1.
Musical form
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The term musical form refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music, and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections. According to Richard Middleton, musical form is the shape or structure of the work and he describes it through difference, the distance moved from a repeat, the latter being the smallest difference. Difference is quantitative and qualitative, how far, and of what type, in many cases, form depends on statement and restatement, unity and variety, and contrast and connection. This phrase may be regarded as the unit of musical form. Even at this level, the importance of the principles of repetition and contrast, weak and strong, climax and repose, thus, form may be understood on three levels of organization. For the purpose of exposition, these levels can be roughly designated as passage, piece. The smallest level of construction concerns the way musical phrases are organized into musical sentences and this may be compared to, and is often decided by, the verse form or meter of the words or the steps of a dance. In the analysis of form, any components that can be defined on the time axis are conventionally designated by letters. Upper-case letters are used for the most fundamental, while lower-case letters are used for sub-divisions, if one such section returns in a varied or modified form, a numerical digit or an appropriate number of prime symbols appears after the letter. Even at this simplest level, there are patterns that may be re-used on larger timescales, for example, consider the analogy with rhyme schemes, The following verse is composed of two differently-rhymed couplets, and thus its organization is binary or twofold. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are, up above the world so high, like a diamond in the sky. There once was a fellow from Leeds Who swallowed a packet of seeds, in less than an hour he burst into flower And he died trying to pull up the weeds. The next level concerns the structure of any single self-contained musical piece. If the hymn, ballad, blues or dance alluded to above simply repeats the same musical material indefinitely then the piece is said to be in strophic form overall. If it repeats with distinct, sustained changes each time, for instance in setting, ornamentation or instrumentation, then the piece is a theme and variations. If the theme is played, then a new theme is introduced, great arguments and misunderstanding can be generated by such terms as ternary and binary, as a complex piece may have elements of both at different organizational levels. The grandest level of organization may be referred to as cyclical form and it concerns the arrangement of several self-contained pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a set of songs with a theme may be presented as a song-cycle
Musical form
–
Thought-form of the Music of
Gounod, according to
Annie Besant and
C.W. Leadbeater in Thought Forms (1901)
2.
Dance
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Dance is a performance art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture, Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin. Other forms of movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming. Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle and it often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song, most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre. Such dance seldom has any narrative, a group dance and a corps de ballet, a social partner dance and a pas de deux, differ profoundly. Even a solo dance may be solely for the satisfaction of the dancer. On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the dances in which, for example. Archeological evidence for early dance includes 9, 000-year-old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka and it has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from generation to generation. The use of dance in trance states and healing rituals is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance. References to dance can be found in very early recorded history, Greek dance is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, the Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms. In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, Dance is further described in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals, during the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. Bharata Munis Natyashastra is one of the earlier texts and it mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture. It categorizes dance into four types - secular, ritual, abstract, the text elaborates various hand-gestures and classifies movements of the various limbs, steps and so on. A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and, notably, the Bollywood entertainment industry. Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, Dance is generally, though not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music. Some dance may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of music, many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together
Dance
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Modern dance
Dance
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Members of American jazz dance company
Giordano Dance Chicago perform a formal group routine in a concert dance setting
Dance
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Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 3rd-2nd century BC, Alexandria, Egypt.
Dance
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Ugandan youth dance at a cultural celebration of peace
3.
Baroque music
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Baroque music is a style of Western art music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750. This era followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era, Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being widely studied, performed, and listened to. The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key, during the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite, while the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed for listening, not for accompanying dancers. During the period, composers and performers used more elaborate ornamentation, made changes in musical notation. Many musical terms and concepts from this era, such as toccata, fugue, dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously, was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works. The word baroque comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning misshapen pearl, the term Baroque is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed over a period of approximately 150 years. The systematic application by historians of the baroque to music of this period is a relatively recent development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflins theory of the Baroque systematically to music, all of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer, nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding and following periods of musical history, the Baroque period is divided into three major phases, early, middle, and late. Although they overlap in time, they are dated from 1580 to 1630, from 1630 to 1680. In reference to music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical musical drama that valued discourse, the early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peris Dafne and LEuridice, marked the beginning of opera, which were a catalyst for Baroque music. Concerning music theory, the widespread use of figured bass represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony. Harmony is the end result of counterpoint, and figured bass is a representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as players or pipe organists. The numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the player what intervals she should play above each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note and this led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality
Baroque music
–
Baroque theatre in
Český Krumlov
Baroque music
–
Claudio Monteverdi in 1640
Baroque music
–
Jean-Baptiste Lully
Baroque music
–
Arcangelo Corelli
4.
