1.
Automated analyser
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An automated analyser is a medical laboratory instrument designed to measure different chemicals and other characteristics in a number of biological samples quickly, with minimal human assistance. These measured properties of blood and other fluids may be useful in the diagnosis of disease, many methods of introducing samples into the analyser have been invented. This can involve placing test tubes of sample into racks, which can be moved along a track, some analysers require samples to be transferred to sample cups. Samples can be processed singly, in batches, or continuously, the automation of laboratory testing does not remove the need for human expertise, but it does ease concerns about error reduction, staffing concerns, and safety. These are machines that process a portion of the samples going into a hospital or private medical laboratory. Automation of the process has reduced testing time for many analytes from days to minutes. The history of discrete sample analysis for the laboratory began with the introduction of the Robot Chemist invented by Hans Baruch. AutoAnalyzer is an automated analyzer using a flow technique named continuous flow analysis, invented in 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD. The first applications were for clinical analysis, the AutoAnalyzer profoundly changed the character of the chemical testing laboratory by allowing significant increases in the numbers of samples that could be processed. The design based on separating a continuously flowing stream with air bubbles largely reduced slow, clumsy, the types of tests required include enzyme levels, ion levels (e. g. sodium and potassium, and other tell-tale chemicals. Simple ions are measured with ion selective electrodes, which let one type of ion through. Enzymes may be measured by the rate they change one coloured substance to another, in these tests, other tests use colorimetric changes to determine the concentration of the chemical in question. Antibodies are used by some analysers to detect many substances by immunoassay, when concentration of these compounds is too low to cause a measurable increase in turbidity when bound to antibody, more specialised methods must be used. Recent developments include automation for the lab, also known as transfusion medicine. These are used to perform complete blood counts, erythrocyte sedimentation rates, automated cell counters sample the blood, and quantify, classify, and describe cell populations using both electrical and optical techniques. Electrical analysis involves passing a solution of the blood through an aperture across which an electrical current is flowing. The passage of cells through the current changes the impedance between the terminals, a lytic reagent is added to the blood solution to selectively lyse the red cells, leaving only white cells, and platelets intact. Then the solution is passed through a second detector and this allows the counts of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets to be obtained
2.
AutoAnalyzer
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The AutoAnalyzer is an automated analyzer using a flow technique called continuous flow analysis, first made by the Technicon Corporation. The instrument was invented 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD and commercialized by Jack Whiteheads Technicon Corporation, the first applications were for clinical analysis, but methods for industrial analysis soon followed. The design is based on separating a continuously flowing stream with air bubbles, in continuous flow analysis a continuous stream of material is divided by air bubbles into discrete segments in which chemical reactions occur. The continuous stream of liquid samples and reagents are combined and transported in tubing and mixing coils, an essential principle of the system is the introduction of air bubbles. The air bubbles segment each sample into discrete packets and act as a barrier between packets to prevent cross contamination as they travel down the length of the tubing. The air bubbles also assist mixing by creating turbulent flow, and provide operators with a quick, a continuous flow analyzer consists of different modules including a sampler, pump, mixing coils, optional sample treatments, a detector, and data generator. Most continuous flow analyzers depend on color reactions using a flow through photometer, however, also methods have developed that use ISE, flame photometry, ICAP, fluorometry. While the AutoAnalyzer mixes sample homogeneously with reagents, in all FIA techniques sample, FIA methods can be used for both fast reactions as well as slow reactions. For slow reactions, a heater is often utilized, the reaction does not need to reach completion since all samples and standards are given the same period to react. For typical assays commonly measured with FIA it is not uncommon to have a throughput of 60-120 samples per hour. FIA methods are limited by the amount of necessary to obtain a measurable signal since travel time through the tubing tends to broaden peaks to the point where samples can merge with each other. As a general rule, FIA methods should not be used if an adequate signal cannot be obtained within two minutes, and preferably less than one, reactions that need longer reaction times should be segmented. Yet, assays based on chemical reactions have to be carried either in stopped flow mode or by segmenting the flow. OI Analytical, in its gas diffusion amperometric total cyanide method, Technicon experimented with FIA long before it was championed by Ruzicka and Hansen. Andres Ferrari reported that analysis was possible without bubbles if flow rates were increased, in fact, Skeggs first attempts at the auto analyzer did not segment. Technicon chose to not pursue FIA because it increased reagent consumption and it uses flow programming instead of the continuous flow regime, that allows the flow rate and flow direction to be tailored to the need of individual steps of analytical protocol. Reactants are mixed by flow reversals and a measurement is carried out while the mixture is arrested within the detector by stepping the flow. Microminiaturized chromatography is carried out on microcolumns that are renewed by microfluidic manipulations
3.
