1.
Monza
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Monza listen is a city and comune on the River Lambro, a tributary of the Po in the Lombardy region of Italy, about 15 kilometres north-northeast of Milan. It is the capital of the Province of Monza and Brianza, Monza is best known for its Grand Prix motor racing circuit, the Autodromo Nazionale Monza, which hosts the Formula One Italian Grand Prix. On 11 June 2004 Monza was designated the capital of the new province of Monza and Brianza, the new administrative arrangement came fully into effect in summer 2009, previously, Monza was a comune within the province of Milan. Monza is the third-largest city of Lombardy and is the most important economic, industrial and administrative centre of the Brianza area, supporting a textile industry, Monza also hosts a Department of the University of Milan Bicocca, a Court of Justice and several offices of regional administration. Monza Park is one of the largest urban parks in Europe, Monza is located in the high plains of Lombardy, between Brianza and Milan, at an altitude of 162 metres above sea level. It is 15 kilometres from the centre of the capital, although when considering the cities borders. Monza is about 40 km from Lecco and Como, Monza shares its position with Milan in the same metro area, and is a big part of its new province. Monza is crossed north to south by the River Lambro. The river enters Monza from the north, between Via Aliprandi and Via Zanzi streets and this is an artificial fork of the river, created for defensive purposes in the early decades of the 14th century. The fork is known as Lambretto and it rejoins the main course of the Lambro as it exits to the south, another artificial stream is the Canale Villoresi, which was constructed in the late 19th century. Precipitation is abundant, with most occurring in the autumn and the least in winter and summer, despite this, during the Roman Empire, Monza was known as Modicia. During the 3rd century BCE, the Romans subdued the Insubres, a Gallo-Celtic tribe, perhaps the Insubres themselves, founded a village on the Lambro. The ruins of a Roman bridge named Ponte dArena can be seen near todays Ponte dei Leoni, Theodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria and wife of the Lombard king Authari, chose Monza as her summer residence. Here in 595 she founded an oraculum dedicated to St. John the Baptist, according to this legend, the medieval name of Monza, Modoetia, is derived from these two words. She also had a palace built here, berengar I of Italy located his headquarters in Monza. A fortified castrum was constructed to resist the incursions of the Hungarians, under Berengars reign, Monza enjoyed a certain degree of independence, it had its own system of weights and measures, and could also seize property and mark the deeds with their signatures. Berengar was very evident by the donation of numerous works to the Monza Cathedral, including the famous cross. In 980 Monza hosted Emperor Otto II inside the walled city, the Glossary of Monza, one of the earliest examples of the evolution of Italian language, probably dates to the early 10th century
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
4.
Formula One
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Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
5.
Italian Grand Prix
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The Italian Grand Prix is one of the longest running events on the Formula One calendar. The Italian Grand Prix was also one of the inaugural Formula One championship races in 1950, every Formula One Italian Grand Prix since 1950 has been held at Monza except in 1980, when it was held at Imola. The Italian Grand Prix counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1938 and it was designated the European Grand Prix seven times between 1923 and 1967, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one grand prix race in Europe. European motor racing pioneers Vincenzo Lancia and Felice Nazzaro laid the last two bricks at Monza, the circuit was 10 km long, with a flat banked section and a road circuit combined into one. It was fast, and always provided excitement, the 1923 race included one of Harry A. Millers rare European appearances with his single seat American Miller 122 driven by Count Louis Zborowski of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang fame. The 1928 race was the first of many tragedies that befell this venue, italians Emilio Materassi in a Talbot and Giulio Foresti in a Bugatti were battling around this fast circuit. As they came off the banking onto the side of the pit straight. It was the worst accident in racing history and would remain so until the 195524 Hours of Le Mans. The race was something of a race in those days. The great Nuvolari won again in a shortened 1932 race, this time held in early June, in 1933, with the race being held this time at the traditional timeframe of early September, disaster struck again. Three top drivers were killed during three heat races, Campari broke his neck and was killed instantly, and Borzacchini died later that day in a Monza hospital. Prior to the heat, there was a drivers meeting to discuss the oil patch. Blinded by the smoke and flames on him, he went up and flew off the banking- at the spot where Campari. The Polish driver, unable to put out the flames on his body which was fueled by the fuel from his wrecked Bugatti, Italian Luigi Fagioli was declared the winner of the event. Enzo Ferrari, who had close to Campari and Borzacchini. Today, racing historians conclude that the events of this marked a watershed. It was the end to the era of racing and the beginning of a harsher new age. Safety in those days was completely non-existent, spectators often stood very close to or even next to the track and they had no protection of any kind other than common sense
6.
1000 km Monza
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The 1000 kilometres of Monza (also called from 1966 Trofeo Luigi Caracciolo was an endurance race mainly for sports cars held at Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Italy. The Coppa Inter-Europa was first held in 1949, on the 6. 3-kilometre circuit, the race expanded to 1000 kilometres in 1954, and moved to the 10-kilometre circuit in 1956. The event was shortened and returned to the 6. 3-km track the next year, in 1960 and 1961, the race was a part of the FIA GT Cup. In 1963, the race was held as an event for production-based cars in the World Sportscar Championship before being expanded to a 1000-kilometer distance in 1965. A lap was 10.1 kilometers long, yielding a distance of 1010 km after 100 laps. From 1970 to 2008, the shorter Grand Prix circuit has used for 173 laps. The Monzas race was valid for the second, both in 1976 and 1977, in 1978 the WorldSport car Championship was cancelled and the Race was arranged on 320 km and valid for European Sportscar Championship. In 1979, cancelled the European Championship the race was only for Italian Championship. In 1989 the race was cancelled due financial problem of Automobil Club of Milan and for the rebuilding of boxes and paddock facilities. Since 1992, the race has used on and off by various series, most notably, the BPR Global GT Series. The FIA Sportscar Championship also held a running of the 1000 km in 2001. In 1995 and 1996 the race was valid for the BPR Global GT Series, reserved to GT cars, after a 1997 without the race, the 1998 edition was not valid for any international championship, returning to the 1000 km format and open also to sportscars. In 1999 the race return to be valid for an internatiomal championship, the SportsRacing World Cup. with distance reduced to 500 km. In 2000 the race was held on the 500 km distance but was called 1000km due the fact in the day on the morning. In 2001 the race valid for the FIA Sportscar Championship return to a reral 1000 km format, after a year without race, in 2003 the race return to the 500 km format. In 2004, the race, again on 1000 km, were resumed as a part of the Le Mans Series, a race for 2006 was planned by the Le Mans Series, but had to be cancelled due to protests over the noise pollution caused by the event. Agreements were later reached to allow the event to return in 2007, after 2008, the race was not held again until 2017 when a 4 hours is scheduled as part of 2017 European Le Mans Series. The record of most wins belongs to Jacky Ickx, who has won the race in 1972,1973 and 1976
7.
World Touring Car Championship
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The FIA World Touring Car Championship is an international Touring Car championship sanctioned by the FIA. Citroën Total driver José María López from Argentina is the 2015 WTCC reigning champion, the first World Touring Car Championship, which was open to Group A Touring Cars, was held in 1987 concurrent to the long-running European Touring Car Championship. Additional rounds were held outside Europe at Bathurst and Calder Park Raceway in Australia, Wellington in New Zealand, the Championship was well-supported by the factory European teams of Ford, BMW and Alfa Romeo, but was embroiled in controversy. Unfortunately, the leading BMW Motorsport teams and the Ford Europe backed Eggenberger Motorsport had developed a situation of you dont protest us, we wont protest you. While this worked well in the European races, when the championship landed in Australia the local teams took exception to the Europeans somewhat liberal interpretation of the Group A rules, subsequently the Eggenberger cars were protested against and eventually disqualified from the Bathurst 1000 results. The championship was awarded to West German Eggenberger Ford Sierra RS500 drivers Klaus Ludwig. The Entrants Championship was won by the Eggenberger Texaco Ford No 7 entry, only one car, based on an Alfa Romeo 164 with a 3.5 litre V10 engine was built before it was abandoned. The 1993 race at Monza was won by New Zealands Paul Radisich, at the wheel of a Ford Mondeo ahead of Nicola Larinis Alfa Romeo 155, the race was run for two more years. A similar event was planned for 1996 at the A1 Ring, Austria and it was never brought back thereafter. In 2001, the European Touring Car Championship was resumed with support from the FIA, in 2001, the Italian Superturismo Championship became the FIA European Super Touring Championship, with an extra class for Super Production cars alongside the main Super Touring class. At the request of interested manufacturers, the ETCC was changed to the current WTCC beginning with the 2005 season, continuing to use Super 2000, in 2008, Frenchman Yvan Muller won the title after Race 1 in Macau in his SEAT León TDI. This marked the first time an FIA sanctioned world championship, in any category, SEAT León TDI won both championships for a second time in 2009, this time in the hands of Gabriele Tarquini. 2010 marked the start of Chevrolets dominance of the championship with its Cruze model, Frenchman Yvan Muller became World Champion, fending off tough competition from Gabriele Tarquini and Andy Priaulx to win the first world championship for Chevrolet. This gave Chevrolet a clean sweep of both titles, the 2012 championship saw Chevrolet pick up where they left of in 2011, leading to a second year of championship clean sweeps, this time with Rob Huff taking the drivers title. Technical rules were modified in 2011 to allow 1. 6L turbo gasoline engines, in 2014, new car regulations were introduced with the name TC1, with larger wings and more engine power. The old 1. 6L turbo cars were renamed TC2 for a year and were dropped for 2015, the FIA TCN2 class is set to be introduced in 2017. The WTCC uses Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 cars, as cost control is a theme in the technical regulation. Super 2000 engines are 1.6 L turbo-charged 4-cylinder engines producing approximately 380 bhp, wheels are 18 in diameter, and large front and rear aerodynamic devices are permitted
8.