Keyboard instrument
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A keyboard instrument is a musical instrument played using a keyboard. The most common of these are the piano, organ, and various keyboards, including synthesizers. Other keyboard instruments include celestas, which are struck idiophones operated by a keyboard, and carillons, today, the term keyboard often refers to keyboard-style synthesizers. Another important use of the keyboard is in historical musicology. Particularly in the 18th century, the harpsichord, the clavichord, and the piano were in competition. Hence in a phrase like Mozart excelled as a player the word keyboard is usefully noncommittal. The earliest known keyboard instrument was the Ancient Greek hydraulis, a type of pipe organ, the keys were likely balanced and could be played with a light touch, as is clear from the reference in a Latin poem by Claudian, who says magna levi detrudens murmura tactu. Intent, that is “let him thunder forth as he presses out mighty roarings with a light touch”, from its invention until the fourteenth century, the organ remained the only keyboard instrument. Often, the organ did not feature a keyboard at all, almost every keyboard until the fifteenth century had seven naturals to each octave. The clavichord and the harpsichord appeared during the 14th century—the clavichord probably being earlier, the harpsichord and clavichord were both common until widespread adoption of the piano in the 18th century, after which their popularity decreased. The piano was revolutionary, because a pianist could vary the volume of the sound by varying the vigor with which each key was struck. The pianos full name is gravicèmbalo con piano e forte meaning harpsichord with soft and loud but can be shortened to piano-forte, which means soft-loud in Italian. In its current form, the piano is a product of the late 19th century, in fact, the modern piano is significantly different from even the 19th-century pianos used by Liszt, Chopin, and Brahms. See Piano history and musical performance, keyboard instruments were further developed in the early twentieth century. Early electromechanical instruments, such as the Ondes Martenot, appeared early in the century and this was a very important contribution to the keyboards history. Much effort has gone into creating an instrument that sounds like the piano but lacks its size, the electric piano and electronic piano were early efforts that, while useful instruments in their own right, did not convincingly reproduce the timbre of the piano. Electric and electronic organs were developed during the same period, more recent electronic keyboard designs strive to emulate the sound of specific make and model pianos using digital samples and computer models. Concerns celebrated keyboard players and the various instruments used over the centuries
Keyboard instrument
–
The
piano, a common keyboard instrument
Keyboard instrument
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Bandoneon
Keyboard instrument
–
Most common
5.