Dialysis (biochemistry)
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In biochemistry, dialysis is the process of separating molecules in solution by the difference in their rates of diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, such as dialysis tubing. Dialysis is a laboratory technique that operates on the same principle as medical dialysis. Dialysis is also used for buffer exchange and drug binding studies. Due to the size of the membrane, large molecules in the sample cannot pass through the membrane. Dialysis can be used to introduce or remove small molecules from a sample. This makes dialysis a useful technique for a variety of applications, see dialysis tubing for additional information on the history, properties, and manufacturing of semi-permeable membranes used for dialysis. Separating molecules in a solution by dialysis is a straightforward process, by using the appropriate volume of dialysate and multiple exchanges of the buffer, the concentration of small contaminants within the sample can be decreased to acceptable or negligible levels. For example, when dialyzing 1mL of sample against 200mL of dialysate, following two additional buffer changes of 200mL each, the contaminant level in the sample will be reduced by a factor of 8 x 106. Therefore, the procedure might require optimization. Dialysis membranes are produced and characterized according to molecular-weight cutoff limits, while membranes with MWCOs ranging from 1-1,000,000 kDa are commercially available, membranes with MWCOs near 10 kDa are most commonly used. The MWCO of a membrane is the result of the number, the MWCO typically refers to the smallest average molecular mass of a standard molecule that will not effectively diffuse across the membrane during extended dialysis. Thus, a membrane with a 10K MWCO will generally retain greater than 90% of a protein having a molecular mass of at least 10kDa. It is important to note that the MWCO of a membrane is not a defined value. Molecules with mass near the MWCO limit of the membrane will diffuse across the more slowly than molecules significantly smaller than the MWCO. In order for a molecule to rapidly diffuse across a membrane, therefore, it is not practical to separate a 30kDa protein from a 10kDa protein using dialysis across a 20K rated dialysis membrane. Dialysis membranes for use are typically made of a film of regenerated cellulose or cellulose esters. See reference for a review of cellulose membranes and manufacturing, dialysis is generally performed in clipped bags of dialysis tubing or in a variety of formatted dialyzers. The choice of the set up used is largely dependent on the size of the sample
4.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
5.
Molecule
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A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge, however, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions. In the kinetic theory of gases, the molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules. A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one element, as with oxygen, or it may be heteronuclear. Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are not considered single molecules. Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances and they also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals and covalent crystals, the theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses, atoms may also be together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule. The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, in practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a system composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i. e, according to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word molecule derives from the Latin moles or small unit of mass. Molecule – extremely minute particle, from French molécule, from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles mass, a vague meaning at first, the vogue for the word can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased, earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. Molecules are held together by covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment, for example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements, a covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
6.
