1.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
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Bar association
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A bar association is a professional body of lawyers. In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, the bar association comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates in particular, membership in bar associations may be mandatory or optional for practicing attorneys, depending on jurisdiction. The use of the bar to mean the whole body of lawyers. In the early 16th century, a railing divided the hall in the Inns of Court, with students occupying the body of the hall, students who officially became lawyers crossed the symbolic physical barrier and were admitted to the bar. Later, this was assumed to mean the wooden railing marking off the area around the judges seat in a courtroom, where prisoners stood for arraignment. In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, including in England and Wales, the bar association comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates, while the law society comprises solicitors. These bodies are sometimes mutually exclusive, while in other jurisdictions, in Canada, one is called to the bar after undertaking a post-law-school training in a provincial law society program, and undergoing an apprenticeship or taking articles. Legal communities are called provincial law societies, except for Nova Scotia, where it is called the Nova Scotia Barristers Society, and Quebec and it does not play a part in the regulation of the profession, however. In India under the framework set established under the Advocates Act,1961. The process of enrollment is delegated by the Bar Council of India to the state Bar Councils wherein almost each state has a Bar Council of its own. Once enrolled with a State Bar Council, the law graduate is recognized as an Advocate, once advocate clears the test, then they are entitled to appear and practice before any court within that Bar councils area. There is no requirement for further membership of any Bar Association. However Advocates do become members of local or national bar associations for reasons of recognition. Besides the Bar Council of India, other known Bar Associations in India are National Bar Association of India, All India Bar Association and Supreme Court Bar Association. Each State and local court generally also has a Bar Association of its own, in Pakistan, a person becomes a licensee of a Provincial Bar Council after fulfilling certain requirements. They must have a law degree LL. B from a recognized university, must offer certain undertakings. Further he may join any bar association as member, Bar associations work under Provincial Bar councils, such as khyber pakhtunkhwa Bar Council, Punjab Bar Council, Sindh Bar Council etc. To become an advocate, one must first complete six months pupillage with an advocate of High Court
3.
Worcester, Massachusetts
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Worcester /ˈwʊstər/ WUUSS-tər local pronunciation /ˈwᵻstə/ is a city and the county seat of Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. Named after Worcester, England, as of the 2010 Census the citys population was 181,045, Worcester is located approximately 40 miles west of Boston,50 miles east of Springfield and 40 miles north of Providence. Due to its location in Central Massachusetts, Worcester is known as the Heart of the Commonwealth, thus, however, the heart symbol may also have its provenance in lore that the mass-produced Valentines Day card was invented in the city. S. Census Combined Statistical Area, or Greater Boston, the city features many examples of Victorian-era mill architecture. The area was first inhabited by members of the Nipmuc tribe, the native people called the region Quinsigamond and built a settlement on Pakachoag Hill in Auburn. In 1673 English settlers John Eliot and Daniel Gookin led an expedition to Quinsigamond to establish a new Christian Indian praying town and identify a new location for an English settlement. On July 13,1674, Gookin obtained a deed to eight miles of land in Quinsigamond from the Nipmuc people. In 1675, King Philips War broke out throughout New England with the Nipmuc Indians coming to the aid of Indian leader King Philip, the English settlers completely abandoned the Quinsigamond area and the empty buildings were burned by the Indian forces. The town was abandoned during Queen Annes War in 1702. Finally in 1713, Worcester was permanently resettled for a time by Jonas Rice. Named after the city of Worcester, England, the town was incorporated on June 14,1722, on April 2,1731, Worcester was chosen as the county seat of the newly founded Worcester County government. Between 1755 and 1758, future U. S. president John Adams worked as a schoolteacher, in the 1770s, Worcester became a center of American revolutionary activity. British General Thomas Gage was given information of patriot ammunition stockpiled in Worcester in 1775, also in 1775, Massachusetts Spy publisher Isaiah Thomas moved his radical newspaper out of British occupied Boston to Worcester. Thomas would continuously publish his paper throughout the American Revolutionary War, on July 14,1776, Thomas performed the first public reading in Massachusetts of the Declaration of Independence in front of the Worcester town hall. He would later go on to form the American Antiquarian Society in Worcester in 1812, during the turn of the 19th century Worcesters economy moved into manufacturing. Factories producing textiles, shoes and clothing opened along the nearby Blackstone River, however, the manufacturing industry in Worcester would not begin to thrive until the opening of the Blackstone Canal in 1828 and the opening of the Worcester and Boston Railroad in 1835. The city transformed into a hub and the manufacturing industry flourished. Worcester was officially chartered as a city on February 29,1848, immigrants moved into new triple-decker houses which lined hundreds of Worcesters expanding streets and neighborhoods
4.
