1.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
2.
Quebec City
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Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Thirteen Colonies
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The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
6.
1st Canadian Regiment
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The 1st Canadian Regiment, an Extra Continental regiment, was raised by James Livingston to support Colonial efforts in the American Revolutionary War during the invasion of Quebec. The regiment, which never approached its size of 1,000 men, saw action primarily in the Canadian theater and New York. In September 1775, colonial forces under the command of Philip Schuyler and Richard Montgomery crossed into Quebec with the aim of driving British military forces from Montreal, guy Carleton, the British governor and military commander, had fortified Fort Saint-Jean as the primary defense of Montreal. The colonial forces, preparing to besiege the fort, sought local support, following the fall of Montreal, Livingston was authorized by Montgomery on November 20 to raise a regiment to assist in the coming assault on Quebec City. In eight days he raised approximately 200 men, the regiment received formal recognition from the Second Continental Congress on January 8,1776. The regiment at first consisted of a mix of Canadiens, Acadiens, two of Livingstons brothers served in the regiment. Richard Livingston was a lieutenant colonel, and Abraham served as a captain, when Montgomerys army arrived outside Quebec, the 1st Canadian consisted of two to three hundred Canadiens. The diversions did not work, and the battle ended disastrously for the Americans, with Montgomery killed, Arnold wounded, and about 400 men taken prisoner. The remnants of the army, then under Arnolds command, besieged the city until May 1776, the retreat ended at Sorel on May 20, where they were met by reinforcements, and eventually put under the command of General John Sullivan. When they arrived near Trois-Rivières, they found the vanguard of the British counteroffensive. After a brief skirmish, the Americans forces were broken, following this battle, the regiment retreated with the rest of the army to Fort Ticonderoga. While the regiment had never been large, the retreat from Quebec left the regiment much reduced in size. Following the armys return to Ticonderoga, the regiment was assigned duty in upstate New York, primarily the Mohawk and Schoharie valleys. During this time, Livingston was known to be recruiting in New York City, following Burgoynes invasion from Quebec in 1777, the regiment was moved to the upper Hudson River valley. In August 1777, the regiment was assigned to Benedict Arnold on his expedition in relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix and it then saw service in both Battles of Saratoga. The regiment saw action in the Battle of Rhode Island in 1778, for the remainder of the war, the regiment had garrison duty in New York. Most notably, Colonel Livingston was in command of Verplancks Point on the Hudson River in September 1780, while on guard duty, his troops fired on the British sloop of war Vulture, forcing that vessel to retreat southwards. This ship had brought Major John André to meet with General Arnold, since the ship was driven off, André was forced to attempt travel by land to New York, when he was captured not far from the British lines near Tarrytown with incriminating papers in his possession
7.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
8.
Richard Montgomery
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Richard Montgomery was an Irish-born soldier who first served in the British Army. He later became a general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Montgomery was born and raised in Ireland, in 1754, he enrolled at Trinity College, Dublin, and two years later joined the British Army to fight in the French and Indian War. He steadily rose through the ranks, serving in North America, after the war he was stationed at Fort Detroit during Pontiacs War, following which he returned to Britain for health reasons. In 1773, Montgomery returned to the Thirteen Colonies, married Janet Livingston, when the American Revolutionary War broke out, Montgomery took up the Patriot cause, and was elected to the New York Provincial Congress in May 1775. In June 1775, he was commissioned as a general in the Continental Army. After Phillip Schuyler became too ill to lead the invasion of Canada and he captured Fort St. Johns and then Montreal in November 1775, and then advanced to Quebec City, where he joined another force under the command of Benedict Arnold. On December 31, he led an attack on the city, the British found his body and gave it an honorable burial. It was moved to New York City in 1818, Montgomery was born near Swords in the north of County Dublin in Ireland. He was born into an Ulster Scots gentry family from County Donegal and he was a brother of Colonel Alexander Montgomery and a cousin of Colonel Alexander Montgomery, both Members of Parliament for County Donegal. Another first cousin was an M. P. for County Monaghan, the Montgomerys were the East Donegal branch of the Clan Montgomery. Richard Montgomery spent most of his childhood at Abbeville House in Kinsealy, near Swords, in County Dublin, where he learned to hunt, ride, shoot, and fence. Thomas Montgomery made sure that his sons received an education, Richard attended the school of the Rev. Saumarez Dubourdieu in Leixlip, and learned French, Latin. Richard Montgomery entered Trinity College in 1754, despite his great love of knowledge, Montgomery did not receive a degree. He was urged by his father and his oldest brother Alexander to join the military and his father purchased an ensigns commission for Montgomery, who joined the 17th Regiment of Foot. On February 3,1757, the 17th Foot was ordered to march from its garrison at Galway, on May 5, Montgomery and the 17th Foot sailed from Cork for Halifax, Nova Scotia, arriving in July. The British had planned an attempt on Louisbourg but the operation was called off, in 1758, the 17th Foot was sent back to Halifax, once again with the goal of taking Louisbourg. The British commanders, Jeffery Amherst and James Abercromby drew up a plan to assault the French at Louisbourg, the French garrison consisted of only 800 men, while the British force had 13,142 troops supported by 23 ships of the line and 13 frigates
9.
Benedict Arnold
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Benedict Arnold was a general during the American Revolutionary War who originally fought for the American Continental Army but defected to the British Army. While a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fortifications at West Point, New York overlooking the cliffs at the Hudson River, the plan was exposed in September 1780, and he was commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier general. Arnold was born in Connecticut and was a merchant operating ships on the Atlantic Ocean when the war broke out in 1775 and he joined the growing army outside Boston and distinguished himself through acts of intelligence and bravery. Despite Arnolds successes, he was passed over for promotion by the Continental Congress, adversaries in military and political circles brought charges of corruption or other malfeasance, but most often he was acquitted in formal inquiries. Congress investigated his accounts and found that he was indebted to Congress after having spent much of his own money on the war effort. Arnold was frustrated and bitter at this, as well as with the alliance with France and he decided to change sides and opened secret negotiations with the British. In July 1780, he was awarded command of West Point and his scheme was to surrender the fort to the British, but it was exposed when American forces captured British Major John André carrying papers which revealed the plot. Upon learning of Andrés capture, Arnold fled down the Hudson River to the British sloop-of-war Vulture, narrowly avoiding capture by the forces of George Washington, who had been alerted to the plot. Arnold received a commission as a general in the British Army, an annual pension of £360. He led British forces on raids in Virginia and against New London and Groton, in the winter of 1782, he moved to London with his second wife Margaret Peggy Shippen Arnold. He was well received by King George III and the Tories, in 1787, he returned to the merchant business with his sons Richard and Henry in Saint John, New Brunswick. He returned to London to settle permanently in 1791, where he died ten years later and his earlier legacy is recalled in the ambiguous nature of some of the memorials that have been placed in his honor. Benedict Arnold was born the second of six children to Benedict Arnold and Hannah Waterman King in Norwich, Connecticut Colony on January 14,1741. He was named after his great-grandfather Benedict Arnold, a governor of the Colony of Rhode Island—as were his father and grandfather. Only Benedict and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood, his other siblings succumbed to yellow fever in childhood and his siblings were, in order of birth, Benedict, Hannah, Mary, Absolom, and Elizabeth. Arnold was a descendant of John Lothropp through his maternal grandmother, Benedict Arnolds father was a successful businessman, and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society. When he was ten, Arnold was enrolled in a school in nearby Canterbury. However, the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the fortunes, since his father took up drinking
10.