Superbike World Championship
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Superbike World Championship is the worldwide Superbike racing Championship. The championship was founded in 1988, the Superbike World Championship consists of a series of rounds held on permanent racing facilities. Each round has two races and the results of each race are combined to two annual World Championships, one for riders and one for manufacturers. The motorcycles that race in the championship are tuned versions of motorcycles available for sale to the public, MotoGP is the motorcycle worlds equivalent of Formula One, whereas Superbike racing is similar to touring car racing. Europe is Superbike World Championships traditional centre and leading market, an Indonesian race was also proposed for the 2008 season, but this was later canceled by the FIM. The championship is regulated by the FIM, the governing body of motorcycle racing. FGSport became part of the Infront Group in 2007 and in 2008 was rebranded as Infront Motor Sports, as of 2013 the championship is organised by Dorna. The Superbike World Championship began in 1988, being open to modified versions of road bike models available to the public, for many years, the formula allowed for machines with 1,000 cc V-twin engines to go up against the 750 cc four-cylinder engines. For the first few seasons Honda won with the RC30, using 1,000 cc V-twin engines benefited Ducati and it was able to dominate the championship for many years, but the 750 cc was second or third each year between 1994 and 1999. Held under the FIM, the Formula TT from 1977 to 1989 once constituted the official motorcycle World Cup. Having proven itself both popular and commercially viable, it was decided by the end of the 1990 season to end the Formula TT, from 1993 to 1999 Carl Fogarty and Ducati dominated, Fogarty won the title a record 4 times and finished as runner-up twice on factory Ducatis. Troy Corser also won the 1996 title and finished as runner-up in 1995, realizing that 1,000 cc V-twin engines suited the superbike racing formula more, Honda introduced its own V-Twin powered motorcycle the VTR1000 SPW in 2000. The result was clear right away as Colin Edwards won the championship in the bikes first year of competition, Ducati regained the title in 2001 with Troy Bayliss. Colin Edwards again reclaimed the title in 2002 on the same VTR1000 SPW bike, Colin Edwards won his 2nd championship in what was arguably the most impressive comeback in the history of motorcycle racing. The season started with Troy Bayliss winning the first 6 races, Race 2 at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca was the start of Colin Edwards comeback, he went on to win all 9 remaining races and Edwards won the championship at the final race of the season at Imola. The final race of the season saw both riders fighting wheel to wheel for the entire race, the race is known by fans as the Showdown at Imola. The manufacturers championship was won by Ducati, during these years the Superbike World Championship reached the zenith of its popularity, with global fan and full factory support. In 2003 the FIM changed the rules to allow 1,000 cc machines to race, rule changes in MotoGP to allow four-stroke engines meant that the Japanese manufacturers focused their resources there, leaving the Superbike World Championship with limited factory involvement
9.
Race of Two Worlds
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The Race of Two Worlds, also known as the 500 Miglia di Monza, was an automobile race held at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza, Italy in 1957 and again in 1958. The two types of cars competed on the oval at Monza which had been completed in 1955. Due to the similarity to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, where the USAC teams ran the Indianapolis 500, American drivers and teams won the event in both the years in which it was run. Jimmy Bryan won the 1957 event, while Jim Rathmann swept the 1958 race, although some Formula One teams did participate and even build special cars specifically for the event, several withdrew over safety concerns. Continued concern over the speeds on the track and the cost of the event led to the race being canceled after the 1958 running, the 4.5 kilometres banked oval, which had last been used in 1933, was dismantled. The southern Sud Alta Velocita corner was relocated, moving it northward by several meters, both banked corners were rebuilt on a curving gradient which reached 80 degrees, replacing the flat banking which had been previously used. The reconstruction was completed in August 1955, in time for the Formula One Italian Grand Prix, the two discussed the similarities between Monzas new oval and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, which also held a round of the 1957 Formula One season, the Indianapolis 500. Although the 500 counted as part of the championship, only a few Europeans attempted to participate in the event since the formation of the World Championship, Ferraris Alberto Ascari in 1952 was the only European competitor to actually qualify for the race. A race was scheduled for June 1957, running just the 4.25 km oval at Monza, volunteering USAC teams were to be transported from the United States, while Formula One teams were also free to participate if those chose. In preparation, Firestone Tire and Rubber Company transported a USAC Kurtis Kraft–Chrysler to Monza in April 1957 in order to conduct tests on tyres made for the event. American driver Pat OConnor completed 364 km on the oval, setting a best lap speed of 273 km/h, the rules for the race were based on those used by USAC in North America. Engines were limited to 4,200 cubic centimetres in naturally aspirated form,2,800 cm3 for supercharged engines, an USAC rolling start was also used, instead of Formula Ones usual standing start. The race was planned for a distance of 500 miles. However, unlike Indianapolis, the 500 miles would not be run continuously, instead, three separate 63-lap heats were planned, with an hour break for repairs and rest between each heat, for a total of approximately 500 miles. The overall race winner would be determined by the driver which finished all three heats with the highest average speed, the circuit would be run in an anti-clockwise direction, the same used at Indianapolis, but opposite the direction used by Formula One at Monza. The inaugural running of the Race of Two Worlds was scheduled for Sunday, June 23, shortly after the running of the Indianapolis 500, USACs entries in the event traveled from Indianapolis to New York City, whence they were shipped to Genoa. The drivers and personnel traveled separately from their cars, arriving by plane, the teams and equipment were then transported from Genoa to Monza, where teams began practice on Tuesday the 18th. A total of fifteen cars were entered for the event, ten cars traveled across the Atlantic from USAC, while only two teams arrived with Formula One equipment
10.
Asphalt
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
11.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
12.
Rubens Barrichello
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Rubens Rubinho Gonçalves Barrichello is a Brazilian racing driver who competed in Formula One between 1993 and 2011. After losing his seat at the Williams F1 team, Barrichello moved to the IndyCar Series in 2012 with KV Racing Technology, Barrichello holds the record for most races in Formula One and has scored the eleventh highest points total in Formula One history. Barrichello drove for Ferrari from 2000 to 2005, as Michael Schumachers teammate and he also finished third in 2001 and 2009. During his six years with Ferrari, Barrichello was involved in winning five constructors titles, at the end of 2005 Barrichello left Ferrari to sign a contract with Honda. Schumachers retirement at the end of 2006 made Barrichello the most experienced driver on the grid, in 2009, he finished third in the drivers championship for Brawn GP, as his team mate Jenson Button won the title. This meant Barrichello was involved in a sixth constructors title and he became the first driver to reach 300 Grand Prix entries and 300 starts, doing so in 2010. He was also appointed chairman of the Grand Prix Drivers Association in 2010, in 2013 he started covering F1 race weekends for Brazils TV Globo, interviewing drivers and team members on the grid and commentating during qualifying and race coverages. Barrichello has won eleven Formula One Grands Prix, the paternal side of his family comes from Veneto, Italy. Both his father and paternal grandfather are also named Rubens, therefore, Rubens Barrichello was known as Rubinho, which has become his nickname. Barrichello won five karting titles in Brazil before going to Europe to race in the Formula Vauxhall Lotus series in 1990, in his first year, he won the championship, a feat he replicated the following year in the British Formula 3 Championship, beating David Coulthard. He very nearly joined Formula One, the highest category of single seater racing, instead he competed in Formula 3000 in 1992. He finished third in the championship, and joined the Jordan Formula One team for the 1993 Formula One season, during this time, and also early in his Formula One career, Barrichello lived in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, UK. Barrichello had a rookie year. In his third race, the European Grand Prix, he started from 12th place in wet conditions but was fourth by the end of the first lap. He ran as high as second and was running third, having passed the Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost and his Jordans reliability in 1993 was poor, and he finished few races. Barrichello regularly outpaced his more experienced teammates, Ivan Capelli and Thierry Boutsen, in the French Grand Prix, he almost scored his first grand prix point but Michael Andretti passed Barrichello for the sixth and final point-paying position on the final lap. His only points finish of the season came at the Japanese Grand Prix with fifth place and these 2 points put him in 18th place in the standings. 1994 started well with a place in Brazil and a third place at Aida
13.
