1.
Bathurst Island (Nunavut)
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A member of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Bathurst Island is one of the Queen Elizabeth Islands in Nunavut, Canada. The area of the island is estimated at 16,042 km2,115 to 117 miles long and from 63 mi to 72 mi to 92.9 mi wide, making it the 54th largest island in the world and Canadas 13th largest island. The island is low-lying with few parts higher than 330 m in elevation, the highest point is 412 m at Stokes Mountain in the Stokes Range. This in turn part of the Arctic Cordillera mountain system. Good soil conditions produce abundant vegetation and support a more prolific wildlife population than other Arctic islands, the island contains both the International Biological Program site Polar Bear Pass and Qausuittuq National Park. Brooman Point Village on the eastern coast of Bathurst Island was the site of Thule native tribes around A. D.1000, william Edward Parry was the first European to discover the island in 1819, charting its southern coast. It was named for Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst, British Secretary of State for War, robert Aldrich charted much of its west coast in 1851, while George Henry Richards and Sherard Osborn charted its north coast in 1853. The Earths North Magnetic Pole tracked northwards across Bathurst Island during the 1960s and 1970s, Bathurst Island in the Atlas of Canada - Toporama, Natural Resources Canada
2.
Timor Sea
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The Timor Sea is a relatively shallow sea bounded to the north by the island of Timor, to the east by the Arafura Sea, to the west of Australia. The sea contains a number of reefs, uninhabited islands and significant hydrocarbon reserves, International disputes emerged after the reserves were discovered resulting in the signing of the Timor Sea Treaty. The Timor Sea was hit by the worst oil spill for 25 years in 2009 and it is possible that Australias first inhabitants crossed the Timor Sea from Indonesia at a time when sea levels were lower. The waters to the east are known as the Arafura Sea, the Timor Sea is adjacent to three substantial inlets on the north Australian coast, the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, Beagle Gulf and the Van Diemen Gulf. The Australian city of Darwin is the large city to adjoin the sea. The small town of Wyndham is located on the west arm of Cambridge Gulf, Rivers that enter the Timor Sea from the Northern Territory include Fish River, King River, Dry River, Victoria River and the Alligator Rivers. Rivers in the Kimberley region that flow into the Timor Sea include the Ord River, Forrest River, Pentecost River, the sea is about 480 km wide, covering an area of about 610,000 km². Its deepest point is the Timor Trough, located in the part of the sea. The remainder of the sea is shallower, much of it averaging less than 200 m deep, as it overlies the Sahul Shelf. The Big Bank Shoals is an area on the seabed between the continental shelf and the Timor Trough where a number of submerged banks are located. The ecosystem of the shoals is significantly different to the waters surrounding them. In May 2010, it was announced that a crater about 50 km wide has been discovered on the seabed of the Timor Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the Timor Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows, On the North The Southeastern limit of the Savu Sea the Southeastern coast of Timor, the Western of the Arafura Sea. The North coast of Australia from Cape Don to Cape Londonderry, a line from Cape Londonderry to the Southwest point of Roti Island. Many tropical storms and cyclones originate or pass through the Timor Sea, in February 2005, Tropical Cyclone Vivienne disrupted oil and gas production facilities in the area, and the next month, Severe Tropical Cyclone Willy interrupted production. A number of significant islands are located in the sea, notably Melville Island, part of the Tiwi Islands, off Australia and it is thought that early humans reached Australia by island-hopping across the Timor Sea. Scott and Seringapatam Reefs formed in the area and to the west on the same platform is the Rowley Shoals. The Timor Current is a current that runs south-west in the Timor Sea between the Indonesia archipelago and Australia
3.