Sonata (music)
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Sonata, in music, literally means a piece played as opposed to a cantata, a piece sung. The term evolved through the history of music, designating a variety of forms until the Classical era, when it took on increasing importance, by the early 19th century, it came to represent a principle of composing large-scale works. It was applied to most instrumental genres and regarded—alongside the fugue—as one of two methods of organizing, interpreting and analyzing concert music. Though the musical style of sonatas has changed since the Classical era, most 20th-, the term sonatina, pl. sonatine, the diminutive form of sonata, is often used for a short or technically easy sonata. In the Baroque period, a sonata was for one or more instruments almost always with continuo, sonatas for a solo instrument other than keyboard have been composed, as have sonatas for other combinations of instruments. Although the four, five, or six movements of the sonata da chiesa are also most often in one key, one or two of the internal movements are sometimes in a contrasting tonality. This scheme, however, was not very defined, until the works of Arcangelo Corelli when it became the essential sonata. The sonata da camera consisted almost entirely of idealized dance-tunes, on the other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonata da camera then tended to be freely intermixed. Although nearly half of Bachs 1,100 surviving compositions, arrangements and they are frequently virtuosic, and use more distant harmonic transitions and modulations than were common for other works of the time. They were admired for their variety and invention. Both the solo and trio sonatas of Vivaldi show parallels with the concerti he was writing at the same time. He composed over 70 sonatas, the majority of which are of the solo type, most of the rest are trio sonatas. The sonatas of Domenico Paradies are mild and elongated works with a graceful and this evolution stretched over fifty years. The term came to both to the structure of individual movements and to the layout of the movements in a multi-movement work. In the transition to the Classical period there were several names given to multimovement works, including divertimento, serenade, the usage of sonata as the standard term for such works began somewhere in the 1770s. Haydn labels his first piano sonata as such in 1771, after which the term divertimento is used sparingly in his output, the term sonata was increasingly applied to either a work for keyboard alone, or for keyboard and one other instrument, often the violin or cello. It was less and less frequently applied to works with more than two instrumentalists, for piano trios were not often labelled sonata for piano, violin. Initially the most common layout of movements was, Allegro, which at the time was understood to not only a tempo
Sonata (music)
–
Ludwig van Beethoven 's manuscript sketch for
Piano Sonata No. 28, Movement IV, Geschwind, doch nicht zu sehr und mit Entschlossenheit (
Allegro), in his own handwriting. The piece was completed in 1816.
6.
Sonata form
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Sonata form is a musical structure consisting of three main sections, an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation. It has been used widely since the middle of the 18th century, while it is typically used in the first movement of multi-movement pieces, it is sometimes used in subsequent movements as well—particularly the final movement. In addition, the standard definition recognizes that an introduction and a coda may be present, each of the sections is often further divided or characterized by the particular means by which it accomplishes its function in the form. Accordingly, there is a body of theory on what unifies and distinguishes practice in the sonata form. According to the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, sonata form is the most important principle of form, or formal type. Although the Italian term sonata often refers to a piece in sonata form, conversely, in the late 18th century or Classical period, the title sonata is typically given to a work composed of three or four movements. Nonetheless, this multi-movement sequence is not what is meant by sonata form, the definition of sonata form in terms of musical elements sits uneasily between two historical eras. Perhaps the most extensive description of the sonata-form type of movement may have been given by the theorist H. C. Seen in this way, sonata form was closest to binary form, the model of the form that is often taught currently tends to be more thematically differentiated. Marx may be the originator of the sonata form. This model was derived from study and criticism of Beethovens piano sonatas, a sonata-allegro movement is divided into sections. Each section is felt to perform functions in the musical argument. It may begin with an introduction, which is, in general, in terms of structure, introductions are an upbeat before the main musical argument. The first required section is the exposition, the exposition presents the primary thematic material for the movement, one or two themes or theme groups, often in contrasting styles and in opposing keys, connected by a modulating transition. The exposition typically concludes with a theme, a codetta. The exposition is followed by the development where the harmonic and textural possibilities of the material are explored. The movement may conclude with a coda, beyond the final cadence of the recapitulation, the term sonata form is controversial and has been called misleading by scholars and composers almost from its inception. Its originators implied that there was a set template to which Classical and Romantic composers aspired, however, sonata form is currently viewed as a model for musical analysis, rather than compositional practice
Sonata form
7.
Musical development
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In classical music, musical development is a process by which a musical idea is communicated in the course of a composition. It refers to the transformation and restatement of initial material, development is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly different means to the same end. Development is carried out upon portions of material treated in many different presentations and combinations at a time, listeners may apprehend a tension between expected and real results, which is one element of surprise in music. In sonata form, the section is called the development. Typically, in section, material from the exposition section is developed. In some older texts, this section may be referred to as free fantasia, according to the Oxford Companion to Music there are several ways of developing a theme. These include, The division of a theme into parts, each of which can be developed in any of the ways or recombined in a new way. Similarly, two or more themes can be developed in combination, in cases, themes are composed with this possibility in mind. Alteration of pitch intervals while retaining the original rhythm, rhythmic displacement, so that the metrical stress occurs at a different point in the otherwise unchanged theme. Sequence, either diatonically within a key or through a succession of keys, the Scherzo movement from Beethovens Piano Sonata No.15 in D major, Op 28 shows a number of these processes at work on a small scale. Developing variation Fugue#Development Secondary development Sequence
Musical development
–
Development in
Haydn's sonata in G major,
Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 29-53 Play (
help ·
info).