Scuderia Ferrari
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Scuderia Ferrari S. p. A. competing as Scuderia Ferrari is the official name of the racing division of luxury Italian auto manufacturer, Ferrari, and competes in Formula One racing. It is the oldest surviving and most successful Formula One team, the team was founded by Enzo Ferrari, initially to race cars produced by Alfa Romeo, though by 1947 Ferrari had begun building its own cars. As a constructor, Ferrari has a record 16 Constructors Championships, Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Mike Hawthorn, Phil Hill, John Surtees, Niki Lauda, Jody Scheckter, Michael Schumacher and Kimi Räikkönen have won a record 15 Drivers Championships for the team. Since Räikkönens title in 2007 the team narrowly lost out on the 2008 drivers title with Felipe Massa, Schumacher is the teams most successful driver. Joining the team in 1996 and departing in 2006 he won five titles and 72 Grands Prix for the team. His titles came consecutively between 2000 and 2004, including the constructors title of 1999 consecutively being won until the end of 2004, this was the teams most successful period. Currently, World Champions Kimi Räikkönen and Sebastian Vettel are the two race drivers. The team is known for its passionate support base known as the tifosi. The Italian Grand Prix at Monza is regarded as the home race. The Scuderia Ferrari team was founded by Enzo Ferrari on 16 November 1929 and became the team of Alfa Romeo. In 1938, Alfa Romeo management made the decision to enter racing under its own name, establishing the Alfa Corse organisation, Enzo Ferrari disagreed with this change in policy and was finally dismissed by Alfa in 1939. The terms of his leaving forbade him from motorsport under his own name, in 1939 Ferrari started work on a racecar of his own, the Tipo 815. The 815s, designed by Alberto Massimino, were thus the first Ferrari cars, World War II put a temporary end to racing, and Ferrari concentrated on an alternative use for his factory during the war years, doing machine tool work. After the war, Ferrari recruited several of his former Alfa colleagues and established a new Scuderia Ferrari, the team owns and operates a test track on the same site, the Fiorano Circuit built in 1972, which is used for testing road and race cars. The team is named after its founder, Enzo Ferrari, Scuderia is Italian for a stable reserved for racing horses and is also commonly applied to Italian motor racing teams. In 1947 Ferrari constructed the 12-cylinder,1.5 L Tipo 125, a Formula One version of the Tipo 125, the Ferrari 125 F1 was developed in 1948 and entered in several Grand Prix, at the time a World Championship had not yet been established. In 1950, the Formula One World Championship was established, and it is the only team to have competed in every season of the World Championship, from its inception to the current day. The company later switched to the large-displacement naturally aspirated formula for the 275,340, after the 1951 Formula One season the Alfa team withdrew from F1, causing the authorities to adopt the Formula Two regulations due to the lack of suitable F1 cars
14.
2004 Italian Grand Prix
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The 2004 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 12 September 2004 at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza. Ferrari took a 1-2 in front of the delighted Tifosi, with Rubens Barrichello ahead of team mate Michael Schumacher. Both cars had to make their way through the field from the back, Barrichello having made a pitstop after choosing the wrong tyres at the start. This was the last race for Giorgio Pantano, the race was perhaps best known for speed records set during the race. In the first part of qualifying, Juan Pablo Montoya lapped Monza in his Williams FW26 at an speed of 262.242 km/h. The next day in the race, Montoyas teammate Antônio Pizzonia reached a top speed of 369.9 km/h, the fastest speed ever recorded in Formula One at the time. In the Minardi pit garage, the car of Gianmaria Bruni caught fire after fuel escaped from the hose onto the hot bodywork during a routine pit-stop, Bruni inhaled some of the extinguishant and was having trouble breathing and so the team decided to retire the car. Nick Heidfeld was demoted to 20th place after receiving a penalty for an engine change in Friday practice. Bold text indicates the World Champions, note, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
15.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
16.
INDYCAR
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INDYCAR is an American-based auto racing sanctioning body for Championship auto racing. The trade name INDYCAR was officially adopted on January 1,2011, INDYCAR is owned by Hulman & Company, which also owns the Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex and the Clabber Girl brand. The Leagues premier series was named the Indy Racing League IndyCar Series in 2003, in 2013, IZOD announced that they would be leaving the series. Verizon took over as sponsor in 2014, and the name became the Verizon IndyCar Series. The series initially raced exclusively on oval tracks, as the series was founded partly in response to the prominence of road. In 2005, the series abandoned its unofficial ovals-only stance, by 2009, the series had a roughly 50/50 split of ovals and road/street courses. Presently, the series currently runs one-third of its schedule on ovals, Indy Lights is the development series for the IndyCar series. It originally started in 2002, as the IRL Infiniti Pro Series coincidentally in the year as CARTs own Indy Lights series came to an end. Since the 2008 reunification, the Indy Lights name returned, the Indy Lights run as support races to IndyCar Series races. In the past, a round during the United States Grand Prix was also apart of the schedule, the series is now promoted by Andersen Promotions. The Pro Mazda Championship presented by Goodyear is a racecar driver development series in North America. Competitors use spec Formula Mazda race cars built by Star Race Cars, the original series, using first-generation tube-frame cars started in the early 1990s, with the current, high-tech, carbon-fiber car released in 2004. The series has historically included road courses, street courses, the series primary sponsors are Mazda and Cooper Tire and the cars, while purpose built for the track with carbon fiber monocoques, are powered by 250 horsepower Mazda Renesis rotary engines. The series stated goal is to develop new race driving talent, in 2010, the series became a part of The Road to Indy. In 2013 the series promotion was taken over by Andersen Promotions, uSF2000 is a series the organisation started sanctioning in 2010. Originally started in 1991 and folded in 2006, it was restarted in 2010 as part of the Road to Indy ladder series promoted by Andersen Promotions. The series utilizes tube frame Formula Ford chassis fitted with larger Mazda MZR four cylinder engines and wings, like other governing bodies, IndyCar awards points based upon where a driver finishes in a race. The top three drivers are separated by ten and five points respectively, the fourth through tenth-place finishers are separated by two points each
17.
Phil Hill
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Philip Toll Hill, Jr. was an American automobile racer and the only American-born driver to win the Formula One World Drivers Championship. He also scored three wins at each of the 24 Hours of Le Mans and 12 Hours of Sebring sports car races, Hill was described as a thoughtful, gentle man and once said, Im in the wrong business. I dont want to beat anybody, I dont want to be the big hero, born in Miami, Florida, Hill was raised in Santa Monica, California, where he lived until his death. He studied business administration at the University of Southern California from 1945 to 1947, Hill left early to pursue auto racing, working as a mechanic on other drivers cars. Hill began racing cars at an age, going to England as a Jaguar trainee in 1949. He made his debut in the French Grand Prix at Reims France in 1958 driving a Maserati. That same year, paired with Belgian teammate Olivier Gendebien, Hill became the first American-born winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans with Hill driving most of the night in rainy conditions. He and Gendebien would go on to win the endurance race again in 1961 and 1962. Hill began driving full-time for the Ferrari Formula One team in 1959, in 1960 he won the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, the first Grand Prix win for an American driver in nearly forty years, since Jimmy Murphy won the 1921 French Grand Prix. This also turned out to be the last win for a car in Formula 1. The following season, Hill won the Belgian Grand Prix and with two races left trailed only his Ferrari teammate Wolfgang von Trips in the season standings, a crash during the Italian Grand Prix killed von Trips and fifteen spectators. Hill won the race and clinched the championship but the triumph was bittersweet, Ferraris decision not to travel to America for the seasons final round deprived Hill of the opportunity to participate in his home race at Watkins Glen as the newly crowned World Champion. When he returned for the season, his last with Ferrari, Hill said, I no longer have as much need to race. I dont have as much hunger anymore, I am no longer willing to risk killing myself. After leaving Ferrari at the end of 1962, he and fellow driver Giancarlo Baghetti started for the new team ATS created by engineers in the great walkout of 1961. Phil Hill has the distinction of having won the first and last races of his driving career, Hill also drove an experimental MG, EX-181, at Bonneville Salt Flats. The Roaring Raindrop, had an 91 cu. in, supercharged MGA Twin Cam engine, using 86% methanol with nitrobenzene, acetone, and sulphuric ether, for an output of 290 HP. In 1959 Phil Hill attained 257 MPH in this car, breaking the record of Stirling Moss in same car
18.