Tiwi Islands
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The Tiwi Islands are part of the Northern Territory, Australia,80 km to the north of Darwin where the Arafura Sea joins the Timor Sea. They comprise Melville Island, Bathurst Island, and nine smaller uninhabited islands, inhabited before European settlement by the Tiwi indigenous Australians, there are approximately 3,000 people on the islands. The Tiwi Land Council is one of four councils in the Northern Territory. It is a body with statutory authority under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 and has responsibilities under the Native Title Act 1993. The Tiwi Islands lie 80 km to the north of the Australian mainland in the Arafura Sea, the island group consists of two large inhabited islands, and nine smaller uninhabited islands. Bathurst Island is the fifth-largest island of Australia and accessible by sea or air, Melville Island is Australias second largest island. The main islands are separated by Apsley Strait, which connects Saint Asaph Bay in the north and Shoal Bay in the south, at the mouth of Shoal Bay is Buchanan Island, with an area of about 3 km2. A car ferry at the narrowest point provides a connection between the two islands. They are inhabited by the Tiwi people, as they have been since before European settlement in Australia, the Tiwi are an Indigenous Australian people, culturally and linguistically distinct from those of Arnhem Land on the mainland just across the water. In 2011, the population of the islands was 2,579. Most residents speak Tiwi as their first language and English as a second language, most of the population live in Wurrumiyanga on Bathurst Island, and Pirlangimpi and Milikapiti on Melville Island. Wurrumiyanga has a population of nearly 1500, the two centres around 450 each. There are other settlements, including Wurankuwu Community on western Bathurst Island. Indigenous Australians have occupied the Tiwi Islands for centuries, with creation stories suggesting they were present at least 7,000 years before present, the first European settlement on the Islands was at Fort Dundas, near present-day Pirlangimpi on Melville Island. As the first attempted European and military settlement anywhere in northern Australia, a Catholic mission was established by Francis Xavier Gsell in 1911, and the islands were proclaimed an Aboriginal Reserve in 1912. A timber church built in the 1930s is a prominent landmark in Wurrumiyanga, the Catholic mission had positive impacts, through access to education and welfare services, but also negative effects through the suppression of Aboriginal language and culture. Control of the islands was transferred to the Indigenous traditional owners through the Tiwi Aboriginal Land Trust, the Tiwi Islands Local Government was replaced in 2008 by the Tiwi Islands Shire Council as part of a Northern Territory-wide restructuring of local government. The Tiwi Islands are part of the electorate of Lingiari
4.
Northern Territory
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The Northern Territory is a federal Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. It shares borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, to the north, the territory is bordered by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Despite its large area—over 1,349,129 square kilometres, the Northern Territorys population of 244,000 makes it the least populous of Australias eight major states and territories, having fewer than half as many people as Tasmania. The archaeological history of the Northern Territory begins over 40,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region, makassan traders began trading with the indigenous people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards. The coast of the territory was first seen by Europeans in the 17th century, the British were the first Europeans to attempt to settle the coastal regions. After three failed attempts to establish a settlement, success was achieved in 1869 with the establishment of a settlement at Port Darwin. Today the economy is based on tourism, especially Kakadu National Park in the Top End and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in central Australia, the capital and largest city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in regions but rather along the Stuart Highway. The other major settlements are Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine, Nhulunbuy, residents of the Northern Territory are often known simply as Territorians and fully as Northern Territorians, or more informally as Top Enders and Centralians. With the coming of the British, there were four attempts to settle the harsh environment of the northern coast. The Northern Territory was part of colonial New South Wales from 1825 to 1863, except for a time from February to December 1846. It was part of South Australia from 1863 to 1911, under the administration of colonial South Australia, the overland telegraph was constructed between 1870 and 1872. A railway was built between Palmerston and Pine Creek between 1883 and 1889. The economic pattern of raising and mining was established so that by 1911 there were 513,000 cattle. Victoria River Downs was at one time the largest cattle station in the world, gold was found at Grove Hill in 1872 and at Pine Creek, Brocks Creek, Burrundi, and copper was found at Daly River. On 1 January 1911, a decade after federation, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia, alfred Deakin opined at this time To me the question has been not so much commercial as national, first, second, third and last. Either we must accomplish the peopling of the territory or submit to its transfer to some other nation. In late 1912 there was growing sentiment that the name Northern Territory was unsatisfactory, the names Kingsland, Centralia and Territoria were proposed with Kingsland becoming the preferred choice in 1913
5.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
6.
Melville Island (Australia)
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Melville Island, known in the Tiwi language as Yermalner, is in the eastern Timor Sea, off the coast of the Northern Territory, Australia. It is west of the Cobourg Peninsula in Arnhem Land and north of Darwin, the largest community/town on the island is Milikapiti, pop. The second village is Pirlangimpi, pop,440,27 km west of Milikapiti, on the west coast of Melville Island. About 30 more people live in five family outstations, at 5,786 square kilometres it is just outside the 100 largest islands in the world, but is the second biggest island in Australia, after Tasmania. Only 55 metres south of its tip is Irrititu Island. Together, Melville Island and Bathurst Island are known as the Tiwi Islands and it is said that the first European to sight the island was Abel Tasman in 1644, although this is now disputed. King named it for Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville, first lord of the Admiralty, shortly after this, the British made the first attempt to settle Australias north coast, at the short-lived Fort Dundas. Fort Dundas Tiwi Land Council Tiwi Art Tourist Information
7.