Daniel Morgan
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Daniel Morgan was an American pioneer, soldier, and United States Representative from Virginia. One of the most gifted battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War, Morgan is believed to have been born in the village of New Hampton, New Jersey in Lebanon Township. All four of his grandparents were Welsh immigrants who lived in Pennsylvania, Morgan was the fifth of seven children of James Morgan and Eleanor Lloyd. When Morgan was 17, he left following a fight with his father. After working at odd jobs in Pennsylvania, he moved to the Shenandoah Valley and he finally settled on the Virginia frontier, near what is now Winchester, Virginia. He worked clearing land, in a sawmill, and as a teamster, in just a year, he saved enough to buy his own team. Morgan had served as a teamster during the French and Indian War. After returning from the advance on Fort Duquesne by General Braddocks command, Morgan thus acquired a hatred for the British Army. He then fell in love with Abigail Curry, they married and had two daughters, Nancy and Betsy, Morgan later served as a rifleman in the provincial forces assigned to protect the western settlements from French-backed Indian raids. Some time after the war, he purchased a farm between Winchester and Battletown, by 1774, he was so prosperous that he owned ten slaves. That year, he served in Dunmores War, taking part in raids on Shawnee villages in the Ohio Country. After the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775 and they called for the formation of 10 rifle companies from the middle colonies to support the Siege of Boston, and late in June 1775 Virginia agreed to send two. The Virginia House of Burgesses chose Daniel Morgan to form one of these companies and he had already been an officer in the Virginia militia since the French and Indian War. Morgan recruited 96 men in just 10 days and assembled them at Winchester on July 14 and he then marched them 600 miles to Boston, Massachusetts in 21 days, arriving on Aug.6,1775. His company of marksmen was nicknamed Morgans Riflemen, Morgans company had a significant advantage over the others. Instead of the weapons used of most British and most American companies. They were lighter and easier to fire, and they were more accurate. Morgans company used guerrilla tactics, first shooting the Indian guides who led the British forces through the rugged terrain, the British Army considered these guerrilla tactics to be dishonorable, however, they created chaos within the British ranks
11.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
12.
James Livingston (American Revolution)
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James Livingston born in New York, was living in Quebec when the American Revolutionary War broke out. He was responsible for raising and leading the 1st Canadian Regiment of the Continental Army during the invasion of Canada and he retired to Saratoga, New York, where he served as a state legislator and raised a family of five children. By 1765, the family had moved to Montreal, Livingston was living in Chambly, working as a grain merchant, when the invasion of Quebec began in September 1775. As early as August, he had been in contact with General Philip Schuyler, mostly through the efforts of John Brown, General Richard Montgomery, who was in command of Ticonderoga at the time, sent John Brown back to Livingston. Up to, and then following, the arrival of the American forces at Île aux Noix in early September, Livingston was active in the Chambly area. Forces under his command, numbering about 200, participated in the capture of Fort Chambly on October 18, along with militia under Browns command. On November 20, Montgomery made him a colonel in the Continental Army and this regiment then served at the battle of Quebec in December 1775, and the ensuing retreat. They later saw action in the Saratoga campaign, including the relief of the siege of Fort Stanwix in August 1777, Livingston was in command of Verplancks Point on the Hudson River in September 1780, when he played a crucial role in the unmasking of Benedict Arnolds treachery. While on guard duty, his troops fired on the British sloop of war Vulture and this ship had brought British Major John André to meet with General Arnold. After being driven off in his approach by water, he attempted to re-approach on land by portaging in civilian clothing and he was captured with incriminating papers in his possession. André was hanged as a spy, and Arnold, knowing that his plot discovered, managed to escape to the British lines and he retired from the Continental Army on January 1,1781. In recognition of his service, he was granted 3,500 acres of land near where Tyre, in 1801, Congress awarded him another 1,280 acres of land near the modern location of Columbus, Ohio. Elizabeth married a partner of John Jacob Astor, Peter Smith. Margaret married Daniel Cady, and one of their children was Elizabeth Cady Stanton, after the war, Livingston settled in Saratoga. From 1783 to 1794 he served in the New York State Legislature and he died in Saratoga at age 85 in 1832. The Livingstons of Livingston Manor, Being the History of that Branch of the Scottish House of Callendar which Settled in the English Province of New York During the Reign of Charles the Second, Ohio Archaeological and Historical Publications, volume 13. James F. Morrison and Berry Enterprises
13.
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester
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Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, KB, known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was an Anglo-Irish soldier and administrator. He twice served as Governor of the Province of Quebec, from 1768 to 1778, concurrently serving as Governor General of British North America in that time, the title Baron Dorchester was created on 21 August 1786. In 1782 and 1783 he led as the commander-in-chief of all British forces in North America, the military and political career of his younger brother, Thomas Carleton, was interwoven with his own, and Thomas served under him in the Canadas. Guy Carleton was born to a Protestant military family that had lived in Ireland since the 17th century and he also had a sister Connolly Crawford. When he was fourteen his father, Christopher Carleton died, in 1742, at the age of seventeen, Carleton was commissioned as an ensign into the 25th Regiment of Foot, in which in 1745 he was promoted lieutenant. During this period he became a friend of James Wolfe, he may have served with Wolfe at the Battle of Culloden during the Jacobite Rebellion, two of his brothers, William and Thomas, also joined the British army. In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession had broken out in Europe, despite British troops having been engaged on the European Continent since 1742, it was not until 1747 that Carleton and his regiment were despatched to Flanders. They fought the French, but were unable to prevent the Fall of Bergen-op-Zoom, a major Dutch fortress, in 1748 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed and Carleton returned to Britain. He was frustrated to still only be a lieutenant, and believed his opportunities of advancement would be limited with the end of the war, in 1751 he joined the 1st Foot Guards and in 1752 was promoted to captain. His career received a major boost when he was chosen, at the suggestion of Wolfe, Richmond would become an influential patron to Carleton. In 1757 was made a lieutenant colonel and served as part of the Army of Observation made up of German troops designed to protect Hanover from French invasion. The army was forced to retreat following the Battle of Hastenbeck and eventually concluded the Convention of Klosterzeven, after the Convention was signed, Carleton returned to Britain. In 1758 he was made the lieutenant colonel of the newly formed 72nd Regiment of Foot, James Wolfe selected Carleton as his aide in the 1758 attack on Louisburg. King George II declined to make this appointment, possibly because of comments he made about the soldiers of Hanover during his service on the Continent. For some time he was unable to gain active position, until he was sent back to Germany to serve as an aide-de-camp to Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick. In December 1758 Wolfe, now a Major General was given command of the campaign against the city of Quebec. King George refused to make this appointment also until Lord Ligonier talked to the king about the matter, when Lieutenant-Colonel Carleton arrived in Halifax he assumed command of six hundred grenadiers. He was with the British forces when they arrived at Quebec in June 1759, Carleton was responsible for the provisioning of the army and also acting as an engineer supervising the placement of cannon
14.
Allan Maclean of Torloisk
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Allan Maclean of Torloisk was a Jacobite who became a British Army general. He was born on the Isle of Mull, Scotland and he is best known for leading the 84th Regiment of Foot in the Battle of Quebec. Allan was the son of Donald Maclean, 5th Laird of Torloisk and Mary Maclean. His other siblings were Hector, Lachlan, Archibald, Mary, Anna, Alicia, Christiana, Betty and his family, though titled, was quite poor, the Maclean of Torloisks property valued at £671 6s. Maclaine begun his training with the clan as a 17-year-old lieutenant in the Scots Brigade of the Royal Dutch Republic after a brief service as an adjutant. Lieutenants Allan and Francis Maclean were then presented before General von Löwenthal, if all had conducted themselves as your brave corps have done, I should not now be master of Bergen-op-Zoom. He returned to Edinburgh in 1750, on 8 January 1756 he was commissioned a lieutenant, and later travelled to the American colonies with the 62nd, later the 60th Royal America Regiment for two years. After being severely wounded at Ticonderoga on 8 July 1758 while with James Abercromby’s troops taking part in the assault against Montcalm’s forces in Fort Carillon. However the regiment never went on service, and served only as a source of recruits for other Highland regiments serving in Germany. A number of officers and soldiers from his regiment settled on St John’s Island, while Maclean also later received a land grant on the island along with several other Maclean gentry, there is no record of him living there. In 1765 he moved to Paris where he fathered a son out of wedlock, returning to England not in the rank of a Major, Allan begun to court Janet Maclean in Glasgow whom he had met earlier, and who came to London to be closer to him. At this time he engaged in writing letters signed Junius which appeared in the Public Advertiser. On 4 February 1771 he wed Janet at the Monkwell Presbyterian Meeting House though she was half his age, which included a piper, at that time still forbidden in London. On 25 May of the year he was appointed an active lieutenant-colonel in the army with full pay of one pound a day. Allan had been close with both, but Lauchlin was still involved with the Jacobites, and this association could hurt his career. Macleans proposal to raise a Highland regiment for service in the colonies had to be sent to the King, the regiment was initially called the Royal Highland Emigrants and would be raised in the colonies from Highlanders settled there, commencing with New York. However, on arrival Maclean was warned that going into the city in his uniform would invite attacks from the rebels. He therefore sailed to that city to obtain commissions for his officers from General Gage, through the long siege, commanding as many as 1,178 troops, Maclean suffered a leg injury, causing a partial loss of its use for the remainder of his life
15.