1960 Italian Grand Prix
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The 1960 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Monza on 4 September 1960. The race was won by American driver Phil Hill driving a Ferrari 246 F1, the 1960 season had been a frustrating one for Ferraris Formula 1 program as they campaigned their obsolete Dino 246, a front engined car as the rear engined design established supremacy. The championship had already decided for Jack Brabham and Ferrari had gone without a victory. The race was an affair, with Ginther leading at the start. The pair with teammate Willy Mairesse raced on to a rare 1–2–3 team result for Scuderia Ferrari. It was the first victory by an American driver in a Grand Prix since Jimmy Murphy in 1921, and it would also be the last Formula One victory by a front-engined car. Notes, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings, Only the best 6 results counted towards each Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points, numbers in parentheses are total points scored
19.
Race track
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A race track is a facility built for racing of vehicles, athletes, or animals. A race track also may feature grandstands or concourses, racetracks are also used in the study of animal locomotion. Some motorsport tracks are called speedways, a racetrack is a permanent facility or building. Racecourse is a term for a horse racing track, found in countries such as the United Kingdom, India, Australia, Hong Kong. Race tracks built for bicycles are known as velodromes, circuit is a common alternate term for racetrack, given the circuit configuration of most race tracks, allowing races to occur over several laps. A race course, as opposed to a racecourse, is a term for non-permanent tracks for sports, particularly running, water sports, road racing. Many sports usually held on racetracks also can occur on temporary tracks, there is some evidence of racetracks being developed in several ancient civilizations. The most developed ancient racetracks were the hippodromes of the Ancient Greeks, both of these structures were designed for horse and chariot racing. The stadium of the Circus Maximus in Ancient Rome could hold 200,000 spectators, racing facilities existed during the Middle Ages, and there are records of a public racecourse being opened at Newmarket in London in 1174. In 1780 the Earl of Derby created a course on his estate at Epsom. Racecourses in the British Isles are based on grass, known as turf tracks, in the United States, the race tracks are dirt. With the advent of the automobile in the late twentieth century. The earliest tracks were modified horse racing courses, racing automobiles in such facilities began in September 1896, at Narragansett Park in Cranston, Rhode Island. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway was opened in August 1909, beginning in the early 1900s, motorcycle races were run on high, banked, wooden race tracks called board tracks. During the 1920s, many of the races on the AAA Championship circuit were run on board tracks. Modern racetracks are designed with safety being paramount, following incidents of spectator. These often involve run off areas, barriers, and high fencing, several racetracks are incorporated into larger venues or complexes, incorporating golf courses, museums, hotels, and conference centres. Some racetracks are small enough to be contained indoors, for such as motocross, cycling
20.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
21.
Brooklands
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Brooklands was a 2. 75-mile motor racing circuit and aerodrome built near Weybridge in Surrey, England, United Kingdom. It opened in 1907 and was the worlds first purpose-built motor racing circuit as well as one of Britains first airfields, the Brooklands motor circuit was the brainchild of Hugh F. Locke King, and was the first purpose-built banked motor race circuit in the world. Apparently drawing inspiration from the development at Brooklands, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway was built soon afterwards, requirements of speed and spectator visibility led to the Brooklands track being built as a 100 ft wide,2.75 miles long, banked oval. The banking was nearly 30 feet high in places, in addition to the oval, a bisecting Finishing Straight was built, increasing the track length to 3.25 miles, of which 1.25 miles was banked. It could host up to 287,000 spectators in its heyday, owing to the complications of laying tarmacadam on banking, and the expense of laying asphalt, the track was built in uncoated concrete. This led in later years to a bumpy ride, as the surface suffered differential settlement over time. Along the centre of the track ran a black line. By driving over the line, a driver could take the banked corners without having to use the steering wheel. The Brooklands Mountain Circuit was a section of the track giving a lap 1¼ miles long, running from the Fork to the rear of Members Hill. It was created in 1930 using movable barriers, on 28–29 June 1907, eleven days after the circuit opened, it played host to the worlds first 24-hour motor event, with Selwyn Edge leading three specially converted Napier cars around the circuit. A statement of intent had been made in 1906, and Selwyn Edge entered into a training program to prepare for the event. His car,804 was extensively modified, having a fuel tank, bodywork removed. Over 300 red railway lamps were used to light the track during the night, flares were used to mark the upper boundary of the track. Edge drove his car for the duration, with the drivers of the other two cars taking the more familiar shift approach. During the event Edge covered a distance of 1,581.74 mi at an speed of 65.91 mph. Women were not allowed to compete for several years, edges leading driver, was refused entry despite having been the first English-woman to compete in a motor race in 1903, and holding the Ladies World Land Speed Record. Edge completed 2,545 km at an average 106.06 km/h, the first standard race meeting would be held the next week, on 6 July. George E. Stanley broke the record at Brooklands race track on a Singer motorcycle in 1912
22.
Indianapolis Motor Speedway
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The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is an automobile racing circuit located in Speedway, Indiana, in the United States. It is the home of the Indianapolis 500 and the Brickyard 400 and it is located on the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road, approximately six miles west of Downtown Indianapolis. Constructed in 1909, it is the original speedway, the first racing facility so named and it has a permanent seating capacity estimated at 235,000 with infield seating raising capacity to an approximate 400,000. It is the highest-capacity sports venue in the world, considered relatively flat by American standards, the track is a 2. 5-mile-long rectangular oval with dimensions that have remained essentially unchanged since its construction. A modern infield road course was completed in 2000, incorporating part of the oval, including the mainstretch, in 2008, and again in 2014, the road course layout was modified to accommodate motorcycle racing, as well as to improve competition. Altogether, the current grounds have expanded from an original 320 acres on which the speedway was first built to cover an area of over 559 acres. Placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, in addition to the Indianapolis 500, the speedway also hosts NASCARs Brickyard 400 and Lilly Diabetes 250. From 2000 to 2007, the hosted the Formula One United States Grand Prix. On the grounds of the speedway is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum, which opened in 1956, the museum moved into its current building located in the infield in 1976. Also on the grounds is the Brickyard Crossing Golf Resort, which opened as the Speedway Golf Course in 1929. The golf course has 14 holes outside of the track, along the backstretch, the speedway also served as the venue for the opening ceremonies for the 1987 Pan American Games. Fisher began thinking of a means of testing cars before delivering them to consumers. At the time, racing was just getting started on horse tracks, Fisher noticed how dangerous and ill-suited the makeshift courses were for racing and testing. He also argued that spectators did not get their moneys worth, Fisher proposed building a circular track 3 to 5 miles long with smooth 100–150-foot-wide surfaces. Such a track would give manufacturers a chance to test cars at sustained speeds, Fisher predicted speeds could reach up to 120 mph on a 5-mile course. He visited the Brooklands circuit outside London in 1907, and after viewing the banked layout, in December 1908, he convinced James A. Allison, Arthur Newby, and Frank W. Wheeler to join him in purchasing the property for $72,000. Construction of the started in March 1909. Fisher had to downsize his planned 3-mile oval with a 2-mile road course to a 2. 5-mile oval to leave room for the grandstands
23.
1980 Italian Grand Prix
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The 1980 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 14 September 1980 at the Imola Circuit in Italy. It was the race of the 1980 Formula One season. The race was the 50th Italian Grand Prix and the first Grand Prix to be held at Imola and it was the first time since the 1948 Italian Grand Prix was held at Parco del Valentino that the Autodromo Nazionale Monza did not host the Italian Grand Prix. Monza was under refurbishment at the time, the race was such a success that a new race, the San Marino Grand Prix was established for Imola. The race was held over 60 laps of the 5. 000-kilometre circuit for a race distance of 300 kilometres. The race was won by Brazilian driver, Nelson Piquet driving a Brabham BT49, the win was Piquets third Formula One Grand Prix victory and his second in succession. Piquet won by 28 seconds over championship points leader, Australian driver Alan Jones driving a Williams FW07B, Jones Argentinian team mate Carlos Reutemann finished third. Manfred Winkelhock made his debut, substituting for the still injured Jochen Mass at Arrows and he did not make it to the race after his Arrows A3 collided with the Lotus 81B of Nigel Mansell in practice, putting out both. Scuderia Ferrari debuted their first turbocar, the Ferrari 126C but Gilles Villeneuve started the race in his regular Ferrari 312T5, regardless, after a very heavy crash in practice at the flat-out right hander before Tosa, reigning world champion Jody Scheckter announced his retirement from the sport. The front row of the grid was occupied by the Renault RE20s of René Arnoux, on the sixth lap Villeneuve crashed his 312T5 heavily at the corner which now bears his name. Villeneuve was unhurt and Bruno Giacomelli retired his Alfa Romeo 179 after running over debris, Jones climbed into second after running as low as seventh. Keke Rosberg finished fifth in his Fittipaldi F8, also his second best result of the year, didier Pironi finished sixth in his Ligier JS11/15. Twelve cars finished, thirteen were classified including the Tyrrell 010 of Jean-Pierre Jarier who had brake failure with five laps to go, the performances of Jones and Reutemann put Williams 34 points ahead of Ligier and secured the British team their first constructors championship. Despite finishing second to Piquet, Jones lost the championship points lead. With two races to go Piquet led by a point as the European leg of the championship concluded, Reutemann was now five points ahead of Jacques Laffite and eight ahead of Arnoux. There would be a break while the championship relocated to North America for the conclusion of the season. René Arnoux 2 laps Jean-Pierre Jabouille 1 lap Nelson Piquet 57 laps Note, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
24.