8.
Variation form
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In music, variation is a formal technique where material is repeated in an altered form. The changes may involve harmony, melody, counterpoint, rhythm, timbre, Variation forms include ground bass, passacaglia, chaconne, and theme and variations. Ground bass, passacaglia and chaconne are typically based on brief ostinato motifs providing a repetitive harmonic basis and are typically continuous evolving structures. Theme and variation forms are based specifically on melodic variation, in which the fundamental musical idea. This form may in part have derived from the practical inventiveness of musicians, Court dances were long, Variation forms can be written as free-standing pieces for solo instruments or ensembles, or can constitute a movement of a larger piece. Most jazz music is structured on a pattern of theme. 56, Elgars Enigma Variations, Francks Variations Symphoniques, and Richard Strausss Don Quixote, both Schuberts Death and the Maiden Quartet and Trout Quintet take their titles from his songs used as variation movements. Although the first isolated example emerged in the 14th century, works in theme-and-variation form first emerge in the sixteenth century. Possibly the earliest published example is the diferencias for vihuela by Luis de Narváez, a favorite form of variations in Renaissance music was divisions, a type in which the basic rhythmic beat is successively divided into smaller and smaller values. Keyboard works in form were written by a number of 16th-century English composers, including William Byrd, Hugh Aston. Outstanding examples of early Baroque variations are the ciaccone of Claudio Monteverdi, in the Classical era, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote a great number of variations, such as the first movement of his Piano Sonata in A, K.331, or the finale of his Clarinet Quintet. 103, the Drumroll, and the Variations in F minor for piano, ludwig van Beethoven wrote many variation sets in his career. Some were independent sets, for instance the Diabelli Variations, Op.120, others form single movements or parts of movements in larger works, such as first movement of the Piano Sonata No. 12, Op.26, or the variations in the movement of the Third Symphony. Variation sets also occur in several of his works, such as the slow movement of his String Quartet No. 12, Op.127, the movement of his final Piano Sonata No. 32, Op.111, and the third movement of the Ninth Symphony. Franz Schubert wrote five variation sets using his own lieder as themes, amongst them is the slow movement of his string quartet Death and the Maiden D.810, an intense set of variations on his somber lied of the same title
Variation form
–
Phrase and variation from
Chopin 's
Nocturne in F minor. Play (
help ·
info)
9.
Minuet
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A minuet, is a social dance of French origin for two people, usually in 34 time. The name may refer to the steps, pas menus, taken in the dance, or else be derived from the branle à mener or amener. The minuet was traditionally said to have descended from the bransle de Poitou, at the period when it was most fashionable it was controlled, ceremonious and graceful. The name is given to a musical composition written in the same time and rhythm. Among Italian composers the minuet was often quicker and livelier and was sometimes written in 38 or 68 time. Because the tempo of a minuet was not standard, the tempo direction tempo di minuetto was ambiguous unless qualified by another direction, as it sometimes was. Initially, before its adoption in other than social dance. But the second section eventually expanded, resulting in a kind of ternary form, the second minuet provided form of contrast by means of different key and orchestration. On a larger scale, two such minuets might be combined, so that the first minuet was followed by a second one. The whole form might in any case be repeated as long as the dance lasted, around Lullys time it became a common practice to score this middle section for a trio. As a result, this section came to be called the minuets trio. 13 in G major, K.525, popularly known under the title Eine kleine Nachtmusik, a livelier form of the minuet simultaneously developed into the scherzo. This term came into existence approximately from Beethoven onwards, but the form itself can be traced back to Haydn, the minuet and trio eventually became the standard third movement in the four-movement classical symphony, Johann Stamitz being the first to employ it thus with regularity. An example of the form of the minuet is to be found in Don Giovanni. A famous example of a more recent instrumental work in minuet form is Ignacy Jan Paderewskis Minuet in G. Scherzo, revisiting Music Theory, A Guide to the Practice. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Dance Research, The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 24 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Classical Form, A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, the Theory of Music as Applied to the Teaching and Practice of Voice and Instruments, 21st edition
Minuet
–
Minuet in the
Classical Period.