Chart recorder
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A chart recorder is an electromechanical device that records an electrical or mechanical input trend onto a piece of paper. Chart recorders may record several inputs using different color pens and may record onto strip charts or circular charts, chart recorders are built in three primary formats. Strip chart recorders have a strip of paper that is ejected out of the recorder. Circular chart recorders have a disc of paper that must be replaced more often. Roll chart recorders are similar to strip chart recorders except that the data is stored on a round roll. Chart recorders pre-dated electronic data loggers which have replaced them in many applications, charles Babbage incorporated a chart recorder into the dynamometer car that he built in 1838 or 1839. Here is how he described it, A roll of paper a thousand feet in length was slowly unwinding itself upon the long table, about a dozen pens connected with a bridge crossing the middle of the table were each marking its own independent curve gradually or by jumps. The paper advance was geared to the wheels of the carriage, while pens recorded time, the drawbar pull of the locomotive. In 1848-1850 a system of registers was used by John Locke to improve the precision of astronomical observations of stars. This method was adopted by astronomers in other countries as well, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvins syphon recorder of 1858 was a sensitive instrument that provided a permanent record of telegraph signals through long underwater telegraph cables. These recorders came to be referred to as pen registers, although this later became part of law enforcement jargon referring to the use of such a register to record dialed telephone numbers. A patent for a Pressure Indicator and Recorder was issued to William Henry Bristol, Bristol went on to form the Bristol Manufacturing Company in 1889. However, dataloggers decreasing cost and power requirements allow them to increasingly replace chart recorders, the paper chart is driven past the pen at a steady rate by a clockwork or electrical drive mechanism. One common method is to use a synchronous motor which turns at a constant speed related to the power frequency. Industrial strip-chart recorders may have two-speed gear trains that allow a speed to be used for initial adjustments of a process or to follow process upsets. Medical and scientific recorders allow a range of accurately-controlled speeds to be set. An X-Y recorder drives the chart depending on the value of another process signal, for example, a universal testing machine may plot the tension force on a specimen against its length. Depending on the recorder, either the paper chart is moved or else the pen carriage has two axes of motion
7.
Data logger
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A data logger is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor and they generally are small, battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory for data storage, and sensors. Data loggers vary between general purpose types for a range of measurement applications to specific devices for measuring in one environment or application type only. It is common for general purpose types to be programmable, however, electronic data loggers have replaced chart recorders in many applications. One of the benefits of using data loggers is the ability to automatically collect data on a 24-hour basis. Upon activation, data loggers are typically deployed and left unattended to measure and this allows for a comprehensive, accurate picture of the environmental conditions being monitored, such as air temperature and relative humidity. The cost of data loggers has been declining over the years as technology improves, simple single channel data loggers cost as little as $25. More complicated loggers may costs hundreds or thousands of dollars, standardisation of protocols and data formats has been a problem but is now growing in the industry and XML, JSON, and YAML are increasingly being adopted for data exchange. The development of the Semantic Web and the Internet of Things is likely to accelerate this present trend, several protocols have been standardised including a smart protocol, SDI-12, that allows some instrumentation to be connected to a variety of data loggers. The use of this standard has not gained much acceptance outside the environmental industry, SDI-12 also supports multi drop instruments. Some datalogging companies are now supporting the MODBUS standard. This has been used traditionally in the control area. Another multi drop protocol which is now starting to become widely used is based upon CAN Bus. Some data loggers use a flexible scripting environment to adapt themselves to various non-standard protocols, the terms data logging and data acquisition are often used interchangeably. However, in a context they are quite different. A data logger is a data system, but a data acquisition system is not necessarily a data logger. Data loggers typically have slower sample rates, a maximum sample rate of 1 Hz may be considered to be very fast for a data logger, yet very slow for a typical data acquisition system. Data loggers are implicitly stand-alone devices, while typical data acquisition system must remain tethered to a computer to acquire data and this stand-alone aspect of data loggers implies on-board memory that is used to store acquired data
8.