Royal Villa of Monza
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The Royal Villa is a historical building in Monza, northern Italy. It lies on the banks of the Lambro, surrounded by the large Monza Park and it was originally built by Giuseppe Piermarini between 1777 and 1780, when Lombardy was part of Austrian Empire, for the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria. Following the establishment of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, the building was used as a Royal Palace and became home to the Viceroy of Italy, Eugène de Beauharnais. With the fall of the First Empire, Austria annexed the Italian territories to the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, in 1861, when the new Kingdom of Italy was established, the building became a palace of the Italian Royal House of Savoy. The Royal Villa was abandoned by the family in 1900. The palace complex includes the Cappella Reale, or the Royal Chapel, the Cavallerizza, the Rotonda dellAppiani, the Teatrino di Corte and the Orangerie. The rooms at the first floor include grand salons and halls, in front of the palace are the Royal gardens, designed by Piermarini as English landscape gardens. The building hosts exhibitions, but lacked a long-term resident or use until July 23,2011. Official web Site Royal Palace of Monza
25.
Grand Prix motor racing
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Grand Prix motor racing has its roots in organised automobile racing that began in France as far back as 1894. It quickly evolved from a road race from one town to the next, to endurance tests for car. Grand Prix motor racing eventually evolved into formula racing, and Formula One can be seen as its direct descendant, each event of the Formula One World Championships is still called a Grand Prix, Formula One is referred to as Grand Prix racing. Motor racing was started in France, as a result of the enthusiasm with which the French public embraced the motor car. Manufacturers were enthusiastic due to the possibility of using motor racing as a window for their cars. The first motoring contest took place on July 22,1894 and was organised by a Paris newspaper, the Paris–Rouen rally was 126 km, from Porte Maillot in Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, to Rouen. Count Jules-Albert de Dion was first into Rouen after 6 hours 48 minutes at an speed of 19 km/h. He finished 3 minutes 30 seconds ahead of Albert Lemaître, followed by Doriot, René Panhard, in 1900, James Gordon Bennett, Jr. the owner of the New York Herald and the International Herald Tribune, established the Gordon Bennett Cup. He hoped the creation of an event would drive automobile manufacturers to improve their cars. Each country was allowed to enter up to three cars, which had to be built in the country that they represented and entered by that countrys automotive governing body. International racing colours were established in this event, in the United States, William Kissam Vanderbilt II launched the Vanderbilt Cup at Long Island, New York in 1904. Some anglophone sources wrongly list a race called the Pau Grand Prix in 1901 and this may stem from a mistranslation of the contemporary French sources such as the magazine La France Auto of March 1901. The name of the 1901 event was the Circuit du Sud-Ouest, the Grand Prix du Palais d’Hiver was the name of the prizes awarded for the lesser classes. The Grand Prix de Pau was the name of the awarded for the Heavy class. Thus Maurice Farman was awarded the Grand Prix de Pau for his victory in the Circuit du Sud-Ouest driving a Panhard 24 hp. In L’Histoire de l’Automobile/Paris 1907 Pierre Souvestre described the 1901 event as, dans le Circuit du Sud-Ouest, à l’occasion du meeting de Pau. ” The only race at the time to carry the name Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France. The circuit used, which was based in Le Mans, was triangular in shape
26.
Speed
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In everyday use and in kinematics, the speed of an object is the magnitude of its velocity, it is thus a scalar quantity. Speed has the dimensions of distance divided by time, the SI unit of speed is the metre per second, but the most common unit of speed in everyday usage is the kilometre per hour or, in the US and the UK, miles per hour. For air and marine travel the knot is commonly used, the fastest possible speed at which energy or information can travel, according to special relativity, is the speed of light in a vacuum c =299792458 metres per second. Matter cannot quite reach the speed of light, as this would require an amount of energy. In relativity physics, the concept of rapidity replaces the classical idea of speed, italian physicist Galileo Galilei is usually credited with being the first to measure speed by considering the distance covered and the time it takes. Galileo defined speed as the distance covered per unit of time, in equation form, this is v = d t, where v is speed, d is distance, and t is time. A cyclist who covers 30 metres in a time of 2 seconds, objects in motion often have variations in speed. If s is the length of the path travelled until time t, in the special case where the velocity is constant, this can be simplified to v = s / t. The average speed over a time interval is the total distance travelled divided by the time duration. Speed at some instant, or assumed constant during a short period of time, is called instantaneous speed. By looking at a speedometer, one can read the speed of a car at any instant. A car travelling at 50 km/h generally goes for less than one hour at a constant speed, if the vehicle continued at that speed for half an hour, it would cover half that distance. If it continued for one minute, it would cover about 833 m. Different from instantaneous speed, average speed is defined as the distance covered divided by the time interval. For example, if a distance of 80 kilometres is driven in 1 hour, likewise, if 320 kilometres are travelled in 4 hours, the average speed is also 80 kilometres per hour. When a distance in kilometres is divided by a time in hours, average speed does not describe the speed variations that may have taken place during shorter time intervals, and so average speed is often quite different from a value of instantaneous speed. If the average speed and the time of travel are known, using this equation for an average speed of 80 kilometres per hour on a 4-hour trip, the distance covered is found to be 320 kilometres. Linear speed is the distance travelled per unit of time, while speed is the linear speed of something moving along a circular path
27.
V10 engine
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A V10 engine is a V engine with 10 cylinders in two banks of five. It is longer than a V8 engine but shorter than an engine or V12 engine. The V10 is essentially the result of mating two even-firing straight-5 engines together, the straight-5 engine shows first and second order rocking motion. Here it should be assumed that the crankshaft with low second-order vibration is used, by mating the straight-5 banks at 90 degrees and using five throws, the balance shafts balance each other and become null. Using an 18° split journal crankshaft the firing order can be even. A 36° degree bank angle and a 108° flying arm crankshaft would allow even firing without a balance shaft and smaller counterweights, but would be impractical. Until recently, the V10 configuration was not a configuration for road cars. For Audi in their Audi R85 and it discontinued in that application after 2003. However,2003 also saw the introduction of the Dodge Ram SRT-10, the Viper engine has been tweaked through the years, and for the fifth-generation Viper produces 640 hp in a standard state of tune from its 8.4 liter displacement. The previous generation engine is used by Bristol, in tuned form, in their two-seat Fighter coupe, ford also developed a heavy-duty V10 version of their Triton engine to replace the 460 big block in truck applications. It was introduced in the E-Series/Econoline full-size van, the F-Series Super Duty and Excursion SUV furthered the engines popularity. The Triton 6.8 V10 is still in production today, european marques were slower to adopt the V10 configuration. However, high-revving V10 power-plants were incorporated into supercars from Lamborghini, BMW and Audi later unveiled ten-cylinder versions of their mid-range saloons. Audi here profited from their Lamborghini ownership, which allowed them to source the Gallardos V10 for their own cars, Volkswagen also developed a turbodiesel V10, their Volkswagen Phaeton was the first production sedan to have a V10. A list of post-war V10-engined production cars, The most widespread use of the V10 has been in Formula One racing, alfa Romeo made the first modern Formula One V10 in 1986, although it was never used in a Formula One car. Later the configuration was introduced by Honda and Renault before the 1989 season, the introduction of the 3.5 liter rule after turbos were outlawed following 1988 made the V10 seem the best compromise between the lower weight of a V8 and the higher power of a V12. V10 engines became commonplace after the reduction from 3.5 to 3 liters in 1995, Renault had a more flat 110° angle in 2002 and 2003, but reverted to a more conventional 72° following the change in rules which dictated that an engine must last two race weekends. The Audi R15 LMP1 Uses a TDI V10 Diesel Engine which made its debut in 200912 Hours of Sebring and this car completed the most laps ever in Le Mans 24 history
28.