10.
Key (music)
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In music theory, the key of a piece is a group of pitches, or scale upon which a music composition is created in classical, Western art, and Western pop music. Notes and chords other than the tonic in a piece create varying degrees of tension, the key may be in the major or minor mode, although major is assumed in a phrase like this piece is in C. Popular songs are usually in a key, and so is classical music during the common practice period, longer pieces in the classical repertoire may have sections in contrasting keys. Methods that establish the key for a piece can be complicated to explain. The key signature is not always a reliable guide to the key of a written piece, occasionally, a piece in a mode such as Mixolydian or Dorian is written with a major or minor key signature appropriate to the tonic, and accidentals throughout the piece. Pieces in modes not corresponding to major or minor keys may sometimes be referred to as being in the key of the tonic. A piece using some type of harmony, resolving e. g. to A. An instrument may be said to be in a key, an unrelated usage referring to the pitches considered natural for that instrument. For example, modern trumpets are usually in the key of B♭, a key relationship is the relationship between keys, measured by common tones and nearness on the circle of fifths. The key usually identifies the tonic note and/or chord, the note and/or major or minor triad that represents the point of rest for a piece. For example, the key of G includes the following pitches, G, A, B, C, D, E, and F♯, and its corresponding tonic chord is G—B—D. Most often at the beginning and end of traditional pieces during the common practice period, a key may be major or minor. Music can be described as being in the Dorian mode, or Phrygian, languages other than English may use other key naming systems. Although many musicians confuse key with scale, a scale is a set of notes typically used in a key, while the key is the center of gravity. All of these notes and chords, however, are used in patterns that serve to establish the primacy of the tonic note. Cadences are particularly important in the establishment of key, even cadences that do not include the tonic note or triad, such as half cadences and deceptive cadences, serve to establish key because those chord sequences imply a unique diatonic context. Short pieces may stay in a single key throughout, more elaborate pieces may establish the main key, then modulate to another key, or a series of keys, then back to the original key. In the Baroque it was common to repeat a phrase of music, called a ritornello
Key (music)
–
Perfect authentic cadence (V-I [here in
V7 -I form] with roots in the bass and tonic in the highest voice of the final chord):
ii-V7-I progression in C Play (
help ·
info).
11.
Modulation (music)
–
In music, modulation is most commonly the act or process of changing from one key to another. This may or may not be accompanied by a change in key signature, modulations articulate or create the structure or form of many pieces, as well as add interest. Treatment of a chord as the tonic for less than a phrase is considered tonicization, Modulation is the essential part of the art. Without it there is music, for a piece derives its true beauty not from the large number of fixed modes which it embraces. The modulating dominant is the dominant of the quasi-tonic, the pivot chord is a predominant to the modulating dominant and a chord common to both the keys of the tonic and the quasi-tonic. For example, in a modulation to the dominant, ii/V-V/V-V could be a chord, modulating dominant. For example, G major and D major share 4 chords in common, G, B minor and this can be easily determined by a chart similar to the one below, which compares chord qualities. The I chord in G major—a G major chord—is also the IV chord in D major, so I in G major, any chord with the same root note and chord quality can be used as the pivot chord. However, chords that are not generally found in the style of the piece are not likely to be chosen as the pivot chord. The most common chords are the predominant chords in the new key. In analysis of a piece that uses this style of modulation, an enharmonic modulation takes place when one treats a chord as if it were spelled enharmonically as a functional chord in the destination key, and then proceeds in the destination key. There are two types of enharmonic modulations, dominant seventh/augmented sixth, and diminished seventh. A diminished seventh chord meanwhile, can be respelled in multiple ways to form a diminished seventh chord in a key a minor third. C♯-E-G-B♭, A-C♯-E-G, D-F♯-A takes us to the key of D major - a parallel modulation, enharmonically, C♯-E-G-B♭, A-C♯-E-G = A-C♯-E-G, C♯-E-G♯ modulates to C# minor - a major seventh modulation/half-step descending. C♯-E-G-B♭, C♯-E♭-G-B♭ = E♭-G-B♭-D♭, A♭-C-E♭ leads to A♭ major - a minor third AND relative modulation, in short, lowering any note of a diminished seventh chord a half tone leads to a dominant seventh chord, the lowered note being the root of the new chord. Raising any note of a seventh chord a half tone leads to a half-diminished seventh chord. This means that any diminished chord can be modulated to eight different chords by simply lowering or raising any of its notes and this type of modulation is particularly common in Romantic music, in which chromaticism rose to prominence. Other types of enharmonic modulation include the augmented triad and French sixth, augmented triad modulation occurs in the same fashion as the diminished seventh, that is, to modulate to another augmented triad in a key, a major third or minor sixth away
Modulation (music)
–
Example of modulation from the tonic to the dominant as in vocal music. Play (
help ·
info)
12.