Personal computer
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A personal computer is a multi-purpose electronic computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. PCs are intended to be operated directly by a end-user, rather than by an expert or technician. In the 2010s, PCs are typically connected to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web, personal computers may be connected to a local area network, either by a cable or a wireless connection. In the 2010s, a PC may be, a multi-component desktop computer, designed for use in a location a laptop computer, designed for easy portability or a tablet computer. In the 2010s, PCs run using a system, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a program to load programs from external storage. Before long, automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal, in the 2010s, users have access to a wide range of commercial software, free software and free and open-source software, which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware have dominated much of the computer market, first with MS-DOS. Alternatives to Microsofts Windows operating systems occupy a minority share of the industry and these include Apples OS X and free open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution. Advanced Micro Devices provides the alternative to Intels processors. PC is an initialism for personal computer, some PCs, including the OLPC XOs, are equipped with x86 or x64 processors but not designed to run Microsoft Windows. PC is used in contrast with Mac, an Apple Macintosh computer and this sense of the word is used in the Get a Mac advertisement campaign that ran between 2006 and 2009, as well as its rival, Im a PC campaign, that appeared in 2008. Since Apples transition to Intel processors starting 2005, all Macintosh computers are now PCs, the “brain” may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far, in the history of computing there were many examples of computers designed to be used by one person, as opposed to terminals connected to mainframe computers. Using the narrow definition of operated by one person, the first personal computer was the ENIAC which became operational in 1946 and it did not meet further definitions of affordable or easy to use. An example of an early single-user computer was the LGP-30, created in 1956 by Stan Frankel and used for science and it came with a retail price of $47, 000—equivalent to about $414,000 today. Introduced at the 1965 New York Worlds Fair, the Programma 101 was a programmable calculator described in advertisements as a desktop computer. It was manufactured by the Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, the Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov
9.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
10.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
11.
Medical laboratory
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Clinical laboratories are thus focused on applied science mainly on a production-like basis, as opposed to research laboratories that focus on basic science on an academic basis. Laboratory medicine is divided into two sections, each of which being subdivided into multiple units. These two sections are Anatomic pathology, units included here are histopathology, cytopathology, and electron microscopy, academically, each unit is studied alone in one course. Other courses pertaining to this section include anatomy, physiology, histology, pathology, Clinical pathology, which includes, Clinical Microbiology, This encompasses five different sciences. These include bacteriology, virology, parasitology, immunology, and mycology, Clinical Chemistry, Units under this busy section include instrumental analysis of blood components, enzymology, toxicology and endocrinology. Hematology, This section consists of automated and manual analysis of blood cells and it includes two subunits, which are coagulation and blood bank. Genetics is also studied along with a subspecialty known as cytogenetics, reproductive biology, Semen analysis, Sperm bank and assisted reproductive technology. Distribution of clinical laboratories in health institutions varies greatly from one place to another, for instance, for microbiology, some health facilities have a single laboratory for microbiology, while others have a separate lab for each unit, with nothing called a microbiology lab. The work here is mainly concerned with cultures, to look for suspected pathogens which, also, sensitivity testing is carried out to determine whether the pathogen is sensitive or resistant to a suggested medicine. Results are reported with the organism and the type and amount of drug that should be prescribed for the patient. Parasitology responsible for examining parasites, feces samples may be examined for evidence of intestinal parasites such as tapeworms or hookworms, Virology is concerned with identification of viruses in specimens such as blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid. Hematology works with whole blood to do full blood counts, coagulation requires citrated blood samples to analyze blood clotting times and coagulation factors. Clinical Biochemistry usually receives serum or plasma and they test the serum for chemicals present in blood. These include an array of substances, such as lipids, blood sugar, enzymes. Toxicology mainly tests for pharmaceutical and recreational drugs, urine and blood samples are submitted to this lab. Immunology/Serology uses the concept of interaction as a diagnostic tool. Compatibility of transplanted organs is also determined, immunohaematology, or Blood bank determines blood groups, and performs compatibility testing on donor blood and recipients. It also prepares blood components, derivatives, and products for transfusion, urinalysis tests urine for many analytes
12.
Analytical chemistry
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Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods used to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method, qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration. Analytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern, classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation, then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields. Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte, Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has applications to forensics, medicine, science. Analytical chemistry has been important since the days of chemistry, providing methods for determining which elements. The first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert Bunsen, most of the major developments in analytical chemistry take place after 1900. During this period instrumental analysis becomes progressively dominant in the field, in particular many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century. The separation sciences follow a similar line of development and also become increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. In the 1970s many of these began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of samples. Lasers have been used in chemistry as probes and even to initiate. Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis, many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time and this is particularly true in industrial quality assurance, forensic and environmental applications
13.