Darwin, Northern Territory
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Darwin /ˈdɑːrwᵻn/ is the capital city of the Northern Territory of Australia. Situated on the Timor Sea, Darwin is the largest city in the sparsely populated Northern Territory and it is the smallest and most northerly of the Australian capital cities, and acts as the Top Ends regional centre. Darwins proximity to South East Asia makes it a link between Australia and countries such as Indonesia and East Timor, the Stuart Highway begins in Darwin, ending at Port Augusta in South Australia. The city itself is built on a low bluff overlooking the harbour and its suburbs spread out over some area, beginning at Lee Point in the north and stretching to Berrimah in the east. Past Berrimah, the Stuart Highway goes on to Darwins satellite city, Palmerston, the Darwin region, like the rest of the Top End, has a tropical climate, with a wet and a dry season. Prone to cyclone activity during the wet season, Darwin experiences heavy monsoonal downpours, during the dry season, the city is met with blue skies and gentle sea breezes from the harbour. The greater Darwin area is the home of the Larrakia people. On 9 September 1839, HMS Beagle sailed into Darwin harbour during its surveying of the area, John Clements Wickham named the region Port Darwin in honour of their former shipmate Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ships previous voyage which had ended in October 1836. The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911. The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, following devastation caused by the 1897 cyclone, the 1937 cyclone, Japanese air raids during World War II, the Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and the first inhabitants of the greater Darwin area. They had trading routes with Southeast Asia, and imported goods from as far afield as South, established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes. The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple groups within this area is still contestable. The Dutch visited Australias northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be repelled by the Tiwi peoples, the Dutch created the first European maps of the area. This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land, the first British person to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of HMS Beagle on 9 September 1839. The ships captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, in 1863, the Northern Territory was tranferred from New South Wales to South Australia. In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey, Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about 60 km northeast of the modern city. This attempt was short-lived, however, and the settlement abandoned by 1865, on 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin between Fort Hill and the escarpment. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston, after the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, in 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world
8.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
9.
Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst
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Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst KG PC was a High Tory, High Church Pittite from the end of the Second Empire. For thirty years an MP and whence ennobled one of the governments main stalwarts on Colonial policy. Not a good speaker in debates, he was nevertheless a competent administrator, a personal friend of William Pitt he became a broker of deals across cabinet factions during the volatile Napoleonic era. After the wars he was on the wing of the Liberal Tory party. Lord Bathurst was the son of Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, by his wife Tryphena. He was educated at Eton from 1773 to 1778 and then up to Christ Church, the college was always considered the most academic, and he went up with his closest companions at Eton William Wyndham Greville, Richard, Lord Wellesley and Canon Bathurst, his cousin. The influences on his strong, but affable character were aristocratic, whiggish at the beginning of the industrial revolution, britain had lost the American colonies but gained a larger empire in the Far East. Affable man of character, learning and wit, Bathurst was known in society for a sense of humour. He was a book-lover, which he inherited from his parents, his fathers learning had acquired a library, while his mother was artistic. It was however his mother who was more business-like, and from her he learnt some cunning and he was a bad godfather to his religious charges, but a good father to his children. Not especially religious or church-going, Bathurst was worldly and intelligent, aged sixteen he matriculated at Christ Church on 22 April 1779. His father was overjoyed, and from 1790 he bought a living at Sapperton, where the family farmed the estate, then in 1781 he decided to embark on a Grand Tour of Europe. Without taking a degree he left Oxford for Germany where he travelled with Greville, from Switzerland he went to Italy, before moving north to Paris. On hearing that Shelburnes government was challenged by a Fox-North coalition he headed back to London in February 1783, the old enemy France had been defeated on every continent, and on every ocean. Immediately on entering politics he admired the patriotism and oratory of a youthful garrulous drinker William Pitt, Bathurst liked the young dissolute parliamentarian, but refused to join his frequent bouts. Pitt was tall and slender from a Navy family, but Bathurst was more self-restrained, the beauty aesthetic rendered Bathurst more sensitive, studious and scholarly towards departmental duties. The strongest quality he possessed was loyalty to his friends, he was the only society family that would entertain Lady Wellesley, later when appointed head of the Gloucestershire Militia and it embodied he owed it to Wellesley, a born soldier in 1798 who made his name in India. High Anglicanism meant antiquarian attitudes to assiduous recording of letters and correspondence and this was how he came to the conclusion that slavery was cruel, but was wary about voting for a franchise extension
10.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
11.