2012 Italian Grand Prix
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The 2012 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race that took place at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Monza, Italy on 9 September 2012. It was the race of the 2012 season, and the final race in Europe before the teams return to Asia for the Singapore Grand Prix. Lewis Hamilton qualified on pole, ahead of teammate Jenson Button, the result gave McLaren their sixty-second front-row lock-out, breaking the previous record set by Williams. Hamilton won the race by four seconds from Sergio Pérez, with Fernando Alonso completing the podium, tyre supplier Pirelli brought its silver-banded hard compound tyre as the harder prime tyre and the white-banded medium compound tyre as the softer option tyre. The drag reduction system used in 2011 were shortened for the 2012 race. Grosjean was replaced by the testing and reserve driver, Jérôme dAmbrosio. Pastor Maldonado received two five-place grid penalties, the first for jumping the start of the Belgian Grand Prix and the second for causing an avoidable accident with Timo Glock after Grosjeans accident. Paul di Resta was also demoted five places for a gearbox change on Saturday morning. Ma Qinghua became the first Chinese driver to take part in a Grand Prix weekend when he drove Narain Karthikeyans HRT F112 in the first free practice session on Friday morning. Valtteri Bottas drove Bruno Sennas Williams FW34 in the same session, mercedes AMG driver Michael Schumacher was fastest in the first practice session, three-tenths of a second quicker than Jenson Button and Nico Rosberg. For Lotus, Jérôme dAmbrosio finished the session fifteenth, over a second, ma Qinghua was the slowest runner after ninety minutes, nearly six seconds slower than Schumacher, and within two seconds of teammate Pedro de la Rosa. At the end of the session, both Fernando Alonso and Pastor Maldonado were observed to stop on the circuit with technical problems, having set the fastest time in the morning session, Schumacher finished tenth following a series of off-track excursions. He was highly-critical of the speed bumps placed around the Variante della Roggia chicane, Hamilton was once again fastest in the third session, just one thousandth of a second ahead of Alonso. Paul di Resta finished the third, while Sebastian Vettel suffered a loss of power on his final lap. Felipe Massa made a start to pass Jenson Button for second place. He pulled alongside pole sitter Lewis Hamilton going into the first chicane, Fernando Alonso was able to make his way up from 10th to 7th place by the end of the first lap, and passed Kimi Räikkönen for 6th going into the first chicane on the second lap. On lap 4, Sebastian Vettel passed Michael Schumacher under braking into the first chicane for 4th place, One lap later, Bruno Senna attempted to pass Nico Rosberg around the outside into the first chicane. Senna turned into Rosberg, they banged wheels, and Senna went straight through the chicane to take 11th, Fernando Alonso was able to pass Schumacher coming out of the Parabolica on lap 7
29.
V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
30.
Hybrid electric vehicle
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A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of HEV types, and the degree to which functions as an electric vehicle varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the electric car, although hybrid electric trucks. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed, as of January 2017, over 12 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since their inception in 1997.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000. Japan also has the worlds highest hybrid market penetration, in 2016 the hybrid market share accounted for 38% of new standard passenger car sales, and 25. 7% of new passenger vehicle sales including kei cars. Norway ranks second with a market share of 6. 9% of new car sales in 2014, followed by the Netherlands with 3. 7%, France and Sweden. As of January 2017, worldwide sales are led by the Toyota Prius liftback. The Prius nameplate had sold more than 6 million hybrids up to January 2017, global Lexus hybrid sales achieved the 1 million unit milestone in March 2016. As of January 2017, the conventional Prius is the all-time bst-selling hybrid car in both Japan and the U. S. with sales of over 1.8 million in Japan and 1.75 million in the United States. The internal combustion engine of many parallel hybrids can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging, in series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drivetrain, and a smaller ICE works as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. They also usually have a battery pack than parallel hybrids. Once the batteries are low, the combustion engine can generate power at its optimum settings at all times. Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel characteristics, examples of power-split hybrid powertrains include current models of Ford, General Motors, Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota. In each of the hybrids above it is common to use regenerative braking to recharge the batteries, full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both. Fords hybrid system, Toyotas Hybrid Synergy Drive and General Motors/Chryslers Two-Mode Hybrid technologies are full hybrid systems, the Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation and these vehicles have a split power path allowing greater flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity. Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that cannot be solely on its electric motor
31.
V6 engine
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A V6 engine is a V engine with six cylinders mounted on the crankshaft in two banks of three cylinders, usually set at either a 60 or 90 degree angle to each other. The V6 is one of the most compact engine configurations, usually ranging from 2.0 L to 4.3 L displacement, shorter than the inline 4, because of its short length, the V6 fits well in the widely used transverse engine front-wheel drive layout. The V6 engine has become widely adopted for medium-sized cars, often as an engine where an inline 4 is standard. Modern V6 engines commonly range in displacement from 2.0 to 4.3 L, though larger and smaller examples have been produced, such as the 1991 Mazda MX3, some of the first V6-powered automobiles were built in 1905 by Marmon. This firm became something of a V-engine specialist, beginning with V2 engines, then V4s, V6s, V8s, and, in the 1930s, Marmon was one of the few automakers of the world to offer a V16-powered automobile. From 1908 to 1913 the Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik produced benzene electric train sets used a V6 as generator engine. Another V6-powered car was designed in 1918 by Leo Goosen for Buick Chief Engineer Walter L. Marr, only one prototype Buick V6 car was built in 1918, it was long used by the Marr family. The first series-production V6 was introduced by Lancia in 1950 with the Lancia Aurelia model, Lancia sought a smoother and more powerful engine that would fit into an existing narrow engine bay. A Lancia engineer, Francesco De Virgilio, began analyzing the vibration of alternative V-angles for a V6 engine in 1943 and he found that a V6 with its cylinders positioned at a 60° V-angle could be made uniquely smooth-running in comparison with other possible V-angles. There was resistance to his conclusion, because the V6 was a virtually unknown engine type in the 1950s and his design featured four main bearings and six crankpins, resulting in evenly spaced firing intervals and low vibrations. Other manufacturers took note and soon other V6 engines were designed, the use of the sweet spot of 60 degrees V-angle maximized power while minimizing vibration and exterior dimensions of the engine. In short, GMC introduced a compact V6 design at a time when the engine was considered the pinnacle of 6-cylinder design. To save design time and expense, it was much like a V8 that had two cylinders chopped off. This uneven firing caused harmonic vibrations in the train that were perceived as a rough-running engine by the buyers. GM sold the tooling to Kaiser-Jeep in 1967, later, as a result of the 1973 oil crisis. In 1977, Buick introduced a split pin crankshaft to implement a version of this engine in which cylinders fired consistently every 120°. The V6 does not have the inherent freedom from vibration that the inline-six and flat-six have, counterweights on the crankshaft and a counter rotating balance shaft are required to compensate for the first order rocking motions. This causes an end-to-end rocking motion at crankshaft speed in a straight-three engine and this results in an engine which is short, light, and relatively smooth, but too wide for most engine compartments
32.
Downforce
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Downforce is a downwards thrust created by the aerodynamic characteristics of a car. The purpose of downforce is to allow a car to travel faster through a corner by increasing the force on the tires. The same principle that allows an airplane to rise off the ground by creating lift from its wings is used in reverse to apply force that presses the race car against the surface of the track. This effect is referred to as aerodynamic grip and is distinguished from mechanical grip, which is a function of the mass, tires. The creation of downforce by passive devices can be achieved only at the cost of increased drag. The aerodynamic setup for a car can vary considerably between race tracks, depending on the length of the straights and the types of corners. Some cars have had rather unstable aerodynamics, such that a change in angle of attack or height of the vehicle can cause large changes in downforce. Two primary components of a car can be used to create downforce when the car is travelling at racing speed, the shape of the body. Most racing formulae have a ban on aerodynamic devices that can be adjusted during a race, in aerodynamics, it is usual to use the top-view projected area of the wing, instead of its frontal area, as a reference surface to define the lift coefficient. This results in different values for F, although the calculated downforce stays the same, the rounded and tapered shape of the top of the car is designed to slice through the air and minimize wind resistance. Detailed pieces of bodywork on top of the car can be added to allow a flow of air to reach the downforce-creating elements. The overall shape of a street car resembles an airplane wing, almost all street cars have aerodynamic lift as a result of this shape. There are many techniques that are used to counterbalance a street car, using this method, the air flowing under the front bumper will be constricted to a lower cross sectional area, and thus achieve a lower pressure. Volume does not affect the air pressure because it is not an enclosed volume, race cars will exemplify this effect by adding a rear diffuser to accelerate air under the car in front of the diffuser, and raise the air pressure behind it to lessen the cars wake. Other aerodynamic components that can be found on the underside to improve downforce and/or reduce drag, include splitters, some cars, such as the DeltaWing, do not have wings, and generate all of their downforce through their body. A larger surface area creates greater downforce and greater drag, the aspect ratio is the width of the airfoil divided by its depth. The aspect ratio formula is written like AR=b squared/s, where AR=aspect ratio, b=spand squared, also, a greater angle of attack of the wing or spoiler, creates more downforce, which puts more pressure on the rear wheels and more drag. The function of the airfoils at the front of the car is twofold and they create downforce that enhances the grip of the front tires, while also optimizing the flow of air to the rest of the car
33.