Human serum albumin
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Human serum albumin is the serum albumin found in human blood. It is the most abundant protein in blood plasma, it constitutes about half of serum protein. It is produced in the liver, albumin transports hormones, fatty acids, and other compounds, buffers pH, and maintains oncotic pressure, among other functions. Albumin is synthesized in the liver as preproalbumin, which has an N-terminal peptide that is removed before the nascent protein is released from the endoplasmic reticulum. The product, proalbumin, is in turn cleaved in the Golgi vesicles to produce the secreted albumin, the reference range for albumin concentrations in serum is approximately 35 -50 g/L. It has a serum half-life of approximately 20 days and it has a molecular mass of 66.5 kDa. The gene for albumin is located on chromosome 4 and mutations in this gene can result in anomalous proteins, the human albumin gene is 16,961 nucleotides long from the putative cap site to the first poly addition site. It is split into 15 exons that are placed within the 3 domains thought to have arisen by triplication of a single primordial domain. Serum albumin concentration is typically 35 -50 g/L Hypoalbuminemia is a low blood albumin levels, typically, this condition is due to abrupt dehydration. Chronic dehydration needs to be treated with zinc as well as with water, zinc reduces cell swelling caused by decreased intake of water and also increases retention of salt. In the dehydrated state, the body has too high an osmolarity and, it appears, zinc also regulates transport of the cellular osmolyte taurine, and albumin is known to increase cellular taurine absorption. Zinc has been shown to increase production from beta-carotene. It is possible that a retinol deficiency alone could cause albumin levels to become raised, patients recovering from chronic dehydration may develop dry eyes as the body uses up its vitamin A store. Retinol causes cells to swell with water, hyperalbuminemia is also associated with high protein diets. Human albumin solution or HSA is available for use, usually at concentrations of 5-25%. Human albumin is used to replace lost fluid and help restore blood volume in trauma, burns. A Cochrane systematic review of 37 trials found no evidence that albumin, compared with alternatives such as saline. Human serum albumin has been used as a component of a frailty index and this reaction can be inhibited in the presence of antioxidant agents
14.
Alkaline phosphatase
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Alkaline phosphatase is a hydrolase enzyme responsible for removing phosphate groups from many types of molecules, including nucleotides, proteins, and alkaloids. The process of removing the phosphate group is called dephosphorylation, as the name suggests, alkaline phosphatases are most effective in an alkaline environment, it is sometimes used synonymously as basic phosphatase. Alkaline phosphatase is elevated in undifferentiated pluripotent stem cells, and the germ cells which produce spermatozoa. In Gram-negative bacteria, alkaline phosphatase is located in the periplasmic space, Alkaline phosphatase is a zinc-containing dimeric enzyme with the MW,86,000 Da. It is heat stable and its function is to remove phosphate groups from phosphorylated compounds facilitating transport across membranes, Alkaline phosphatase in E. coli is located in the periplasmic space and can thus be released using techniques that weaken the cell wall and release the protein. Due to the location of the enzyme, and the layout of the enzyme the enzyme is in solution with a small amount of proteins than there are in another portion of the cell. Some complexities of bacterial regulation and metabolism suggest that other, more subtle, in the laboratory, however, mutant Escherichia coli lacking alkaline phosphatase survive quite well, as do mutants unable to shut off alkaline phosphatase production. The optimal pH for the activity of the E. coli enzyme is 8.0 while the bovine enzyme optimum pH is slightly higher at 8.5. Typical uses in the lab for alkaline phosphatases include removing phosphate monoesters to prevent self-ligation, common alkaline phosphatases used in research include, Shrimp alkaline phosphatase, from a species of Arctic shrimp. This phosphatase is easily inactivated by heat, a feature in some applications. Calf-intestinal alkaline phosphatase Placental alkaline phosphatase and its C terminally truncated version that lacks the last 24 amino acids - the secreted alkaline phosphatase and it presents certain characteristics like heat stability, substrate specificity, and resistance to chemical inactivation. The human body has multiple types of alkaline phosphatase present, which are determined by a minimum of three gene loci, each one of these three loci controls a different kind of alkaline phosphatase isozyme. However, the development of enzyme can be strictly regulated by other factors such as thermostability, electrophoresis, inhibition. Human-intestinal ALPase shows around 80% homology with bovine intestinal ALPase, which holds true their shared evolutionary origins and that same bovine enzyme has more than 70% homology with human placental enzyme. However, the intestinal enzyme and the placental enzyme only share 20% homology despite their structural similarities. Alkaline phosphatase has become a tool in molecular biology laboratories. For these purposes, the alkaline phosphatase from shrimp is the most useful, another important use of alkaline phosphatase is as a label for enzyme immunoassays. Alkaline phosphatase affect on the responses in patients with Chronic kidney disease and is directly associated with Erythropoiesis stimulating agent resistant anemia
15.
