with broadcasters means MPEG-1 is playable by most digital cable and satellite set-top boxes, MPEG-1 was used for full-screen video on Green Book CD-i, and on Video CD. The Super Video CD standard, based on VCD, uses MPEG-1 audio exclusively, the DVD-Video format uses MPEG-2 video primarily, but MPEG-1 support is explicitly defined in the standard. The DVD-Video standard originally required MPEG-1 Layer II audio for PAL countries, MPEG-1 Layer II audio is still allowed on DVDs, although newer extensions to the format, like MPEG Multichannel, are rarely supported
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MPEG-2
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MPEG-2 is a standard for the generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information. MPEG-2 is widely used as the format of television signals that are broadcast by terrestrial, cable. It also specifies the format of movies and other programs that are distributed on DVD, TV stations, TV receivers, DVD players, and other equipment are often designed to this standard. MPEG-2 was the second of several developed by the Moving Pictures Expert Group and is an international standard. Parts 1 and 2 of MPEG-2 were developed in a collaboration with ITU-T, while MPEG-2 is the core of most digital television and DVD formats, it does not completely specify them. Regional institutions can adapt it to their needs by restricting and augmenting aspects of the standard, MPEG-2 includes a Systems section, part 1, that defines two distinct, but related, container formats. Program stream exceptions are M2TS, which is used on Blu-ray discs, AVCHD on re-writable DVDs, while VOB on DVDs and Enhanced VOB on the short lived HD DVD do not waste storage space and just use the program stream. MPEG-2 Systems is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-1 and as ITU-T Rec, ISO authorized the SMPTE Registration Authority, LLC as the registration authority for MPEG-2 format identifiers. This provision will permit the MPEG-2 transport standard to all types of data while providing for a method of unambiguous identification of the characteristics of the underlying private data. The Video section, part 2 of MPEG-2, is similar to the previous MPEG-1 standard, but also support for interlaced video. MPEG-2 video is not optimized for low bit-rates, especially less than 1 Mbit/s at standard definition resolutions, all standards-compliant MPEG-2 Video decoders are fully capable of playing back MPEG-1 Video streams conforming to the Constrained Parameters Bitstream syntax. MPEG-2/Video is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-2 and as ITU-T Rec, with some enhancements, MPEG-2 Video and Systems are also used in some HDTV transmission systems, and is the standard format for over-the-air ATSC digital television.1 multichannel. This method is backwards-compatible, allowing MPEG-1 audio decoders to decode the two main components of the presentation. MPEG-2 part 3 also defined additional bit rates and sample rates for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, MPEG-2 BC low bitrate encoding with halved sampling rate multichannel encoding with up to 5.1 channels, a. k. a. MPEG Multichannel Part 7 of the MPEG-2 standard specifies a rather different, Part 7 is referred to as MPEG-2 AAC. AAC is more efficient than the previous MPEG audio standards, and is in some ways less complicated than its predecessor, MPEG-1 Audio, Layer 3, in that it does not have the hybrid filter bank. It supports from 1 to 48 channels at sampling rates of 8 to 96 kHz, with multichannel, multilingual, advanced Audio is also defined in Part 3 of the MPEG-4 standard. MPEG-2 NBC MPEG-2 AAC multichannel encoding with up to 48 channels MPEG-2 standards are published as parts of ISO/IEC13818, each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification
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H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2
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H.262 or MPEG-2 Part 2 is a video coding format developed and maintained jointly by ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group and ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group. It is the part of the ISO/IEC MPEG-2 standard. The ITU-T Recommendation H.262 and ISO/IEC 13818-2 documents are identical, the standard is available for a fee from the ITU-T and ISO. MPEG-2 Video is similar to MPEG-1, but also support for interlaced video. MPEG-2 video is not optimized for low bit-rates, but outperforms MPEG-1 at 3 Mbit/s, all standards-conforming MPEG-2 Video decoders are fully capable of playing back MPEG-1 Video streams. The ISO/IEC approval process was completed in November 1994, the first edition was approved in July 1995 and published by ITU-T and ISO/IEC in 1996. In 1996 it was extended by two amendments to include the Registration of Copyright Identifiers and the 4,2,2 Profile, ITU-T published these amendments in 1996 and ISO in 1997. There are also other amendments published later by ITU-T and ISO, the most recent edition of the standard was published in 2013 and incorporates all prior amendments. An HDTV camera generates a raw video stream of 149,299,200 bytes per second for 24fps video and this stream must be compressed if digital TV is to fit in the bandwidth of available TV channels and if movies are to fit on DVDs. Fortunately, video compression is practical because the data in pictures is often redundant in space, for example, the sky can be blue across the top of a picture and that blue sky can persist for frame after frame. Also, because of the way the eye works, it is possible to some data from video pictures with almost no noticeable degradation in image quality. TV cameras used in broadcasting usually generate 50 pictures a second or 59.94 pictures a second, digital television requires that these pictures be digitized so that they can be processed by computer hardware. Each picture element is represented by one luma number and two chrominance numbers. These describe the brightness and the color of the pixel, thus, each digitized picture is initially represented by three rectangular arrays of numbers. Upon reception/decoding, the two fields are displayed alternately with the lines of one field interleaving between the lines of the field, this format is called interlaced video. The typical field rate is 50 or 59.94 fields per second, if the video is not interlaced, then it is called progressive video and each picture is a frame. Another common practice to reduce the rate is to thin out or subsample the two chrominance planes. In effect, the chrominance values represent the nearby values that are deleted