Aerodynamics
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Aerodynamics, from Greek ἀήρ aer + δυναμική, the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, the term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that gas dynamics applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the sense in the eighteenth century. Most of the efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to flow, turbulence. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle, in 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows, the Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow, in 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond dAlembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, in 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift. Building on these developments as well as carried out in their own wind tunnel. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil, as aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under such conditions leds to problems in control, increased drag due to shock waves. The ratio of the speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of supersonic flow. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly, by the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an line of high performance aircraft. Understanding the motion of air around an object enables the calculation of forces, in many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight, lift, drag, thrust, and weight
34.
Understeer and oversteer
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Understeer and oversteer are vehicle dynamics terms used to describe the sensitivity of a vehicle to steering. Simply put, oversteer is what occurs when a car turns by more than the amount commanded by the driver, conversely, understeer is what occurs when a car steers less than the amount commanded by the driver. Automotive engineers define understeer and oversteer based on changes in steering angle associated with changes in lateral acceleration over a sequence of steady-state circular turning tests. Car and motorsport enthusiasts often use the more generally in magazines. Understeer and oversteer are defined by an understeer gradient K that is a measure of how the steering needed for a steady turn changes as a function of lateral acceleration. Steering at a steady speed is compared to the steering that would be needed to follow the same circular path at low speed, the low-speed steering for a given radius of turn is called Ackermann steer. The vehicle has a positive understeer gradient if the difference between required steer and the Ackermann steer increases with respect to incremental increases in lateral acceleration, the vehicle has a negative gradient if the difference in steer decreases with respect to incremental increases in lateral acceleration. Several tests can be used to determine understeer gradient, constant radius, constant speed, formal descriptions of these three kinds of testing are provided by ISO. Gillespie goes into some detail on two of the measurement methods. Results depend on the type of test, so giving a deg/g value is not sufficient. Vehicles are inherently nonlinear systems, and it is normal for K to vary over the range of testing and it is possible for a vehicle to be understeer in some conditions and oversteer in others. Therefore, it is necessary to specify the speed and lateral acceleration whenever reporting understeer/oversteer characteristics and these individual contributions can be identified analytically or by measurement in a Bundorf analysis. When an understeer vehicle is taken to the limit of the tires, where it is no longer possible to increase lateral acceleration. Although the vehicle cannot increase lateral acceleration, it is dynamically stable, when an oversteer vehicle is taken to the grip limit of the tires, it becomes dynamically unstable with a tendency to spin out. However, at some limit in lateral acceleration, it is not physically possible for even the most skilled driver to maintain a steady state, understeer gradient is one of the main measures for characterizing steady-state cornering behavior. It is involved in other such as characteristic speed, lateral acceleration gain, yaw velocity gain
35.
Opposite lock
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It is typified by the classic rallying style of rear-wheel drive cars, where a car travels around a bend with a large drift angle. The terms opposite lock and counter-steering refer to the position of the wheel during the maneuver. Before entry to the bend, the car is turned towards the bend slightly, power is applied which applies further sideways movement. At the same time, opposite lock steering is applied to keep the car on the desired course, as the car reaches the bend it will have already turned through most of the needed angle, traveling sideways and losing some speed as a result. A smooth application of power at this point will accelerate the car into the bend and then through it, the brake bias may be continually controllable by the driver using a hand lever. Left-foot braking is the technique for using opposite lock in a front drive vehicle. Opposite lock can be a technique for saving a car from a loss of control such as an unintentional skid
36.
Power (physics)
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In physics, power is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed per unit time, having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the SI system, the unit of power is the joule per second, known as the watt in honour of James Watt, another common and traditional measure is horsepower. Being the rate of work, the equation for power can be written, because this integral depends on the trajectory of the point of application of the force and torque, this calculation of work is said to be path dependent. As a physical concept, power requires both a change in the universe and a specified time in which the change occurs. This is distinct from the concept of work, which is measured in terms of a net change in the state of the physical universe. The output power of a motor is the product of the torque that the motor generates. The power involved in moving a vehicle is the product of the force of the wheels. The dimension of power is divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt, which is equal to one joule per second, other units of power include ergs per second, horsepower, metric horsepower, and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second. Other units include dBm, a logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference, food calories per hour, Btu per hour. This shows how power is an amount of energy consumed per unit time. If ΔW is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration Δt and it is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is simply called power when the context makes it clear. The instantaneous power is then the value of the average power as the time interval Δt approaches zero. P = lim Δ t →0 P a v g = lim Δ t →0 Δ W Δ t = d W d t. In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by, W = P t
37.
World Sportscar Championship
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The World Sportscar Championship was the world series run for sports car racing by the FIA from 1953 to 1992. The official name of the series changed throughout the years, however it has generally been known as the World Sportscar Championship from its inception in 1953. The World Sportscar Championship was, with the Formula One World Championship, in 2012 the World Sportscar Championship was revived and renamed as the World Endurance Championship. Cars were split into Sports Car and GT categories and were divided into engine displacement classes. The Ferrari and Maserati works teams were fierce competitors throughout much of the decade, notably absent from the overall results were the Jaguar works team, who did not enter any events other than Le Mans, despite the potential of the C- and D-Types. In 1962, the calendar was expanded to include smaller races, the World Sportscar Championship title was discontinued, being replaced by the International Championship for GT Manufacturers. They group cars into three categories with specific sizes, less than one litre, less than two litres, and over two litres. Hillclimbs, sprint races and smaller races expanded the championship, which now had about 15 races per season, for 1963 the three engine capacity classes remained but a prototype category was added. For 1965 the engine classes became for cars under 1300 cc, under 2000 cc, in 1972 the Group 6 Prototype and Group 5 Sports Car classes were both replaced by a new Group 5 Sports Car class. These cars were limited to 3.0 L engines by the FIA, the new Group 5 Sports Cars, together with Group 4 Grand Touring Cars, would contest the FIAs newly renamed World Championship for Makes from 1972 to 1975. Prototypes returned in 1976 as Group 6 cars with their own series, the World Championship for Sports Cars, in 1981, the FIA instituted a drivers championship. While this change was unwelcome amongst some of the private teams, several of the old guard manufacturers returned to the WSC within the next two years, with each marque adding to the diversity of the series. Under the new rules, it was possible for normally aspirated engines to compete with the forced induction engines that had dominated the series in the 70s. In addition, most races ran for either 500 or 1000 km, Group B cars, which was a GT class, were also allowed to race, but entries in this class were sparse, and Group B cars disappeared from the series, with sports-prototypes dominating the championship. Porsche was the first constructor to join the series, with the 956, as costs increased, a C2 class was created for privateer teams and small manufacturers, with greater limits to fuel consumption. In this lower class, most cars used either the BMW M1 engine or the new Cosworth DFL, but, like in the main class, alba, Tiga, Spice and Ecurie Ecosse were among the most competitive in this class. While the Group C formula had brought back to the sport. For 1986, the World Endurance Championship became the World Sports-Prototype Championship, the new classification, known as Group C Category 1, was designed to mandate Formula One engines
38.