Capture of Fort Ticonderoga
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Cannons and other armaments from the fort were later transported to Boston and used to fortify Dorchester Heights and break the standoff at the Siege of Boston. After seizing Ticonderoga, a small detachment captured the nearby Fort Crown Point on May 11, seven days later, Arnold and 50 men boldly raided Fort Saint-Jean on the Richelieu River in southern Quebec, seizing military supplies, cannons, and the largest military vessel on Lake Champlain. Although the scope of military action was relatively minor, it had significant strategic importance. It impeded communication between northern and southern units of the British Army, and gave the nascent Continental Army a staging ground for the invasion of Quebec later in 1775. It also involved two larger-than-life personalities in Allen and Arnold, each of whom sought to gain as much credit, most significantly, artillery from Ticonderoga would be dragged across Massachusetts to the heights commanding Boston Harbor, forcing the British to withdraw from that city. The French had blown up the powder magazine when they abandoned the fort. In 1775 it was garrisoned by only a detachment of the 26th Regiment of Foot. Twenty-five women and children lived there as well, even before shooting started in the American Revolutionary War, American Patriots were concerned about Fort Ticonderoga. The fort was an asset for several reasons. Within its walls was a collection of heavy artillery including cannons, howitzers, the fort was situated on the shores of Lake Champlain, a strategically important route between the Thirteen Colonies and the British-controlled northern provinces. British forces placed there would expose the forces in Boston to attack from the rear. Carleton did not receive this letter until May 19, well after the fort had been captured, benedict Arnold had frequently traveled through the area around the fort, and was familiar with its condition, manning, and armaments. En route to Boston following news of the events of April 19, he mentioned the fort and its condition to members of Silas Deanes militia. Ethan Allen and other Patriots in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory also recognized the forts value, whether either took or instigated action prior to the Connecticut Colonys recruitment efforts is unclear. Brown had notified the Massachusetts Committee of Safety in March of his opinion that Ticonderoga must be seized as soon as possible should hostilities be committed by the Kings Troops. When Arnold arrived outside Boston, he told the Massachusetts Committee of Safety about the cannons, on May 3, the Committee gave Arnold a colonels commission and authorized him to command a secret mission, which was to capture the fort. He was issued £100, some gunpowder, ammunition, and horses, and instructed to recruit up to 400 men, march on the fort, Arnold departed immediately after receiving his instructions. He was accompanied by two captains, Eleazer Oswald and Jonathan Brown, who were charged with recruiting the necessary men, riding furiously northward, he reached Allens headquarters in Bennington the next day
16.
Siege of Fort St. Jean
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The Siege of Fort St. Jean was conducted by American Brigadier General Richard Montgomery on the town and fort of Saint-Jean in the British province of Quebec during the American Revolutionary War. The siege lasted from September 17 to November 3,1775, after several false starts in early September, the Continental Army established a siege around Fort St. Jean. On October 18, the nearby Fort Chambly fell, and on October 30, when word of this made its way to St. Jeans defenders, combined with a new battery opening fire on the fort, the forts defenders capitulated, surrendering on November 3. The fall of Fort St. Jean opened the way for the American army to march on Montreal, General Carleton escaped from Montreal, and made his way to Quebec City to prepare its defences against an anticipated attack. Fort Saint-Jean guarded the entry to the province of Quebec on the Richelieu River at the end of Lake Champlain. The invasion of Quebec began when about 1500 men, then under the command of General Philip Schuyler, on September 6, the Americans began making forays toward Fort St. Jean, only 10 mi away. When news of that raid reached Montreal,140 men under the command of Major Charles Preston were immediately dispatched to hold the fort, another 50 Canadian militia were raised in Montreal on May 19, and were also sent to the fort. Carleton himself went to Montreal on May 26 to oversee arrangements for the defense of the province, by the time the Americans arrived at Île-aux-Noix, Fort St. Jean was defended by about 750 men under the command of Major Charles Preston. The majority of these were troops from the 7th and 26th Regiments of Foot. There were 90 locally-raised militia, and 20 members of Colonel Allen Macleans Royal Highland Emigrants, men who were veterans of the French, a detachment of Indians patrolled outside the fort under the direction of Claude de Lorimier and Gilbert Tice. The Richelieu River was patrolled by a schooner, Royal Savage, under the command of Lieutenant William Hunter. The southern redoubt was roughly 250 by 200 feet, and it contained 6 buildings, including a house, the forts magazine. The northern redoubt was slightly larger, enclosing a two-storey stone house that was used as a barracks, the defenders had cleared brush for several hundred yards around the fort to ensure a clear field of fire. They had put up a wooden palisade to the west of the redoubts, the eastern side of the fort faced the river, where there was a shipyard and anchorage for Royal Savage. On September 6, Generals Schuyler and Montgomery led a force of men in bateaux to a point about 1 mile upriver from Fort St. Jean. Schuyler remained with the boats while Montgomery led some men into the lands above the fort. There they were surprised by about 100 Indians led by Tice, in the ensuing skirmish, the Americans suffered 8 dead and 9 wounded, while the Indians suffered 4 dead and 5 wounded, with Tice among the wounded. The American troops, which were relatively untried militia forces, retreated to the boats, where they erected a breastwork for protection
17.
Battle of Longue-Pointe
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Allen, who had been instructed only to raise militia forces among the local inhabitants, had long had thoughts of taking the lightly defended city. When he reached the shore of the St. Lawrence River with about 110 men. Major John Brown, who Allen claimed was supposed to provide additional forces, did not appear as they had planned, isolating Allen, British General Guy Carleton sent a force composed mostly of Quebec militia in response to news of Allens crossing of the St. Lawrence. This force cut off Allens escape route, and eventually surrounded and captured Allen, Carleton eventually abandoned Montreal, which fell without battle to Continental Army forces on November 13. Allen was sent first to England and then New York City as a prisoner, in the 18th century, the city of Montreal occupied only a small portion of the island of Montreal, centered on what is now called Old Montreal. The eastern tip of the island was called Longue-Pointe, and there was at one time a fortification called Fort Longue Pointe on the island, across the river from Longueuil. This area, annexed to Montreal in 1910, and now the Mercier-Est neighborhood of Mercier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, the American invasion of Quebec began with the arrival at Île aux Noix of the Continental Army under the command of General Philip Schuyler on September 4,1775. Schuyler, who was ill at the time, eventually turned command of the army over the General Richard Montgomery, who ordered the army to besiege Fort Saint-Jean, which they did on September 18. At this fort, south of Montreal on the Richelieu River, before turning command over to Montgomery, Schuyler drafted a proclamation addressed to the people of Quebec, encouraging them to oppose the British and assist the American cause. Livingston eventually raised about 300 local militia, which he encamped at Pointe-Olivier, Allen and Brown returned to Île aux Noix following this tour. Allen had long harboured the goal of taking Montreal and this effort was frustrated by the timely arrival of British troops at Saint-Jean, the exploit made Allen a well-known figure in Montreal and the Richelieu valley. The remaining forces were distributed among the forts along the Great Lakes, with relatively small garrisons at Montreal, Trois-Rivières. During the summer of 1775 he attempted to raise substantial additional forces from the population. These attempts met with limited success, in part because of successful American propaganda and agitation by Patriot sympathizers, especially Thomas Walker, James Price, and James Livingston. He also ordered a force under Browns command to secure the area north of the fort. Allen traveled along the banks of the Richelieu River, up to Sorel. According to Allens account, he met Brown there, and the two of them then hatched a plan to attack Montreal, Allen and his men crossed the St. Lawrence on the night of the 24th, landing at Longue-Pointe. The inhabitants he met there were friendly, but he posted guards on the road to Montreal to prevent news of their crossing from reaching the city, however, one man they detained managed to escape to the city and inform Carleton of Allens presence on the island
18.
Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec
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Part of a two-pronged invasion of the British Province of Quebec, his expedition passed through the wilderness of what is now Maine. The other expedition, led by Richard Montgomery, invaded Quebec from Lake Champlain, unanticipated problems beset the expedition as soon as it left the last significant colonial outposts in Maine. The portages up the Kennebec River proved grueling, and the boats frequently leaked, ruining gunpowder, more than a third of the men turned back before reaching the height of land between the Kennebec and Chaudière rivers. The areas on either side of the height of land were swampy tangles of lakes and streams, and the traversal was made more difficult by bad weather and inaccurate maps. Many of the troops lacked experience handling boats in white water, by the time Arnold reached the French settlements above the Saint Lawrence River in November, his force was reduced to 600 starving men. They had traveled about 350 miles through poorly charted wilderness, twice the distance they had expected to cover, assisted by the local French-speaking Canadiens, Arnolds troops crossed the Saint Lawrence on November 13 and 14 and attempted to put Quebec City under siege. Failing in this, they withdrew to Point-aux-Trembles until Montgomery arrived to lead an attack on the city. Arnold was rewarded for his effort in leading the expedition with a promotion to brigadier general, allen and Arnold were aware that Quebec was lightly defended, there were only about 600 regular troops in the entire province. Arnold, who had business in the province before the war. Congress did not want to alarm the people of Quebec, Arnold, who had hoped to lead the invasion, decided to pursue a different approach to Quebec. He went to Cambridge, Massachusetts in early August 1775, Washington approved of the idea in principle, but sent a message to General Schuyler on August 20 to ensure his support of the endeavor, since the two forces would need to coordinate their efforts. Arnolds plan called for the expedition to sail from Newburyport, Massachusetts along the coast, from there, they would use shallow-draft river boats called bateaux to continue up the Kennebec River, cross the height of land to Lake Mégantic, and descend the Chaudière River to Quebec. Arnold expected to cover the 180 miles from Fort Western to Quebec in 20 days, Washington introduced Arnold to Reuben Colburn, a boat builder from Gardinerstown, Maine, who was in Cambridge at the time. Colburn left for Maine on August 21 to fulfill these requests, Colburn asked Samuel Goodwin, the local surveyor in Gardinerston, to provide maps for Arnold. Goodwin, who was known to have Loyalist sympathies, provided maps that were inaccurate in the routes, distances, on September 2, Washington received a letter from General Schuyler in reply to his August 20 message. Schuyler agreed with the plan, and Washington and Arnold immediately began to raise troops. Arnold selected a force of 750 men from the number who expressed interest in the proposed expedition. Most of these were divided into two battalions, one commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Roger Enos and the other by Lieutenant Colonel Christopher Greene, the rest were placed in a third battalion under Daniel Morgan that included three companies—250 men—of Continental riflemen from Virginia and the Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment
19.
Battle of Saint-Pierre
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The Battle of Saint-Pierre was a military confrontation on March 25,1776, near the Quebec village of Saint-Pierre, south of Quebec City. The Patriot forces routed the Loyalist forces, killing at least 3, the invasion reached a peak on December 31,1775, when the Continental Army, under the command of General Richard Montgomery, was defeated before the gates of the city of Quebec. The battle resulted in the death of Montgomery and the capture of over 400 men, following the defeat, the remnants of the Army, now under the command of General Benedict Arnold, besieged the city. During this time, they worked to recruit French-speaking Canadians to support their efforts toward independence, while Carleton and the British worked to build Loyalist support among the Canadiens. Early on the morning of March 14,1776, Jean-Baptiste Chasson and he brought news to General Carleton that the Americans were setting up a gun battery at Pointe-Lévis, on the south shore of the river, across from the city. This battery would command the citys harbor and shipping on the river, Chasson also told Carleton that people to the south of the city were prepared to rise up against the Americans. Beaujeu, who had previously asked to raise militia in support of the British. By March 23, he had assembled over 100 men at Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, when this force reached Saint-Thomas on the night of March 24, it was joined there by an additional 70 men. Habitants from Beaumont friendly to the Americans notified the commander at Pointe-Lévis of the recruiting activity, in response, General Arnold, sent a detachment of 80 Americans under John Dubois to deal with the situation. Pierre Ayotte and Clément Gosselin, recruiters working for Moses Hazen and these forces headed up the southern shore to investigate the reports. Some of these recruits were from the villages from which Beaujeu had recruited men. A small band of militia from Beaumont went to Saint-Michel and arrested Chasson, the Loyalist advance guard was surprised by the arrival of the Patriot forces at Saint-Pierre, and barricaded themselves in the house, where they were attacked by Dubois men with musket and cannon. While a few escaped, the majority surrendered, and three were killed and their priest, Charles-François Bailly de Messein, was wounded in this battle. It is said that, because both sides recruited in the areas to build their militias, that there were some families whose members fought against each other in this battle. Beaujeu, his plans uncovered, disbanded the militia and went into hiding on Île-aux-Grues, after Dubois established that the action had been sanctioned by the British, some of the prisoners were released after promising not to take up arms again. The remaining 21 prisoners were sent to the American camp outside Quebec, the skirmish itself had no notable effect on relations between the people and the occupying Americans, which were already deteriorating as the siege dragged on. List of American Revolutionary War battles Anderson, Mark, the Battle for the Fourteenth Colony, Americas War of Liberation in Canada, 1774-1776. Baby, François, Taschereau, Gabriel Elzéard, Williams, Jenkin, Gabriel, Michael P. ed. Quebec During the American Invasion, 1775-1776, The Journal of François Baby, Gabriel Taschereau, and Jenkin Williams
20.
Battle of The Cedars
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The Battle of The Cedars was a series of military confrontations early in the American Revolutionary War during the Continental Armys invasion of Quebec that had begun in September 1775. The skirmishes, which involved limited combat, occurred in May 1776 at and around The Cedars,45 km west of Montreal, Continental Army units were opposed by a small number of British troops leading a larger force of Indians, and militia. The garrison surrendered on May 19 after a confrontation with a force of British. American reinforcements on their way to The Cedars were also captured after a skirmish on May 20. All of the captives were released after negotiations between Forster and Arnold, who was bringing a sizable force into the area. The terms of the agreement required the Americans to release a number of British prisoners. However, the deal was repudiated by Congress, and no British prisoners were freed, Colonel Timothy Bedel and Lieutenant Isaac Butterfield, leaders of the American force at The Cedars, were court-martialed and cashiered from the Continental Army for their roles in the affair. After distinguishing himself as a volunteer, Bedel was given a new commission in 1777, the nearby rapids in the Saint Lawrence required portage, making The Cedars a strategic landing point for anyone navigating the river to or from Montreal. Crossing of the Ottawa River was made between Fort Anne and Quinze-Chênes, now Vaudreuil, the city of Montreal was taken without a fight on November 13, following the Siege of Fort St. Jean. Montgomery left a garrison of troops under the command of Major General David Wooster in control of Montreal before leading the rest of the army to Quebec City. The occupation of Montreal was poorly managed, and relations between the Americans and the population, including those supportive of the Americans, deteriorated for a variety of reasons. The fur trade was important to the city, and its absence affected both supporters and opponents of the American cause. Following the American losses at the battle of Quebec at the end of 1775, the American forces occupying the city numbered about 500, with additional forces at posts outside the city. Wooster had reported to General Schuyler as early as March 5 of rumored scheming between British troops and Indians to the west of the city. Lieutenant Isaac Butterfield led a force that arrived at The Cedars on April 26 and began construction of a wooden stockade fort. Bedel and the rest of the detachment arrived on May 6, the Indian agent Lorimier traveled west to Oswegatchie, where a company of the 8th Regiment of Foot under the command of George Forster had occupied Fort de La Présentation. Lorimier proposed recruiting a force of Indians to launch an attack on Continental forces at Montreal from the west, when Forster agreed, Lorimier went to Saint Regis, where he recruited 100 Mohawk men from Akwesasne. Word of these led the American rebels to fortify The Cedars
21.