Aspartate transaminase
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AST catalyzes the reversible transfer of an α-amino group between aspartate and glutamate and, as such, is an important enzyme in amino acid metabolism. AST is found in the liver, heart, skeletal muscle, kidneys, brain, serum AST level, serum ALT level, and their ratio are commonly measured clinically as biomarkers for liver health. The tests are part of blood panels, Aspartate transaminase catalyzes the interconversion of aspartate and α-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and glutamate. In the process, the cofactor shuttles between PLP and the phosphate form. The amino group transfer catalyzed by this enzyme is crucial in both amino acid degradation and biosynthesis, in amino acid degradation, following the conversion of α-ketoglutarate to glutamate, glutamate subsequently undergoes oxidative deamination to form ammonium ions, which are excreted as urea. In the reverse reaction, aspartate may be synthesized from oxaloacetate, two isoenzymes are present in a wide variety of eukaryotes. In humans, GOT1/cAST, the cytosolic isoenzyme derives mainly from red blood cells, gOT2/mAST, the mitochondrial isoenzyme is present predominantly in liver. These isoenzymes are thought to have evolved from a common ancestral AST via gene duplication, AST has also been found in a number of microorganisms, including E. coli, H. mediterranei, and T. thermophilus. In E. coli, the enzyme is encoded by the aspCgene and has also shown to exhibit the activity of an aromatic-amino-acid transaminase. X-ray crystallography studies have been performed to determine the structure of aspartate transaminase from various sources, including mitochondria, pig heart cytosol. Overall, the three-dimensional polypeptide structure for all species is quite similar, AST is dimeric, consisting of two identical subunits, each with approximately 400 amino acid residues and a molecular weight of approximately 45 kD. The large domain, which includes residues 48-325, binds the PLP cofactor via a linkage to the ε-amino group of Lys258. Other residues in this domain – Asp 222 and Tyr 225 – also interact with PLP via hydrogen bonding, the small domain consists of residues 15-47 and 326-410 and represents a flexible region that shifts the enzyme from an open to a closed conformation upon substrate binding. The two independent active sites are positioned near the interface between the two domains, in terms of secondary structure, AST contains both α and β elements. Each domain has a sheet of β-strands with α-helices packed on either side. Aspartate transaminase, as with all transaminases, operates via dual substrate recognition, in either case, the transaminase reaction consists of two similar half-reactions that constitute what is referred to as a ping-pong mechanism. In the first half-reaction, amino acid 1 reacts with the complex to generate ketoacid 1. In the second half-reaction, ketoacid 2 reacts with enzyme-PMP to produce amino acid 2, formation of a racemic product is very rare
16.