Judge
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A judge presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, the judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. In some jurisdictions, the judges powers may be shared with a jury, in inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation, in many parts of the world, judges wear long robes and sit on an elevated platform during trials. In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, judges wear wigs, the long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to a wig would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts, American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial gavels, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs, however, in some of the Western United States, like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of state courts, such as the Maryland Court of Appeals wear distinct dress. In Italy and Portugal both judges and lawyers wear black robes. In Oman, the judge wears a stripe, while the attorneys wear the black gown. In Hong Kong, court proceedings are conducted in either English or Cantonese Chinese, Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials. In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as Your worship, in writing, the post-nominal letters PJ is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and NPJ to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation JA is used to denote a justice of appeal, Masters of the High Court are addressed as Master. When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as Fat Goon Dai Yan before the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as Fat Goon Gok Ha since 1997. In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as Your Lordship or My Lord and Your Ladyship or My Lady, the Bar Council of India had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49 in the Advocates Act. As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as Your Honour, if it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as sir or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the such as My Lord
5.
Bench (law)
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Bench in legal contexts means simply the location in a courtroom where a judge sits. The historical roots of that come from judges formerly having sat on long seats or benches when presiding over a court. In modern courtrooms, the bench is usually an elevated area that allows a judge to view the entire courtroom. The term is used when all the judges of a certain court sit together to decide a case. Additionally, the term is used to differentiate judges from attorneys or barristers, the phrase bench and bar denotes all judges and lawyers collectively. Bank Bar Bench Bench trial Bencher Court Courtroom En banc
6.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
7.
Courtroom
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A courtroom is the enclosed space in which courts of law are held in front of a judge. A number of courtrooms, which may also be known as courts, the judge generally sits behind a raised desk, known as the bench. Benches in U. S. federal courtrooms and some state courtrooms are usually bullet-resistant to protect judges from courtroom shootouts, behind the judge are the great seal of the jurisdiction and the flags of the appropriate federal and state governments. Judges usually wear a black robe. An exception was the late U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist, adjacent to the bench are the witness stand and the desks where the court clerk and the court reporter sit. The courtroom is divided into two parts by a known as the bar. The bar may be an actual railing, or an imaginary barrier, the bailiff stands against one wall and keeps order in the courtroom. On one side is the bench, the tables for the plaintiff, the defendant, and their respective counsel. Apart from the parties to the case and any witnesses, only the lawyers can literally pass the bar, there is usually a podium or lectern between the two tables where the lawyers may stand when they argue their case before the judge. There is usually a space between the bench and the counsel tables, because of the court clerk and court reporters tables in front of the bench. This space is called the well, instead, if documents need to be given to or taken from the judge, attorneys are normally expected to approach the court clerk or bailiff, who acts as an intermediary. During trials, attorneys will ask the permission to traverse the well or approach the bench for sidebar conferences with the judge. The other side of the bar is open to the general public, seating for the gallery can either be pew style benches or theater seats. The theater seats are directly above the gallery, giving sight over the entire courtroom, all of the above applies only to trial courts. Appellate courts in the United States are not finders of fact, so they do not use juries or receive evidence into the record, that is the trial courts job. Therefore, in a court, there is neither a witness stand nor a jury box. The walls are partially or completely wood-paneled. This is a matter of style and tradition, but some jurisdictions have elected to construct courtrooms with a modern appearance