Battle of Valcour Island
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The naval Battle of Valcour Island, also known as the Battle of Valcour Bay, took place on October 11,1776, on Lake Champlain. The main action took place in Valcour Bay, a strait between the New York mainland and Valcour Island. The battle is regarded as one of the first naval battles of the American Revolutionary War. Most of the ships in the American fleet under the command of Benedict Arnold were captured or destroyed by a British force under the direction of General Guy Carleton. However, the American defense of Lake Champlain stalled British plans to reach the upper Hudson River valley, the Continental Army had retreated from Quebec to Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point in June 1776 after British forces were massively reinforced. They spent the summer of 1776 fortifying those forts, and building ships to augment the small American fleet already on the lake. General Carleton had a 9,000 man army at Fort Saint-Jean, the Americans, during their retreat, had either taken or destroyed most of the ships on the lake. By early October, the British fleet, which significantly outgunned the American fleet, was ready for launch, on October 11, Arnold drew the British fleet to a position he had carefully chosen to limit their advantages. In the battle followed, many of the American ships were damaged or destroyed. That night, Arnold sneaked the American fleet past the British one, beginning a retreat toward Crown Point, unfavorable weather hampered the American retreat, and more of the fleet was either captured or grounded and burned before it could reach Crown Point. Upon reaching Crown Point Arnold had the buildings burned and retreated to Ticonderoga. The British fleet included four officers who later became admirals in the Royal Navy, Thomas Pringle, James Dacres, Edward Pellew and John Schank. Valcour Bay, the site of the battle, is now a National Historic Landmark, as is Philadelphia, which shortly after the October 11 battle. The underwater site of Spitfire, located in 1997, is on the National Register of Historic Places, the province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies, and was at the time lightly defended. The invasion reached a peak on December 31,1775, when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans. In the spring of 1776,10,000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec, and General Guy Carleton, Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River, whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City. Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York and this strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those farther south and potentially quash the rebellion. Lake Champlain, a long and relatively narrow lake formed by the action of glaciers during the last ice age and its 120-mile length and 12-mile maximum width creates more than 550 miles of shoreline, with many bays, inlets and promontories
22.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
23.
Continental Army
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The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14,1775, the Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war, most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne and this became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796. The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies, and after 1776, when the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the leading to the war. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea. On April 23,1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of an army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar, on July 18,1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age. It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of consent for those under twenty-one. Four major-generals and eight brigadier-generals were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days, after Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place. As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, as a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units. Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army, early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men, turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–77, and longer enlistments were approved. Major General Philip Schuylers ten regiments in New York were sent to invade Canada, the Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to the length of the war to avoid the crises that depleted forces
24.
Arnold's expedition to Quebec
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Part of a two-pronged invasion of the British Province of Quebec, his expedition passed through the wilderness of what is now Maine. The other expedition, led by Richard Montgomery, invaded Quebec from Lake Champlain, unanticipated problems beset the expedition as soon as it left the last significant colonial outposts in Maine. The portages up the Kennebec River proved grueling, and the boats frequently leaked, ruining gunpowder, more than a third of the men turned back before reaching the height of land between the Kennebec and Chaudière rivers. The areas on either side of the height of land were swampy tangles of lakes and streams, and the traversal was made more difficult by bad weather and inaccurate maps. Many of the troops lacked experience handling boats in white water, by the time Arnold reached the French settlements above the Saint Lawrence River in November, his force was reduced to 600 starving men. They had traveled about 350 miles through poorly charted wilderness, twice the distance they had expected to cover, assisted by the local French-speaking Canadiens, Arnolds troops crossed the Saint Lawrence on November 13 and 14 and attempted to put Quebec City under siege. Failing in this, they withdrew to Point-aux-Trembles until Montgomery arrived to lead an attack on the city. Arnold was rewarded for his effort in leading the expedition with a promotion to brigadier general, allen and Arnold were aware that Quebec was lightly defended, there were only about 600 regular troops in the entire province. Arnold, who had business in the province before the war. Congress did not want to alarm the people of Quebec, Arnold, who had hoped to lead the invasion, decided to pursue a different approach to Quebec. He went to Cambridge, Massachusetts in early August 1775, Washington approved of the idea in principle, but sent a message to General Schuyler on August 20 to ensure his support of the endeavor, since the two forces would need to coordinate their efforts. Arnolds plan called for the expedition to sail from Newburyport, Massachusetts along the coast, from there, they would use shallow-draft river boats called bateaux to continue up the Kennebec River, cross the height of land to Lake Mégantic, and descend the Chaudière River to Quebec. Arnold expected to cover the 180 miles from Fort Western to Quebec in 20 days, Washington introduced Arnold to Reuben Colburn, a boat builder from Gardinerstown, Maine, who was in Cambridge at the time. Colburn left for Maine on August 21 to fulfill these requests, Colburn asked Samuel Goodwin, the local surveyor in Gardinerston, to provide maps for Arnold. Goodwin, who was known to have Loyalist sympathies, provided maps that were inaccurate in the routes, distances, on September 2, Washington received a letter from General Schuyler in reply to his August 20 message. Schuyler agreed with the plan, and Washington and Arnold immediately began to raise troops. Arnold selected a force of 750 men from the number who expressed interest in the proposed expedition. Most of these were divided into two battalions, one commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Roger Enos and the other by Lieutenant Colonel Christopher Greene, the rest were placed in a third battalion under Daniel Morgan that included three companies—250 men—of Continental riflemen from Virginia and the Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment
25.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
26.
French Canadian
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
27.
Invasion of Canada (1775)
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The Invasion of Quebec in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to military control of the British Province of Quebec. One expedition left Fort Ticonderoga under Richard Montgomery, besieged and captured Fort St. Johns, the other expedition left Cambridge, Massachusetts under Benedict Arnold, and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of Maine to Quebec City. The two forces joined there, but were defeated at the Battle of Quebec in December 1775, Montgomerys expedition set out from Fort Ticonderoga in late August, and began besieging Fort St. Johns, the main defensive point south of Montreal, in mid-September. There he joined Arnold, who had left Cambridge in early September on a trek through the wilderness that left his surviving troops starving and lacking in many supplies. These forces joined before Quebec City in December, where they assaulted the city in a snowstorm on the last day of the year, the battle was a disastrous defeat for the Americans, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, while the citys defenders suffered few casualties. The British sent several troops, including General John Burgoyne and Hessian allies. General Carleton then launched a counter-offensive, ultimately driving the smallpox-weakened and disorganized American forces back to Fort Ticonderoga, the Americans, under Arnolds command, were able to hinder the British advance sufficiently that an attack could not be mounted on Fort Ticonderoga in 1776. The end of the set the stage for Burgoynes campaign of 1777 to gain control of the Hudson River valley. The objective of the American military campaign, control of the British province of Quebec, was referred to as Canada in 1775. Johns, Montreal, and any parts of the Country. Even relatively modern history books covering the campaign in detail refer to it as Canada in their titles. The name Quebec is used in article, except in quotations that specifically mention Canada. In the spring of 1775, the American Revolutionary War began with the Battle of Lexington, the conflict was then at a standstill, with the British Army surrounded by colonial militia in the siege of Boston. Johns, all of which were lightly defended at the time. Ticonderoga and Crown Point were garrisoned by 1,000 Connecticut militia under the command of Benjamin Hinman in June, the Second Continental Congress sent a second such letter in May 1775, but there was no substantive response to either one. They each separately proposed expeditions against Quebec, suggesting that a force as small as 1200–1500 men would be sufficient to drive the British military from the province. Congress at first ordered the forts to be abandoned, prompting New York and Connecticut to provide troops, public outcries from across New England and New York challenged the Congress to change its position
28.
