1.
Adolphe Bridge
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Adolphe Bridge is an arch bridge in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The bridge takes road traffic across the Pétrusse, connecting Boulevard Royal, in Ville Haute, to Avenue de la Liberté, in Gare. At 17.2 m wide, it carries four lanes of road traffic, Adolphe Bridge has become an unofficial national symbol of sorts, representing Luxembourgs independence, and has become one of Luxembourg Citys main tourist attractions. The bridge was designed by Paul Séjourné, a Frenchman, and Albert Rodange, a Luxembourger and its design was copied in the construction of Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, the United States. The bridge was named after Grand Duke Adolphe, who reigned Luxembourg from 1890 until 1905, although it is now over 100 years old, it is also known as the New Bridge by people from Luxembourg City. The old bridge in comparison is the Passerelle, which was built between 1859 and 1861. With the demolition of the citys famous fortification, under the 1867 Treaty of London, the citys built-up area spread southwards from Haute Ville, over the Pétrusse, where Luxembourg Citys railway station was already located. However, the existing link to the south bank of the Pétrusse was the old viaduct. In 1896, the government hired Albert Rodange to draw up plans for a new bridge, Rodange identified the future bridges position, connecting with the main axis of Boulevard Royal, and drew up initial plans for a large stone viaduct. However, as Rodange lacked experience in building, the government invited a foreigner with specific expertise in the field to help design the bridge. Paul Séjourné, a Frenchman with years of experience designing similar viaducts in southern France, was chosen, although Séjourné concurred with Rodanges site and basic design, he made many major modifications. Instead of several medium-sized arches, Séjourné sought to build the bridge around a central arch. The plan, which was adopted, called for, Twin parallel 84.65 m arches in the centre, two arches of 21.60 m flanking the central arch. Two further arches of 6.00 m outside the medium-sized arches, in total, the bridge would have a length of 153 m. The plans were audacious for that day and age, at 84.65 m, the arches and columns were constructed from sandstone, quarried locally at Ernzen, Dillingen, Gilsdorf, and Verlorenkost. This design was replicated by Séjourné in a bridge over the River Garonne at Toulon and was copied in concrete for the Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia. The first stone of the bridge was laid on the 14 July 1900, originally, the bridge carried both road and rail traffic, two rail/tram tracks over the bridge formed part of the railway route from Luxembourg City to Echternach, which was opened on 20 April 1904. Adolphe Bridge was first renovated in 1961, and minor changes were again in 1976
2.
Street
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A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact. A street can be as simple as a patch of dirt. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, originally the word street simply meant a paved road. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass, conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets. The word street has its origins in the Latin strata, it is related to stratum. Ancient Greek stratos means army, Greeks originally built roads to move their armies, old English applied the word to Roman roads in Britain such as Ermine Street, Watling Street, etc. Later it acquired a meaning of straggling village, which were often laid out on the verges of Roman roads. In the Middle Ages, a road was a way people travelled, the street is a public easement, one of the few shared between all sorts of people. As a component of the environment as ancient as human habitation. Its roles are as numerous and diverse as its ever-changing cast of characters, streets can be loosely categorized as main streets and side streets. Main streets are usually broad with a high level of activity. Commerce and public interaction are more visible on main streets, side streets are quieter, often residential in use and character, and may be used for vehicular parking. Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a streets most visible use, the unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity. In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to different types of traffic. Le Corbusier, for one, perceived an ever-stricter segregation of traffic as an affirmation of social order—a desirable. To this end, proposals were advanced to build vertical streets where vehicles, pedestrians. Such an arrangement, it was said, would allow for denser development in the future
3.