Bombing of Darwin
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The Bombing of Darwin, also known as the Battle of Darwin, on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. The town was lightly defended and the Japanese inflicted heavy losses upon the Allied forces at little cost to themselves. The urban areas of Darwin also suffered damage from the raids. The two Japanese air raids were the first, and largest, of more than 100 air raids against Australia during 1942–43, in 1942, Darwin was a small town with limited civil and military infrastructure. Due to its position in northern Australia, the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force had constructed bases near the town in the 1930s. The first flight to use the route occurred when nine B-17D bombers of the 14th Bombardment Squadron left Hawaii on 5 September and passed through Darwin 10–12 September. By October 1941 plans were underway to position fuel and supplies with two ships, including USAT Don Esteban, being chartered and actively engaged in that purpose when war came, following the outbreak of the Pacific War in early December 1941, Darwins defences were strengthened. The improvised plan for support of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies that was completed in Washington on 20 December 1941 by the U. S, in the two months before the air raids, all but 2,000 civilians were evacuated from the town. Japanese submarines I-121 and I-123 laid mines off Darwin in January 1942, by mid-February 1942 Darwin had become an important Allied base for the defence of the DEI. The Japanese had captured Ambon, Borneo, and Celebes between December 1941 and early-February 1942, landings on Timor were scheduled for 20 February, and an invasion of Java was planned to take place shortly afterwards. In order to protect these landings from Allied interference, the Japanese military command decided to conduct an air raid on Darwin. Among the ships in harbour were those returned the morning before the attack from the convoy escorted by USS Houston involved in the effort to reinforce Timor. Despite Darwins strategic importance to the defence of Australia, the city was poorly defended, the crews of these guns had conducted little recent training due to ammunition shortages. The air forces stationed in and near the town comprised No.12 Squadron, which was equipped with CAC Wirraway advanced trainers, and No.13 Squadron which operated Lockheed Hudson light bombers. Six Hudsons,3 from No.2 Squadron and 3 from No.13 Squadron also arrived at Darwin on 19 February after having evacuated from Timor. None of the six Wirraways at Darwin on the day of the raid were serviceable, at the time of the event, there were no radars functioning to provide early warning of air raids, and the towns civil defences were dysfunctional. In addition to the Australian forces, ten United States Army Air Forces Curtiss P-40 Warhawks were passing through Darwin en route to Java on the day of the attack, the P-40 pilots were in the main little experienced in combat. A total of 65 Allied warships and merchant vessels were in Darwin harbour at the time of the raids, the warships included the United States Navy destroyer Peary and seaplane tender William B
12.
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk
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The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk is an American single-engined, single-seat, all-metal fighter and ground-attack aircraft that first flew in 1938. The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36 Hawk which reduced development time and enabled a rapid entry into production, the Warhawk was used by most Allied powers during World War II, and remained in frontline service until the end of the war. P-40 Warhawk was the name the United States Army Air Corps and after June 1941, USAAF-adopted name for all models, making it the official name in the U. S. for all P-40s. The British Commonwealth and Soviet air forces used the name Tomahawk for models equivalent to the P-40B and P-40C, P-40s first saw combat with the British Commonwealth squadrons of the Desert Air Force in the Middle East and North African campaigns, during June 1941. However, between 1941 and 1944, the P-40 played a role with Allied air forces in three major theaters, North Africa, the Southwest Pacific, and China. It also had a significant role in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Alaska, the P-40s performance at high altitudes was not as important in those theaters, where it served as an air superiority fighter, bomber escort and fighter-bomber. The P-40 offered the advantage of low cost, which kept it in production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was obsolete as a fighter. On 14 October 1938, Curtiss test pilot Edward Elliott flew the prototype XP-40 on its first flight in Buffalo, the first prototype placed the glycol coolant radiator in an underbelly position on the fighter, just aft of the wings trailing edge. USAAC Fighter Projects Officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey flew this prototype some 300 miles in 57 minutes, hiding his disappointment, he told reporters that future versions would likely go 100 