European Le Mans Series
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The European Le Mans Series is a European sports car racing endurance series inspired by the 24 Hours of Le Mans race and run by the Automobile Club de lOuest. The European Le Mans Series is similar to the American Le Mans Series based in the United States and Canada that was running with ACO, ELMS team champions and runners-up receive an automatic entry to the following years 24 Hours of Le Mans. Originally titled the Le Mans Endurance Series before becoming simply the Le Mans Series in 2006, the aged IMSA GT Championship was taken over and became the new American Le Mans Series, and met with much success in 1999. Europe had lacked a major sports prototype series since the demise of the World Sportscar Championship in 1992, following the success of the ALMS, Panoz attempting to bring sports prototype racing back to Europe. This led to the 2000 American Le Mans Series season, which included two races in Europe as the Nürburgring and Silverstone Circuit, as well as a round in Australia and these races would serve as a precursor to what would become the separate European Le Mans Series in 2001. To aid in the development of the ELMS, the 2001 season shared some races between both ALMS and ELMS, the 12 Hours of Sebring and Petit Le Mans, normally ALMS races, were considered optional races for ELMS teams. At the same time, the ELMS races at Donington Park and this allowed for the possibility of boosting the draw from international teams to either series. For the ELMS events that included ALMS teams, very few teams actually bothered to make the trip across the Atlantic to participate in races that appeared to have very few serious competitors. Thus the entry lists for each race fell from 25 at the beginning of the season to a mere 14 at seasons end, with some classes only having one or two competitors. With a lack of involvement from teams, and less interest from the due to the lack of teams. Seeing the success of the American Le Mans Series, the ACO decided that a run by themselves would be a better alternative for Europe. The ACO would instead attempt to attract factory backed teams with longer endurance races than ALMS, the series would also be European based instead of international, thus it could be closer to the factories of a large number of sportscar teams to help attract them to the series. Winners of the LMES championship would go on to earn automatic entries in the 24 Hours of Le Mans, similar to the American Le Mans Series. The series was previewed in an open race run under the LMES banner in 2003 at the 1000km of Le Mans. For the 2004 Le Mans Series, the participated in four events, including resurrecting classic races like the 1000km Monza, 1000km Nürburgring,1000 km Silverstone. A large number of turned out, making the racing very exciting. 2005 saw the series expand to a five race format with the addition of the Istanbul Racing Circuit, in 2007, the LMS held its first and single overseas race with Mil Milhas Brasil as the sixth round. For 2013 a twenty-nine car field has been announced including eleven LMP2 cars, in 2016 the GTC class featuring GT3-spec cars was dropped from the series
39.
United States Auto Club
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The United States Auto Club is one of the sanctioning bodies of auto racing in the United States. From 1956 to 1979, USAC sanctioned the United States National Championship, ultimately, USAC was formed by Indianapolis Motor Speedway owner Tony Hulman. It became the arbiter of rules, car design, and other matters for what it termed championship auto racing, for a while there was a separate series of specifications for championship cars designed to be run on dirt, rather than paved, tracks. NASCAR drivers including Jeff Gordon, Tony Stewart, Ryan Newman, the triple crown is earned in USAC racing when a driver claims all three national championships. Only two drivers, Tony Stewart and J. J, yeley, have achieved the triple crown in a single season. Three other drivers, Pancho Carter, Dave Darland, and Jerry Coons, in 2012 Mike Curb and Cary Agajanian became the only car owners to win the triple crown by winning all three championships in the same year. USAC had awarded a championship until A. J. Foyt won his seventh title in 1979. It has announced that it will begin awarding a national championship starting in 2010, a drivers finishes in their 25 best races are counted toward the championship and the 2010 winner received $40,000. Points are accumulated in the three series, sprints, midgets, and silver crown. Bryan Clauson of Noblesville, Indiana claimed the championship, topping runner-up, Levi Jones. Bruce White, assistant staff doctor Don Mullendore, owner and pilot of the plane, the effect on USAC, and for open-wheel racing in the United States, was devastating, especially since it closely followed the death of Indianapolis Motor Speedway owner Tony Hulman. The plane crash came at a time when Indy car owners and drivers were demanding changes from USAC, aside from the Indianapolis 500, USAC events were not well attended, and the owners felt that USAC poorly negotiated television rights. The owners also wanted increases in payouts, especially at Indy, though some think the plane crash was used as an opportunistic way to force change in the sport, it was merely an unfortunate coincidence. The seed of dissent had been growing for years before the accident. Finally, most car owners banded together to form Championship Auto Racing Teams in 1978, USAC tried unsuccessfully to ban all CART owners from the 1979 Indianapolis 500, finally losing in court before the race began. Both the USAC and CART ran race schedules in 1979, Indianapolis Motor Speedway president John Cooper was instrumental in forming a joint body of CART and USAC with the creation of the Championship Racing League in March 1980. However, in mid 1980, Cooper forced USAC to renounce their agreement with the CRL if they wanted to keep officiating the Indy 500, beginning in 1971, all dirt races were split from the National Championship. From 1971 to 1980, the series was named National Dirt Car Championship, Champions From 1956–1960 USAC National Sprint Car Championship was divided into two divisions, Midwest and East
40.
American open wheel car racing
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American Championship car racing, also known as Indy Car racing, is a category of professional-level automobile racing in the United States and North America. As of 2016, the top-level American open wheel racing championship is sanctioned by IndyCar, competitive events for professional-level, single-seat open-wheel race cars have been conducted under the auspices of several different sanctioning bodies since 1902. A season-long, points-based, National Championship of drivers has been recognized in 1905,1916. The Indianapolis 500, which debuted in 1911, is the marquee event of Indy Car racing. The open-wheeled, winged, single-seater cars have generally similar to those in Formula One. The fame of the Indianapolis 500 leads many to refer to the cars that compete on the American Championship circuit as Indy cars. This form of racing has experienced high levels of popularity over the years, the golden era of the 1950s was followed by a decade of transition and innovation in the 1960s, which included increased international participation. The sport experienced considerable growth and exposure during the popularity of the CART PPG Indy Car World Series in the 1980s. Two organizational disputes in 1979 and 1996, respectively, led to a split that divided the participants among two separate sanctioning bodies, however, an official unification took place in 2008 that brought the sport back together under one single sanctioning body. The national championship was sanctioned by the Contest Board of the American Automobile Association, the AAA first sanctioned automobile motorsports events in 1902. At first it used the rules of the Automobile Club of America and it introduced the first track season championship for racing cars in 1905. Barney Oldfield was the first champion, no official season championship was recognized from 1906-1915, however, single races were held. Official records regard 1916 as the next contested championship season, years later, retroactive titles were named back to 1902. These post-factum seasons are considered unofficial and revisionist history by accredited historians, Racing did not cease in the United States during WWI, but the official national championship was suspended. The Indianapolis 500 itself was suspended for 1917–1918 due to the war. In 1920, the championship resumed, and despite the difficult economic climate that would later follow. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, all auto racing was suspended during World War II, from 1942 to 1945 no events were contested, banned by the U. S. government primarily on account of rationing. Racing resumed in full in 1946, the 1946 season is unique, in that it included six Champ Car events, and 71 Big Car races, as organizers were initially unsure about the availability of cars and participation
41.
Grand Prix motorcycle racing
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The FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix is the premier class of motorcycle road racing, held since 1949. Grand Prix motorcycles are purpose-built racing machines that are available for purchase by the general public nor able to be ridden legally on public roads. The championship is divided into three classes, MotoGP, Moto2 and Moto3. All three classes use four-stroke engines, in 2010 the 250cc class was replaced by the new Moto2600 cc four-stroke class. After that, MotoGP gave the four-strokes a 490cc advantage over the two-strokes, a 2 stroke engine produces power with every rotation of the crank, where as the 4 stroke engine produces power every fourth rotation. In theory, a 500cc 2stroke produces the power as a 1000cc 4 stroke. Carburation vs fuel injection, engine mapping, power/torque curves, practice showed the 4 strokes generating 10 to 15 more Hp and turning in much faster lap times then their 2 stroke counterparts. 4 stroke engines would be the choice for years to come. Moto2 and 3 are four-stroke only, a FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix was first organized by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme in 1949. The commercial rights are now owned by Dorna Sports, with the FIM remaining as the sanctioning body. Teams are represented by the International Road Racing Teams Association and manufacturers by the Motorcycle Sport Manufacturers Association, rules and changes to regulations are decided between the four entities, with Dorna casting a tie-breaking vote. In cases of technical modifications, the MSMA can unilaterally enact or veto changes by unanimous vote among its members and these four entities compose the Grand Prix Commission. There have traditionally been several races at each event for various classes of motorcycles, based on engine size, and one class for sidecars. Classes for 50 cc,80 cc,125 cc,250 cc,350 cc, and 500 cc solo machines have existed at some time, up through the 1950s and most of the 1960s, four-stroke engines dominated all classes. In part this was due to rules, which allowed a multiplicity of cylinders, in the 1960s, two-stroke engines began to take root in the smaller classes. In 1969, the FIM — citing high development costs for non-works teams — brought in new rules restricting all classes to six gears, by this time, two-strokes completely eclipsed the four-strokes in all classes. The 50 cc class was replaced by an 80 cc class, then the class was dropped entirely in the 1990s, after being dominated primarily by Spanish, the 350 cc class vanished in the 1980s. Sidecars were dropped from world events in the 1990s, reducing the field to 125s, 250s