Bilirubin
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Bilirubin is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates. This catabolism is a process in the bodys clearance of waste products that arise from the destruction of aged red blood cells. First the hemoglobin gets stripped of the molecule which thereafter passes through various processes of porphyrin catabolism. For example, the molecules excreted in the urine differ from those in the feces, the production of biliverdin from heme is the first major step in the catabolic pathway, after which the enzyme biliverdin reductase performs the second step, producing bilirubin from biliverdin. Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine, and elevated levels may indicate certain diseases and it is responsible for the yellow color of bruises and the yellow discoloration in jaundice. Its subsequent breakdown products, such as stercobilin, cause the color of feces. A different breakdown product, urobilin, is the component of the straw-yellow color in urine. It has also found in plants. Bilirubin consists of a chain of four pyrrole-like rings. In heme, these four rings are connected into a larger ring, Bilirubin can be conjugated with a molecule of glucuronic acid which makes it soluble in water. This is an example of glucuronidation, Bilirubin is very similar to the pigment phycobilin used by certain algae to capture light energy, and to the pigment phytochrome used by plants to sense light. All of these contain a chain of four pyrrolic rings. Like these other pigments, some of the double-bonds in bilirubin isomerize when exposed to light and this allows the excretion of unconjugated bilirubin in bile. Some textbooks and research articles show the geometric isomer of bilirubin. The naturally occurring isomer is the Z, Z-isomer, Bilirubin is created by the activity of biliverdin reductase on biliverdin, a green tetrapyrrolic bile pigment that is also a product of heme catabolism. Bilirubin, when oxidized, reverts to become once again. This cycle, in addition to the demonstration of the potent antioxidant activity of bilirubin, has led to the hypothesis that bilirubins main physiologic role is as a cellular antioxidant, the measurement of indirect bilirubin depends on its reaction with diazosulfanilic acid to create azobilirubin. However, unconjugated bilirubin also reacts slowly with diazosulfanilic acid, so that the measured indirect bilirubin is an underestimate of the true unconjugated concentration
17.
Calcium
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Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
18.
Cholesterol
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Cholesterol, from the Ancient Greek chole- and stereos followed by the chemical suffix -ol for an alcohol, is an organic molecule. Cholesterol enables animal cells to dispense with a wall, thereby allowing animal cells to change shape rapidly. In addition to its importance for cell structure, cholesterol also serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bile acid. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by all animals, in vertebrates, hepatic cells typically produce the greatest amounts. It is absent among prokaryotes, although there are exceptions, such as Mycoplasma. François Poulletier de la Salle first identified cholesterol in solid form in gallstones in 1769, however, it was not until 1815 that chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul named the compound cholesterine. Furthermore, it can be absorbed directly from animal-based foods, a human male weighing 68 kg normally synthesizes about 1 gram per day, and his body contains about 35 g, mostly contained within the cell membranes. Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg, most ingested cholesterol is esterified, and esterified cholesterol is poorly absorbed. The body also compensates for any absorption of cholesterol by reducing cholesterol synthesis. For these reasons, cholesterol in food, seven to ten hours after ingestion, has little and it is also important to recognize, however, that the concentrations measured in the samples of blood plasma vary with the measurement methods used. Cholesterol is recycled in the body, the liver excretes it in a non-esterified form into the digestive tract. Typically, about 50% of the excreted cholesterol is reabsorbed by the small intestine back into the bloodstream, plants make cholesterol in very small amounts. Plants manufacture phytosterols, which can compete with cholesterol for reabsorption in the intestinal tract, when intestinal lining cells absorb phytosterols, in place of cholesterol, they usually excrete the phytosterol molecules back into the GI tract, an important protective mechanism. Cholesterol, given that it composes about 30% of all cell membranes, is required to build. The membrane remains stable and durable without being rigid, allowing cells to change shape. In this structural role, cholesterol also reduces the permeability of the membrane to neutral solutes, hydrogen ions. Within the cell membrane, cholesterol also functions in intracellular transport, cell signaling, cholesterol is essential for the structure and function of invaginated caveolae and clathrin-coated pits, including caveola-dependent and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. The role of cholesterol in endocytosis of these types can be investigated by using methyl beta cyclodextrin to remove cholesterol from the plasma membrane, in multiple layers, cholesterol and phospholipids, both electrical insulators, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue
19.
Phosphorus
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Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