Ethan Allen
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Ethan Allen was a farmer, businessman, land speculator, philosopher, writer, lay theologian, and American Revolutionary War patriot, hero, and politician. He is best known as one of the founders of the U. S. state of Vermont and he was the brother of Ira Allen. Born in rural Connecticut, Allen had a frontier upbringing but also received an education that included some philosophical teachings, in the late 1760s he became interested in the New Hampshire Grants, buying land there and becoming embroiled in the legal disputes surrounding the territory. Legal setbacks led to the formation of the Green Mountain Boys, when the American Revolutionary War broke out, Allen and the Boys seized the initiative and captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. In September 1775 Allen led an attempt on Montreal that resulted in his capture by British authorities. First imprisoned aboard Royal Navy ships, he was paroled in New York City, upon his release, Allen returned to the Grants, which had declared independence in 1777, and resumed political activity in the territory. Allen wrote accounts of his exploits in the war that were read in the 19th century, as well as philosophical treatises. His business dealings included successful farming operations, one of Connecticuts early iron works, land purchased by Allen and his brothers included tracts of land that eventually became Burlington, Vermont. He was twice married, fathering eight children, Ethan Allen was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, the first-born child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen, both of English and Puritan descent. The family moved to the town of Cornwall shortly after his birth and his lifelong interest in philosophy and ideas emerged against the backdrop of his fathers involvement in these Puritan debates and his fathers refusal to convert to the covenant by grace. As a boy Allen already excelled at quoting the Bible and was known for disputing the meaning of passages, seven siblings, all of whom survived to adulthood, joined the family between Allens birth in 1738 and 1751. Allen had five brothers and two sisters and his brothers Ira and Heman would also become prominent figures in the early history of Vermont. Although not very much is known about Allens childhood, the town of Cornwall was frontier territory in the 1740s. Joseph Allen died in 1755, at the time of his death he was one of the landowners in the area, ran a successful farm. Allen had, before his fathers death, begun studies under a minister in the town of Salisbury with the goal of gaining admission to Yale College. Allens brother Ira recalled that, even at an age, Allen was curious. Allen was forced to end his studies upon his fathers death, in that year, he became part owner of an iron furnace in Salisbury. He also married Mary Brownson, a five years his senior, from the nearby town of Roxbury
29.
Fort Ticonderoga
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Fort Ticonderoga, formerly Fort Carillon, is a large 18th-century star fort built by the French at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in northern New York in the United States. It was of importance during the 18th-century colonial conflicts between Great Britain and France, and again played an important role during the American Revolutionary War. The site controlled a river alongside the mouth of the rapids-infested La Chute River in the 3. The terrain amplified the importance of the site, the name Ticonderoga comes from the Iroquois word tekontaró, ken, meaning it is at the junction of two waterways. During the 1758 Battle of Carillon,4,000 French defenders were able to repel an attack by 16,000 British troops near the fort, in 1759, the British returned and drove a token French garrison from the fort. Cannons captured were transported to Boston where their deployment forced the British to abandon the city in March 1776. The only direct attack on the fort took place in September 1777, the British abandoned the fort after the failure of the Saratoga campaign, and it ceased to be of military value after 1781. It fell into ruin, leading people to strip it of some of its stone, metal. It became a stop on tourist routes of the area in the 19th century and its private owners restored the fort early in the 20th century. A foundation now operates the fort as a tourist attraction, museum, the route was relatively free of obstacles to navigation, with only a few portages. Although the site provides commanding views of the extent of Lake Champlain, Mount Defiance, at 853 ft. Indians had occupied the area for centuries before French explorer Samuel de Champlain first arrived there in 1609, Champlain recounted that the Algonquins, with whom he was traveling, battled a group of Iroquois nearby. In 1642, French missionary Isaac Jogues was the first white man to traverse the portage at Ticonderoga while escaping a battle between the Iroquois and members of the Huron tribe and these colonial conflicts reached their height in the French and Indian War, which began in 1754. The next year saw the building of the four main bastions, work slowed in 1757, when many of the troops prepared for and participated in the attack on Fort William Henry. The barracks and demi-lunes were not completed until spring 1758, the French built the fort to control the south end of Lake Champlain and prevent the British from gaining military access to the lake. The Joannes and Languedoc bastions overlooked the lake to the south, the walls were seven feet high and fourteen feet thick, and the whole works was surrounded by a glacis and a dry moat five feet deep and 15 feet wide. When the walls were first erected in 1756, they were made of squared wooden timbers, the French then began to dress the walls with stone from a quarry about one mile away, although this work was never fully completed. When the main defenses became ready for use, the fort was armed with cannons hauled from Montreal, the fort contained three barracks and four storehouses
30.
Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec)
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Fort Saint-Jean is a fort in the Canadian province of Quebec located on the Richelieu River. The fort was first built in 1666 by soldiers of the Carignan-Salières Regiment and was part of a series of forts built along the Richelieu River. Over the years, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times, but it is, after Quebec City, the fort is designated as a National Historic Site of Canada, and it currently houses the Royal Military College of Saint-Jean. The fort has been occupied since 1748, and is the core from which the city of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. Fort Saint-Jean played a role during the 1775 American invasion of the Province of Quebec. In 1663, the French King Louis XIV decided to direct command of his New France colony. The first Fort Saint-Jean was built along the Richelieu River by the Carignan-Salières Regiment in 1666 for that purpose and this first fort is believed to have been a small square-shaped fort with four bastions made of wooden palisades. It was located right after the Chambly rapids, a strategic position that allowed the French to monopolize a very good portage location. The French offensive into Iroquois territory was a success and thus. In 1672, after several years, the Governor of the colony decided to abandon several forts that had become useless along the Richelieu River. Because of its location, Fort Saint-Jean was later to be revived, unlike other French forts such as Sainte-Thérèse. The second French fort Saint-Jean was built in 1748 because of tensions between France and England arising from the War of the Austrian Succession and it was a fort of two hundred feet by two hundred feet that had four bastions, two of which were made in stone. The second fort Saint-Jean was given the nickname of “Fort aux Maringouins” because of the swampy climate of the area. This fort was destroyed by French soldiers in 1760 during the French, the stone bastions of the fort that survived the fire were afterward used as a relay by the British troops. Because of the dangers posed by the thirteen colonies to the South. The garrison of Fort Saint-Jean fought valiantly against the American troops during a siege before surrendering to the invaders. Because of bad weather and the state of the few remaining troops. After British reinforcements arrived from England the next Spring, the Americans abandoned and burnt the forts, including Fort Saint-Jean, but, fearing a new American invasion, the British reconstructed a strengthened Fort in 1776, adding a series of new ramparts
31.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
32.