Closely related key
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In music, a closely related key is one sharing many common tones with an original key, as opposed to a distantly related key. In music harmony, such a key shares all, or all one, pitches with a key with which it is being compared. Such keys are the most commonly used destinations or transpositions in a modulation, distant keys may be reached sequentially through closely related keys by chain modulation, for example C to G to D or C to C minor to E♭ major. For example, One principle that every composer of Haydns day kept in mind was over-all unity of tonality. No piece dared wander too far from its key. For example, the first movement of Mozarts Piano Sonata No,7, K.309, modulates only to closely related keys. Four of which differ by one accidental, one with the key signature. In the key of C major these would be, D minor, E minor, F major, G major, A minor, and C minor. However, modulating up a tritone would produce F♯, G♯, A♯, C♯, D♯, thus the scale a fifth higher is very closely related, while the scale a tritone higher is not. Other modulations may be placed in order from closest to most distant depending upon the number of common tones, another view in modern music, notably in Bartók, a common tonic produces closely related keys, the other scales being the six other modes. This usage can be found in several of the Mikrokosmos piano pieces, chromatic mediant Parallel and counter parallel Monotonality Pitch space Howard Hanson, Harmonic Materials of Modern Music
Closely related key
–
Circle of fifths showing
major and minor keys.
13.
Dominant (music)
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The dominant is sung as so in solfege. The dominant function has the role of creating instability that requires the tonic for resolution, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The scheme I-x-V-I symbolizes, though naturally in a very summarizing way, for example, in the C major scale, the dominant is the note G, and the dominant triad consists of the notes G, B, and D. In music theory, the dominant triad is a triad, symbolized by the Roman numeral V. It is, however, a triad, denoted v. For instance, in G-B♭-D, the B♭ is sharpened to B natural, a dominant seventh chord is a chord built upon the dominant of a major diatonic scale. It contains a major triad and a seventh of the root of the triad. An example is G7 in C major, G-B-D-F, with G being both the dominant of C major and the root of the major triad G-B-D, and F being the seventh of the root. In a general context, the dominant seventh is denoted V7, a cadential dominant chord followed by a tonic chord is denominated as authentic cadence. If the roots are in the bass and the tonic is in the highest voice, the dominant key in a given musical composition is the key whose tonic is a perfect fifth above the tonic of the main key of the piece. Put another way, the key whose tonic is the dominant scale degree in the main key, if, for example, a piece is written in the key of C major, then the key of C is the tonic key. The key of G major is the dominant key since it is based on the dominant note for the key of C major, with a key signature of one sharp, G major features one more sharp than C major. In sonata form in major keys, the subject group is usually in the dominant key. Even with the widest roaming modulations in the development, the dominant key exerts influence, the movement to the dominant was part of musical grammar, not an element of form. Almost all music in the century went to the dominant, before 1750 it was not something to be emphasized, afterward. This means that every eighteenth century listener expected the movement to the dominant in the sense that would have been puzzled if did not get it, it was a condition of intelligibility. Dominant also refers to a relationship of musical keys, for example, relative to the key of C major, the key of G major is the dominant key. Music which modulates often modulates into the dominant, modulation into the dominant key often creates a sense of increased tension, as opposed to modulation into subdominant, which creates a sense of musical relaxation
Dominant (music)
–
The second to last chord in this example is built on the dominant (V) and found here in the
circle progression on C: I-IV-vii o -iii-vi-ii-V-I Play (
help ·
info)
14.