Luxembourg City
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Luxembourg, also known as Luxembourg City, is the capital city of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, and the countrys most populous commune. The city contains Luxembourg Castle, established by the Franks in the Early Middle Ages, as of January 2016, the commune had a population of 115,227, which was more than three times the population of the countrys second most populous commune. The citys metropolitan population, including that of surrounding communes of Hesperange, Sandweiler, Strassen, in 2011, Luxembourg was ranked as having the second highest per capita GDP in the world at $80,119, with the city having developed into a banking and administrative centre. In the 2011 Mercer worldwide survey of 221 cities, Luxembourg was placed first for personal safety while it was ranked 19th for quality of living, in the Roman era, a fortified tower guarded the crossing of two Roman roads that met at the site of Luxembourg city. Siegfried built his castle, named Lucilinburhuc, on the Bock Fiels, in 987, Archbishop Egbert of Trier consecrated five altars in the Church of the Redemption. At a Roman road intersection near the church, a marketplace appeared around which the city developed, the city, because of its location and natural geography, has through history been a place of strategic military significance. The first fortifications were built as early as the 10th century, by the end of the 12th century, as the city expanded westward around the new St. Nicholas Church, new walls were built that included an area of 5 hectares. In about 1340, under the reign of John the Blind, in 1443, the Burgundians under Philip the Good conquered Luxembourg. Subsequently, the Burgundians, the Spanish, the French, the Spanish again, the Austrians, the French again, in the 17th century, the first casemates were built, initially, Spain built 23 km of tunnels, starting in 1644. These were then enlarged under French rule by Marshal Vauban, during the French Revolutionary Wars, the city was occupied by France twice, once, briefly, in 1792–3, and, later, after a seven-month siege. After the Luxembourg Crisis, the 1867 Treaty of London required Luxembourg to dismantle the fortifications in Luxembourg City. Their demolition took sixteen years, cost 1.5 million gold francs, furthermore, the Prussian garrison was to be withdrawn. When, in 1890, Grand Duke William III died without any heirs, the Grand Duchy passed out of Dutch hands. Despite Luxembourgs best efforts to remain neutral in the First World War, on 30 August, Helmuth von Moltke moved his headquarters to Luxembourg City, closer to his armies in France in preparation for a swift victory. However, the victory never came, and Luxembourg would play host to the German high command for another four years. At the end of the occupation, Luxembourg City was the scene of an attempted communist revolution, on 9 November 1918, communists declared a socialist republic, in 1921, the city limits were greatly expanded. The communes of Eich, Hamm, Hollerich, and Rollingergrund were incorporated into Luxembourg City, in 1940, Germany occupied Luxembourg again. Under the occupation, the citys streets all received new, German names
4.
Luxembourg
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Luxembourg /ˈlʌksəmbɜːrɡ/, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east and its culture, people and languages are highly intertwined with its neighbours, making it essentially a mixture of French and Germanic cultures. It comprises two regions, the Oesling in the north as part of the Ardennes massif. With an area of 2,586 square kilometres, it is one of the smallest sovereign states in Europe, Luxembourg had a population of 524,853 in October 2012, ranking it the 8th least-populous country in Europe. As a representative democracy with a monarch, it is headed by a Grand Duke, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a country, with an advanced economy and the worlds highest GDP per capita. Luxembourg is a member of the European Union, OECD, United Nations, NATO, and Benelux, reflecting its political consensus in favour of economic, political. The city of Luxembourg, which is the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions. Luxembourg served on the United Nations Security Council for the years 2013 and 2014, around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors, in the following centuries, Luxembourgs fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns and the French. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands and this arrangement was revised by the 1839 First Treaty of London, from which date Luxembourgs full independence is reckoned. In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union, the King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining a personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the throne of the Netherlands passed to his daughter Wilhelmina and this allowed Germany the military advantage of controlling and expanding the railways there. In August 1914, Imperial Germany violated Luxembourgs neutrality in the war by invading it in the war against France and this allowed Germany to use the railway lines, while at the same time denying them to France. Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence, in 1940, after the outbreak of World War II, Luxembourgs neutrality was again violated when the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany entered the country, entirely without justification. A government in exile based in London supported the Allies, sending a group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. Luxembourg was liberated in September 1944, and became a member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourgs neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, in 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held
5.