miles per hour faster. Kelsey was interested in the Allison engine because it was sturdy and dependable, Curtiss engineers worked to improve the XP-40s speed by moving the radiator forward in steps. Seeing little gain, Kelsey ordered the aircraft to be evaluated in a NACA wind tunnel to identify solutions for better aerodynamic qualities, from 28 March to 11 April 1939, the prototype was studied by NACA. Based on the data obtained, Curtiss moved the glycol coolant radiator forward to the chin, other improvements to the landing gear doors and the exhaust manifold combined to give performance that was satisfactory to the USAAC. Without beneficial tail winds, Kelsey flew the XP-40 from Wright Field back to Curtisss plant in Buffalo at an speed of 354 mph. Further tests in December 1939 proved the fighter could reach 366 mph, an unusual production feature was a special truck rig to speed delivery at the main Curtiss plant in Buffalo, New York. The rig moved the newly built P-40s in two components, the main wing and the fuselage, the eight miles from the plant to the airport where the two units were mated for flight and delivery. The P-40 was conceived as an aircraft and was agile at low and medium altitudes. At medium and high speeds it was one of the tightest-turning early monoplane designs of the war, and it could out turn most opponents it faced in North Africa and the Russian Front. In the Pacific Theater it was out-turned at lower speeds by the lightweight fighters A6M Zero, the American Volunteer Group Commander Claire Chennault advised against prolonged dog-fighting with the Japanese fighters due to speed reduction favouring the Japanese
13.
Consolidated B-24 Liberator
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The Consolidated B-24 Liberator is an American heavy bomber, designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California. It was known within the company as the Model 32, and some models were laid down as export models designated as various LB-30s. At its inception, the B-24 was a design featuring a highly efficient shoulder-mounted. The wing gave the Liberator a high speed, long range. Early RAF Liberators were the first aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean as a matter of routine, however, the type was difficult to fly and had poor low speed performance. It also had a ceiling and was less robust than the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. While aircrews tended to prefer the B-17, General Staff favored the B-24, the B-24 was used extensively in World War II. It served in every branch of the American armed forces, as well as several Allied air forces and navies, along with the B-17, the B-24 was the mainstay of the US strategic bombing campaign in the Western European theater. Due to its range, it proved useful in bombing operations in the Pacific, long range anti-submarine Liberators played an instrumental role in closing the Mid-Atlantic Gap in the Battle of the Atlantic. The C-87 transport derivative served as a range, higher capacity counterpart to the Douglas C-47 Skytrain. The B-24 was produced in large numbers. At the end of World War II, the Liberator had been surpassed by more modern types such as the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, the type was rapidly phased out of US service, although the PB4Y-2 Privateer derivative carried on in service with the US Navy in the Korean War. Two B-24s, one LB-30B and one Liberator V representing a B-24H, are airworthy as of 2016, the Liberator originated from a United States Army Air Corps request in 1938 for Consolidated to produce the B-17 under license. After company executives including President Reuben Fleet visited the Boeing factory in Seattle, Washington and this new fuselage was intentionally designed around twin bomb bays, each one being the same size and capacity of the B-17 bomb bays. In January 1939, the USAAC, under Specification C-212, formally invited Consolidated to submit a design study for a bomber with longer range, higher speed, the specification was written such that the Model 32 would automatically be the winning design. The program was run under the group, Project A. Although the B-24 did not meet Project A goals, it was a step in that direction, Project A led to the development of the Boeing B-29 and Consolidateds own B-32 and B-36. The B-24 had a shoulder mounted high aspect ratio Davis wing and this wing was highly efficient allowing a relatively high airspeed and long range
14.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
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Baz Luhrmann