Second Continental Congress
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The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting in the spring of 1775, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met between September 5,1774 and October 26,1774, also in Philadelphia, the second Congress managed the colonial war effort, and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4,1776. When the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10,1775 it was, in effect, many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the same president and secretary. Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts, within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses, he was replaced in the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. Henry Middleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined, Hancock was elected president on May 24. Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the Second Continental Congress convened, Georgia had not participated in the First Continental Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second Continental Congress. On May 13,1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. Johns in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself. The Second Continental Congress would meet on May 10,1775, by the time the Second Continental Congress met, the American Revolutionary War had already started with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The Congress was to charge of the war effort. For the first few months of the struggle, the Patriots had carried on their struggle in an ad-hoc and they had seized arsenals, driven out royal officials, and besieged the British army in the city of Boston. On July 6,1775 Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale, on July 8, Congress extended the Olive Branch Petition to the British Crown as a final attempt at reconciliation. However, it was received too late to do any good, silas Deane was sent to France as a minister of the Congress. American ports were reopened in defiance of the British Navigation Acts, the Congress had no authority to levy taxes, and was required to request money, supplies, and troops from the states to support the war effort. Individual states frequently ignored these requests, Congress was moving towards declaring independence from the British Empire in 1776, but many delegates lacked the authority from their home governments to take such a drastic action. Advocates of independence in Congress moved to have reluctant colonial governments revise instructions to their delegations, on May 10,1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony lacking a proper government should form such. The resolution of independence was delayed for weeks as revolutionaries consolidated support for independence in their home governments. The records of the Continental Congress confirm that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations, on June 7,1776, Richard Henry Lee offered a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent. He also urged Congress to resolve to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances, Lee argued that independence was the only way to ensure a foreign alliance, since no European monarchs would deal with America if they remained Britains colonies
33.
Philip Schuyler
–
Philip John Schuyler was a general in the American Revolution and a United States Senator from New York. He is usually known as Philip Schuyler, while his son is known as Philip J. Schuyler. Philip John Schuyler was born on November 201733 in Albany, New York, to Cornelia Van Cortlandt and Johannes Schuyler, prior to his fathers death on the eve of his eighth birthday, Schuyler attended the public school at Albany. Afterward, he was educated by tutors at the Van Cortlandt family estate at New Rochelle, in 1748 he began to study with Reverend Peter Strouppe at the New Rochelle French Protestant Church, where he learned French and mathematics. While he was at New Rochelle he also joined numerous trade expeditions where he met Iroquois leaders and he joined the British forces in 1755 during the French and Indian War, raised a company, and was commissioned as its Captain by his cousin, Lt. Later in that war, he served as a quartermaster, purchasing supplies, John Cochran, a brother-in-law who was the Director General of the Military Hospitals of the Continental Army. From 1761 to 1762, Schuyler made a trip to England to settle accounts from his work as quartermaster and he began construction on his home in Albany, later called Schuyler Mansion, during this time. He also began construction of his estate, at Saratoga. In 1768, Schuyler began his career as a member of the New York Assembly. During that time, his views came to be opposed to the colonial government, particularly in matters of trade. He was also made a Colonel in the militia for his support of Governor Henry Moore, Schuyler was elected to the Continental Congress in 1775, and served until he was appointed a Major General of the Continental Army in June. General Schuyler took command of the Northern Department, and planned the Invasion of Canada and his poor health required him to place Richard Montgomery in command of the invasion. In the summer of that year General John Burgoyne marched his British army south from Quebec over the valleys of Lakes Champlain, on the way he invested the small Colonial garrison occupying Fort Ticonderoga at the nexus of the two lakes. When General St. Clair abandoned Fort Ticonderoga in July, the Congress replaced Schuyler with General Horatio Gates, the British offensive was eventually stopped by Continental Army then under the command of Gates and Benedict Arnold in the Battle of Saratoga. That victory, the first wholesale defeat of a large British force, marked a point in the revolution. When Schuyler demanded a court martial to answer Gates charges, he was vindicated but resigned from the Army on April 19,1779 and he then served in two more sessions of the Continental Congress in 1779 and 1780. Schuyler was an member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. After the war, he expanded his Saratoga estate to tens of thousands of acres, adding slaves, tenant farmers, a store, mills for flour, flax and his flax mill for the making of linen was the first one in America
34.
Letters to the inhabitants of Canada
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Their purpose was to draw the large French-speaking population to the American revolutionary cause. This goal ultimately failed, and Quebec, along with the northern provinces of British America. The only significant assistance that was gained was the recruitment of two regiments totalling not more than 1,000 men, the new province was significantly different than the other provinces of British America, as the vast majority of people in Quebec spoke only French and were Roman Catholic. There were also differences in civic and legal affairs, as the law had, prior to the British conquest, in 1774, the British Parliament enacted the Quebec Act, along with other legislation that was labeled by American colonists as the Intolerable Acts. It is largely perceived by historians to be damage control in the province of Quebec, a committee composed of Thomas Cushing, Richard Henry Lee and John Dickinson was set up to draft those letters. A first draft was presented on October 24, debated and returned to the committee, on October 26, a new draft was presented, debated, amended and adopted. The translation is attributed to Pierre Eugène du Simitière, the final content of the letter is attributed to John Dickinson, as a draft in his own hand very closely resembles the final letter. These five rights were representative government, trial by jury, Habeas Corpus, land ownership, the text quotes a passage of Beccarias On Crimes and Punishment and multiple excerpts of Montesquieus The Spirit of Laws. Calling it their first political alphabet and first lesson in constitutional law, the French-born Philadelphia printer Fleury Mesplet printed 2,000 copies of the French translation. Other manuscript French translations of the original English letter were in circulation as well, wide circulation of the letter was prevented by General Guy Carleton, then Governor of the province. These town meetings, seemingly dominated by English-speakers, ended without the election of delegates to the Continental Congress, in early 1775, Bostons Committee of Correspondence sent John Brown into Quebec to gather intelligence, gauge sentiment, and agitate for rebellion in that province. The bulk of the French-speaking population was at best neutral with respect to British rule, some were happy with it, Brown also noted the relatively weak military presence in the province. General Carleton, while aware of Browns activities, did nothing to interfere, the Second Continental Congress met on May 10,1775, following the Battles of Lexington and Concord in which colonial forces resisted a large British force on April 19 and drove it back to Boston. This victory resulted in Congress opening the session with great excitement, John Brown arrived in Philadelphia on May 17 to report the capture of Fort Ticonderoga and the raid on Fort Saint-Jean, an event that stimulated much discussion in the Congress. On May 26, the Congress resolved to draft a letter to the inhabitants of Canada. On May 29, after having heard additional testimony on the situation in Montreal from James Price, a Montreal merchant, the letter was signed by president John Hancock, and again translated by Pierre Eugène du Simitière,1,000 copies of it were printed by Fleury Mesplet. The content of the letter has been attributed to John Jay, in the letter, the Congress again deplored the form of the civil government introduced by the Quebec Act, which it likened to tyranny. It further asserted that under this form of government you and your wives, as for the enjoyment of their religion, the Congress believed it uncertain for it depended on a legislature in which you have no share, and over which you have no controul
35.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
36.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
37.