ArcelorMittal
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ArcelorMittal S. A. is a Luxembourg-based multinational steel manufacturing corporation headquartered in Boulevard d’Avranches, Luxembourg. It was formed in 2006 from the takeover and merger of Arcelor by Mittal Steel, ArcelorMittal is the worlds largest steel producer, with an annual crude steel production of 98.1 million tons as of 2014. It is ranked 108th in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 ranking of the worlds biggest corporations, Mittal Steel launched a hostile takeover bid which replaced a previous planned merger between Arcelor and Severstal, which had lacked sufficient shareholder approval. The resulting merged business was named ArcelorMittal and is headquartered in Luxembourg, the resulting firm produced approximately 10% of the worlds steel, and was by far the worlds largest steel company. Total revenues in 2007 were $105 billion, in October 2008, the market capitalisation of ArcelorMittal was over $30 billion. In December 2008, ArcelorMittal announced several plant closings, including the Bethlehem Steel plant in Lackawanna, New York, after purchase of Kryvorizhstal, Ukraines largest steel producer, employment was scaled back from 57,000 employees to 30,000. The firm was part of a 17 steel member groups nicknamed Club Zürich that later known as Club Europe. For a period of 18 years, the fixed the market, prices. This was almost as if they were acting in a planned economy, fines were particularly high for the firm owing to two prior convictions. In August 2016 the South African Competition Commission found the company guilty of price fixing following an investigation first launched in 2008, ArcelorMittal was fined R1.5 billion to be paid over a 5-year period. As part of the settlement the firm agreed to invest R4.64 billion in capital over five years. The firm entered into a $2.2 billion contract to develop an iron ore deposit in Senegal and this included construction of a 750 km railway line. After stalling on the contract and failing to build according to schedule the Government of Senegal sued, in June 2014, the International Chamber of Commerces arbitration court in Paris awarded Senegal $150 million. On 26 January 2011, the Stainless steel division split off as a new company, in 2012 the company had $22 billion of debt. As of 2012, due to overcapacity and reduced demand in Europe it had idled 9 of 25 blast furnaces, in October 2012 it permanently shut down two blast furnaces at Florange, France. On October 31,2012, the company reported a loss of $709 million as compared to a $659 million profit for the same period a year ago. In January 2013, ArcelorMittal bid $1.5 billion to acquire ThyssenKrupp AGs rolling mill in Calvert, Alabama, the joint venture with Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corporation was finalized in February 2014. In May,2014, ArcelorMittal, citing economic self-interest, declared its opposition to sanctions on Russia, Lakshmi Mittal is the chairman and CEO
6.
Luxembourg railway station
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Luxembourg railway station is the main railway station serving Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is operated by Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois, the railway company. 80,000 passengers use this station every day and it is the hub of Luxembourgs domestic railway network, serving as a point of call on all but one of Luxembourgs railway lines. It also functions as the international railway hub, with services to all the surrounding countries, Belgium, France. Since June 2007, the LGV Est has connected the station to the French TGV network, the station is located 2 kilometres south of the city centre, to the south of the River Pétrusse. The station gives its name to Gare, one of the Quarters of Luxembourg City, the original railway station was built entirely from timber, and was opened in 1859. The position of the new station on the bank of the Pétrusse. The first connection to the city came in 1861, with the construction of the Passerelle viaduct. After the 1867 Treaty of London, the fortifications were demolished, the old wooden station was replaced by the modern building between 1907 and 1913, at the height of an economic boom, fuelled by iron from the Red Lands. The new station was designed by a trio of German architects in the Moselle Baroque Revival style that dominates Luxembourgs major public buildings. The station lies at the end of the Avenue de la Liberté, one of the major thoroughfares. In 2006 major renovation work, under the auspices of the Ministry of Transport, history of rail transport in Luxembourg Luxembourg railway network CFL Gare de Luxembourg official webpage Luxembourg Central Station at Structurae Rail. lu page on Luxembourg station
7.
Place des Martyrs, Luxembourg
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The Place des Martyrs is a garden square in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The square lies to the south of the Pétrusse valley, in the quarter of Gare and it is colloquially known as the Rose Garden, on account of the red roses that dominate the gardens floriculture. Along its north-eastern side runs the Avenue de la Liberté, one of Luxembourg Citys main thoroughfares, to the south-west runs the Rue Sainte-Zithe, whilst the Rue du Plébiscite and the Rue de la Grève make up the south-east and north-west sides of the square respectively. The headquarters of ArcelorMittal, the worlds largest steelmaker, are located on the Place des Martyrs, the square was laid out in the 1920s, after the German occupation of the First World War. Through the square run three radial paths, meeting at a point in front of the Arcelor headquarters, where a work by the British sculptor Henry Moore, depicting a mother and child, provides a focus
8.