Tonic (music)
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The triad formed on the tonic note, the tonic chord, is thus the most significant chord in these styles of music. More generally, the tonic is the pitch upon which all other pitches of a piece are hierarchically referenced, scales are named after their tonics, thus the tonic of the scale of C is the note C. Simple folk music and traditional songs may begin and end on the tonic note, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The tonic is often confused with the root, which is the note of a chord. The root of a chord is different from the tonic, because different types of chords have root notes. It is also represented with the Roman numeral I, two parallel keys have the same tonic. For example, in both C major and C minor, the tonic is C, however, relative keys have different tonics. For example, C major and A minor share a key signature that feature no sharps or flats, thus a pitch center may function referentially or contextually in an atonal context, often acting as axis or line of symmetry in an interval cycle. Pitch centricity was coined by Arthur Berger in his Problems of Pitch Organization in Stravinsky
Tonic (music)
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Tonic (I) in
ii-V-I turnaround on C, found at the end of the
circle progression Play (
help ·
info)
15.
Relative key
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In music, relative keys are the major and minor scales that have the same key signatures. A pair of major and minor scales sharing the same key signature are said to be in a relative relationship, relative keys are closely related keys, the keys between which most modulations occur, in that they differ by no more than one accidental. The minor key starts three semitones below its relative major, for example, A minor is three semitones below its relative, C Major. G major and E minor both have a single sharp in their key signature at F♯, therefore, E minor is the minor of G major. The tonic of the minor is the sixth scale degree of the major scale, while the tonic of the relative major is the third degree of the minor scale. The relative relationship may be visualized through the circle of fifths, the minor mode of C is not. A minor, but C minor. Confusingly, the term for relative key in German is Paralleltonart, similar terminology is used in most Germanic and Slavic languages, but not Romance languages. This is in particular confusing with the parallel chord, which denotes chords derived from the relative key in English usage
Relative key
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Circle of fifths showing major and minor keys
16.
Cadence (music)
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In Western musical theory, a cadence is a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution. A harmonic cadence is a progression of two chords that concludes a phrase, section, or piece of music, a rhythmic cadence is a characteristic rhythmic pattern that indicates the end of a phrase. A cadence is labeled more or less weak or strong depending on its sense of finality, harmonic rhythm plays an important part in determining where a cadence occurs. Cadences are strong indicators of the tonic or central pitch of a passage or piece, edward Lowinsky proposed that the cadence was the cradle of tonality. In music of the common practice period, cadences are divided into four types according to their progression, authentic, plagal, half. Typically, phrases end on authentic or half cadences, and the terms plagal, each cadence can be described using the Roman numeral system of naming chords, Authentic cadence, V to I. A seventh above the root is added to create V7. The The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians says, This cadence is a microcosm of the tonal system and it is virtually obligatory as the final structural cadence of a tonal work. A perfect cadence is a progression from V to I in major keys and this is generally the strongest type of cadence and often found at structurally defining moments. This strong cadence achieves complete harmonic and melodic closure and it has to be noted that Beethoven in particular gets so much mileage out of this cadence as for it to become one of his most characteristic and recognizable musical thumbprints. The Diabelli Variations and the C major climax of the movement of the Opus 132 String Quartet - even though it is described as being in Lydian mode on F - are two powerful examples. Imperfect authentic cadence, best divided into three categories,1. Root position IAC, similar to a PAC, but the highest voice is not the tonic, inverted IAC, similar to a PAC, but one or both chords is inverted. Leading tone IAC, the V chord is replaced with the viio/subV chord, evaded cadence, V42 to I6. Because the seventh must fall step wise, it forces the cadence to resolve to the less stable first inversion chord, usually to achieve this a root position V changes to a V42 right before resolution, thereby evading the cadence. Half cadence, any cadence ending on V, whether preceded by II, ii, vi, IV, with the addition of motion in the upper part to the sixth degree, it becomes the Landini cadence. Lydian cadence, The Lydian half-cadence is similar to the Phrygian-half, involving iv6-V in the minor, the difference is that in the Lydian-half, the whole iv6 is raised by a half-step. In other words, the Phrygian-half begins with the first chord built on scale degree P4, Burgundian cadences, Became popular in Burgundian music
Cadence (music)
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Perfect authentic cadence (V–I with roots in the bass parts and tonic in the highest voice of the final chord):
ii–V–I progression in C major, four-part harmony (Benward & Saker 2003, p.90.). Play (
help ·
info)
17.