Lake Champlain
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Lake Champlain /ʃæmˈpleɪn/ is a natural freshwater lake in North America mainly within the borders of the United States but partially situated across the Canada–U. S. Border, in the Canadian province of Quebec, the New York portion of the Champlain Valley includes the eastern portions of Clinton County and Essex County. Most of this area is part of the Adirondack Park, there are recreational opportunities in the park and along the relatively undeveloped coastline of Lake Champlain. The cities of Plattsburgh, New York and Burlington, Vermont are on the western and eastern shores, respectively. The Quebec portion is in the county municipalities of Le Haut-Richelieu. There are a number of islands in the lake, the largest include Grand Isle, Isle La Motte, and North Hero, all part of Grand Isle County, Vermont. The Champlain Valley is the northernmost unit of a system known as the Great Appalachian Valley. The Champlain Valley is a section of the larger Saint Lawrence Valley. Lake Champlain is one of large lakes scattered in an arc through Labrador, in Canada, the northern United States. Although it is smaller than each of the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain is a body of fresh water. Approximately 1,269 km2 in area, the lake is roughly 201 km long and 23 km across at its widest point, the lake varies seasonally from about 95 to 100 ft above mean sea level. Lake Champlain drains nearly half of Vermont, and approximately 250,000 people get their water from the lake. The lake is fed in Vermont by the LaPlatte, Lamoille, Missisquoi, Poultney, and Winooski rivers, along with Lewis Creek, Little Otter Creek, and Otter Creek. In New York, it is fed by the Ausable, Boquet, Great Chazy, La Chute, Little Ausable, Little Chazy, Salmon, in Quebec, it is fed by the Pike River. It is connected to the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal, parts of the lake freeze each winter, and in some winters the entire lake surface freezes, referred to as closing. In July and August, the temperature reaches an average of 70 °F. The Chazy Reef is an extensive Ordovician carbonate rock formation extends from Tennessee to Quebec. It occurs in prominent outcropping at Goodsell Ridge, Isle La Motte, the oldest reefs are around The Head of the south end of the island, slightly younger reefs are found at the Fisk Quarry, and the youngest are in fields to the north
38.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
39.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
40.
Quebec Act
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The Quebec Act of 1774, formally known as the British North America Act 1774, was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain setting procedures of governance in the Province of Quebec. Reference to the Protestant faith was removed from the oath of allegiance and it guaranteed free practice of the Catholic faith. It restored the use of the French civil law for matters of law, except that in accordance with the English common law. It maintained English common law for matters of law, including administrative appeals, court procedure. It restored the Catholic Churchs right to impose tithes, the 1774 Act had wide-ranging effects, in Quebec itself, as well as in the Thirteen Colonies. In Quebec, English-speaking immigrants from Britain and the southern colonies objected to a variety of its provisions, Canadiens varied in their reaction, the land-owning seigneurs and ecclesiastics for example were generally happy with its provisions. The provisions of the Quebec Act were seen by the colonists as a new model for British colonial administration and it seemed to void the land claims of the colonies by granting most of the Ohio Country to the province of Quebec. After the Seven Years War, a victorious Great Britain and a defeated France formalized the peace with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of France ceded New France to Britain, choosing instead to keep the islands of Guadeloupe, Canada was considered less valuable, as its only significant commercial product at the time was beaver pelts. The territory found along the St. Lawrence River, called Canada by the French, was renamed Quebec by the British, non-military administration of the territories acquired by the British in the war was defined in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Under the terms of the treaty, Canadiens who did not choose to leave became British subjects. In order for them to serve in offices, they were required to swear an oath to the King that contained specific provisions rejecting the Catholic faith. Since many of the predominantly Roman Catholic Canadiens were unwilling to take such an oath, with unrest growing in the colonies to the south, which would one day grow into the American Revolution, the British were worried that the Canadiens might also support the growing rebellion. At that time, Canadiens formed the vast majority of the population of the province of Quebec. To secure the allegiance of the approximately 90,000 Canadiens to the British crown, first Governor James Murray, there was also a need to compromise between the conflicting demands of the Canadien subjects and those of newly arrived British subjects. These efforts by the governors eventually resulted in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. Territory, The boundaries of the province were defined by the Act and this increased the size of the province threefold over the size of the French province. This enabled, for the first time, French Canadians to legally participate in the affairs of the government without formally renouncing their faith
41.
Intolerable Acts
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The Intolerable Acts were the American Patriots term for a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea Party. They were meant to punish the Massachusetts colonists for their defiance of throwing a large tea shipment into Boston Harbor in reaction to being taxed by the British, in Great Britain, these laws were referred to as the Coercive Acts. The acts took away Massachusetts self-government and historic rights, triggering outrage and they were key developments in the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775. The Patriots viewed the acts as a violation of the rights of Massachusetts. As tensions escalated, the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and the British Parliament slowly but steadily worsened after the end of the Seven Years War in 1763. The war had plunged the British government deep into debt, many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the British Empire. Under the British Constitution, they argued, a British subjects property could not be taken from him without his consent. After the Townshend Acts, some colonial essayists took this line of thinking even further and this question of the extent of Parliaments sovereignty in the colonies was the issue underlying what became the American Revolution. On December 16,1773, a group of Patriot colonists associated with the Sons of Liberty destroyed several tons of tea in Boston, Massachusetts and this made British tea less expensive, which Parliament thought would be a welcome change in the colonies. In addition, there was added a small tax on which the colonists were not allowed to give their consent, again, Parliament taxed the colonists without their representation. News of the Boston Tea Party reached England in January 1774, Parliament responded by passing four laws. Three of the laws were intended to directly punish Massachusetts and this was for destruction of private property, to restore British authority in Massachusetts, and to otherwise reform colonial government in America. Whatever may be the consequences, we must risk something, if we do not, the Massachusetts Government Act provoked even more outrage than the Port Act because it unilaterally took away Massachusetts charter and brought it under control of the British government. Under the terms of the Government Act, almost all positions in the government were to be appointed by the governor, Parliament. The act also limited the activities of town meetings in Massachusetts to one meeting a year. Colonists outside Massachusetts feared that their governments could now also be changed by the legislative fiat of Parliament, george Washington called this the Murder Act because he believed that it allowed British officials to harass Americans and then escape justice. Many colonists believed the act was unnecessary because British soldiers had given a fair trial following the Boston Massacre in 1770. The Quartering Act applied to all of the colonies, and sought to create an effective method of housing British troops in America
42.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
43.
Samuel Graves
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Admiral Samuel Graves was a British Royal Navy admiral who is probably best known for his role early in the American War of Independence. Graves joined the Royal Navy in 1732, made lieutenant in 1739, he participated in the 1741 expedition against Cartagena, serving on the frigate Norfolk, under his uncle and future admiral, Captain Thomas Graves. Samuel Graves’s cousin Thomas, Captain Graves’s son and also future admiral, promoted to command of the sloop Bonetta in 1743, Graves served in the West Indies until 1747, commanding Ripon’s Prize, and, later, Enterprise. In 1756 Graves rose to command the Duke, two years later, Graves returned to command of the Duke, serving again under Hawke in the Battle of Quiberon Bay on 20 November 1759. He continued in command of the Duke until his promotion to admiral in October 1762. In October 1770 Graves rose to admiral, and in July 1774 assumed command of the North American Station. With only 26 ships and over one-thousand miles of coastline from Nova Scotia to Florida to patrol, manning problems made the Royal Navy’s problems even more acute, thus forcing it to resort to press gangs in order to supplement the ships’ slender crews. Compounding the problem was the attitude and behavior of navy officers who did not recognize local authority and were often contemptuous of local officials. Headquartered in Boston, Graves was at the center of the Revolutionary turmoil in New England and his sailors manned the boats that ferried British soldiers across the Charles River en route to Concord on the night of 18 April 1775. During the Siege of Boston, Admiral Graves, on 6 October 1775, ordered Lt. Henry Mowatt, commanding the armed vessel HMS Canceaux, Mowatt burned Falmouth on 18 October. On 27 January 1776, Vice Admiral Richard Howe succeeded Graves as commander-in-chief of the North American station, Graves returned to England without a command. In September 1777 he declined command of Plymouth, but indicated a desire to return to active duty. Graves advanced to admiral of the blue on 29 January 1778, admiral of the white on 8 April 1782, a monument sculpted by John Bacon but designed by a Miss Burgess was erected in Buckerell in Devon in the same year. He married Elizabeth Sedgwick, daughter of John Sedgwick of Staindrop and he had no children, just his ward, Elizabeth Simcoe, who married his godson John Graves Simcoe, who later became first Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. He was the uncle of Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Graves, KB, sea of Glory, The Continental Navy fights for Independence 1775-1783
Media related to Battle of Quebec (1775) at Wikimedia Commons