Arterial road
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An arterial road or arterial thoroughfare is a high-capacity urban road. The primary function of a road is to deliver traffic from collector roads to freeways or expressways. As such, many arteries are limited-access roads, or feature restrictions on private access, though the design of arterial roads varies from country to country, city to city, and even within cities, they share a number of common design characteristics. For example, in cities, arteries are arranged in concentric circles or in a grid. Many jurisdictions also classify arterial roads as either principal or minor, in traffic engineering hierarchy, an arterial road delivers traffic between collector roads and freeways. For new arterial roads, intersections are often reduced to increase traffic flow, in California, arterial roads are usually spaced every half mile, and have intersecting collector and streets. The Traffic Engineering Handbook describes Arterials as being either principal or minor, both classes serve to carry longer-distance flows between important centers of activity. Arterials are laid out as the backbone of a network and should be designed to afford the highest level of service, as is practical. The construction and development of roads is achieved through two methods. By far the most common is the upgrading of an existing right-of-way during subdivision development, when existing structures prohibit the widening of an existing road however, bypasses are often constructed. Because of the placement and general continuity of arterial road corridors, sewers, water mains, conduits, in North America, traffic signals are used at most intersections. In Europe, large roundabouts are more commonly seen at the busier junctions, speed limits are typically between 30 and 50 mph, depending on the density of use of the surrounding development. In school zones, speeds may be reduced, likewise, in sparsely developed or rural areas. The width of arterial roads can range from four lanes to ten or more, some are divided at the center, while others share a common center lane, such as a contraflow lane or central turning lane. As with other types, environmental consequences derive from arterial roadways, including air pollution generation, noise pollution
9.
One-way traffic
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One-way traffic is traffic that moves in a single direction. A one-way street is a street either facilitating only one-way traffic, one-way streets typically result in higher traffic flow as drivers may avoid encountering oncoming traffic or turns through oncoming traffic. Residents may dislike one-way streets due to the route required to get to a specific destination. Some studies even challenge the original motivation for one-way streets, in that the circuitous routes negate the claimed higher speeds. Signs are posted showing which direction the vehicles can move in, commonly an upward arrow, or on a T junction where the road is one-way. Sometimes one portion of a street is one-way, another portion two-way, an advantage of one-way streets is that drivers do not have to watch for vehicles coming in the opposite direction on this type of street. The abstract No Entry sign was adopted for standardization at the League of Nations convention in Geneva in 1931. The sign was adapted from Swiss usage, derived from the practice of former European states that marked their boundaries with their formal shield symbols, restrictions on entry were indicated by tying a blood-red ribbon horizontally around the shield. The sign is known as C1, from its definition in the Vienna Convention on Road Signs. The European No Entry sign was adopted into North American uniform signage in the 1970s, in addition to the standardized graphic symbol, the US version still retains the wording Do Not Enter, while the European and Canadian versions typically have no text. Since Unicode 5.2, the Miscellaneous Symbols block contains the glyph ⛔, representable in HTML as ⛔, or ⛔. One-way streets may be part of a system, which facilitates a smoother flow of motor traffic through, for example. This is achieved by arranging one-way streets that cross in such a fashion as to eliminate right turns or left turns, traffic light systems at such junctions may be simpler and may be coordinated to produce a green wave. In the United States,37 states and Puerto Rico allow left turns on red only if both the origin and destination streets are one way, see South Carolina law Section 56-5-970 C3, for example. Five other states, namely Alaska, Idaho, Michigan, Oregon, an attempt was apparently made in 1617 to introduce one-way streets in alleys near the River Thames in London. The next one-way street in London was Albemarle Street in Mayfair and it was so designated in 1800 because the public science lectures were so popular there. The first one-way streets in Paris were the Rue de Mogador, one story of the origin of the one-way street in the United States originated in Eugene, Oregon. On 9 September 1934, the on-fire SS Morro Castle was towed to the shore near the Asbury Park Convention Center, the Asbury Park Police Chief decided to make the Ocean Avenue one-way going north and the street one block over in one-way going south, creating a circular route
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