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His 2008 film Australia is an epic historical romantic drama film starring Hugh Jackman and Nicole Kidman. His 2013 drama The Great Gatsby, based on F. Scott Fitzgeralds 1925 novel of the name, stars Leonardo DiCaprio. His mother, Barbara Carmel, was a dance teacher and dress shop owner, and his father, Leonard Luhrmann, ran a petrol station. He was raised in Herons Creek, a rural settlement in northern New South Wales. Luhrmann received the nickname Baz from his father Leonard and he officially changed his given name from Mark to Baz sometime around 1979. In 1983, he commenced a course at the National Institute of Dramatic Art. He graduated in 1985 alongside Sonia Todd, Catherine McClements and Justin Monjo, on 26 January 1997, he married Catherine Martin, a production designer, the couple have two children. Luhrmann supports the Melbourne Demons in the Australian Football League, Australia The Great Gatsby The modern film interpretation Romeo + Juliet, starring Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes, defeated Titanic at the BAFTAs for best direction, music and screenplay. The film was celebrated at the Berlin Film Festival, where it was recognised with the Gold Bear award for direction, Luhrmann also produced the soundtrack albums for the film. Was named one of the AFIs top ten films of 2001, the film also gave birth to a successful soundtrack album, selling more than seven million copies, led by the Grammy-winning number one hit single Lady Marmalade. Luhrmanns 2008 romantic epic Australia starred Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman and it is the second-highest grossing Australian film of all time, next to Crocodile Dundee and ahead of Happy Feet. In 2016, Luhrmann collaborated with award-winning playwright Stephen Adly Guirgis on the Netflix series The Get Down about the birth of hip-hop in the 1970s. 1981, A young Luhrmann can be seen in an acting role in the film Winter of Our Dreams. Luhrmann has a part playing opposite Judy Davis. 1992, Luhrmann directed a video for John Paul Youngs Love Is in the Air,1993, Luhrmann staged his interpretation of Benjamin Brittens version of A Midsummer Nights Dream, set in colonial India, for the Australian Opera. After successful seasons in Sydney and Melbourne, the production went on to win the Critics Prize at the Edinburgh Festival, music extracts can be heard on his album Something for Everybody. 1993, Luhrmann assisted in the campaign of former Australian prime minister Paul Keating. 1997, The CD of Something for Everybody was released, featuring music from Luhrmanns films, moreover, Luhrmann created his own company with his wife Catherine Martin, Bazmark
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Australia (2008 film)
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Australia is a 2008 Australian-American-British epic historical adventure film directed by Baz Luhrmann and starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman. It is the third-highest grossing Australian film of all time, behind Crocodile Dundee and Mad Max, the screenplay was written by Luhrmann and screenwriter Stuart Beattie, with Ronald Harwood and Richard Flanagan. The film is a story, set between 1939 and 1942 against a dramatised backdrop of events across northern Australia at the time. Production took place in Sydney, Darwin, Kununurra, and Bowen, the film was released to cinemas on 26 November 2008 in both the United States and Australia, with subsequent worldwide release dates throughout late December 2008 and January and February 2009. Australia received mixed reviews critics and it earned $211.3 million on a $130 million budget. In 1939, Lady Sarah Ashley travels from England to northern Australia to force her husband to sell his faltering cattle station. Her husband sends an independent cattle drover, called Drover, to transport her to Faraway Downs, Lady Sarahs husband is murdered shortly before she arrives, and the authorities tell her that the killer is an Aboriginal elder, King George. The childless Lady Sarah is captivated by the boy Nullah, who has an Aboriginal mother, Nullah tells her that he has seen her cattle being driven onto Carneys land — in other words, stolen from her. Because of this Fletcher mistreats Nullah and threatens him and his mother, so Lady Sarah fires Fletcher, when Nullah and his mother hide from the authorities in a water tower, his mother drowns. Lady Sarah comforts Nullah by singing the song Over the Rainbow from the film The Wizard of Oz, Nullah tells her that King George is his grandfather, and that like the Wizard, he too is a magic man. Lady Sarah persuades Drover to take the cattle to Darwin for sale, Drover is friendly with the Aborigines, and therefore shunned by many of the other whites in the territory. It is revealed that he was married to an Aboriginal woman, Lady Sarah also reveals she is unable to have children. Drover leads a team of six riders, including Lady Sarah, Drovers Aboriginal brother-in-law Magarri, Nullah. Lady Sarah and Drover fall in love, and she gains a new appreciation for the Australian territory, the team drive the cattle through the dangerous Never Never desert. Then, when at last delivering the cattle in Darwin, the group has to them onto the ship before Carneys cattle are loaded. Afterwards, Lady Sarah, Nullah, and Drover live together happily at Faraway Downs for two years, meanwhile, Fletcher kills Carney, marries his daughter Cath Carney, takes over Carneys cattle empire, and continues to menace Lady Sarah. It is established that Fletcher was the murderer of Lady Sarahs husband. Nullah is drawn to go on a walkabout with his grandfather King George, Lady Sarah, who has come to regard Nullah as her adopted son, vows to rescue him
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