Bar (music)
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Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a piece of music. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch. Typically, a piece consists of bars of the same length. In simple time, the top figure indicates the number of beats per bar, the word bar is more common in British English, and the word measure is more common in American English, although musicians generally understand both usages. In international usage, it is correct to speak of bar numbers and measure numbers. Along the same lines, it is wise to reserve the abbreviated form ‘bb, 3–4’ etc. for beats only, bars should be referred to by name in full. The first metrically complete measure within a piece of music is called ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’, when the piece begins with an anacrusis, ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’ is the following measure. Originally, the bar came from the vertical lines drawn through the staff to mark off metrical units. In British English, these lines are called bar, too. Note that double bar refers not to a type of bar, another term for the bar line denoting the end of a piece of music is music end. A repeat sign looks like the end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. The beginning of the passage can be marked by a begin-repeat sign. This begin-repeat sign, if appearing at the beginning of a staff, does not act as a bar line because no bar is before it, in music with a regular meter, bars function to indicate a periodic accent in the music, regardless of its duration. Igor Stravinsky said of bar lines, The bar line is much, much more than a mere accent, bars and bar lines also indicate grouping, rhythmically of beats within and between bars, within and between phrases, and on higher levels such as meter. The earliest barlines, used in keyboard and vihuela music in the 15th and 16th centuries, didnt reflect a regular meter at all but were only section divisions, or in some cases marked off every beat. Barlines began to be introduced into music in the late 16th century. Not until the mid-17th century were used in the modern style with every measure being the same length. Modern editions of music that was originally notated without barlines sometimes use a mensurstrich as a compromise
Bar (music)
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Hypermeter: 4 beat measure, 4 measure hypermeasure, and 4 hypermeasure verses. Hyperbeats in red.
18.
Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit
Rhythm
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Percussion instruments have clearly defined dynamics that aid the creation and perception of complex rhythms
Rhythm
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Rhythm, a sequence in time repeated, featured in dance: an
early moving picture demonstrates the
waltz.
19.
Melody
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A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London
Melody
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"
Pop Goes the Weasel " melody Play (
help ·
info)
Melody
20.
Musical ensemble
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A musical ensemble, also known as a music group or musical group, is a group of people who perform instrumental and/or vocal music, with the ensemble typically known by a distinct name. Some music ensembles consist solely of instruments, such as the jazz quartet or the orchestra, some music ensembles consist solely of singers, such as choirs and doo wop groups. In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the sounds of musical instrument families or group together instruments from the instrument family. In jazz ensembles, the instruments typically include wind instruments, one or two chordal comping instruments, an instrument, and a drummer or percussionist. Jazz ensembles may be instrumental, or they may consist of a group of instruments accompanying one or more singers. In rock and pop ensembles, usually called rock bands or pop bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards, one or more singers, Music ensembles typically have a leader. In jazz bands, rock and pop groups and similar ensembles, in classical music, orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor. In orchestra, the concertmaster is the instrumentalist leader of the orchestra, in orchestras, the individual sections also have leaders, typically called the principal of the section. Conductors are also used in big bands and in some very large rock or pop ensembles. In Western classical music, smaller ensembles are called chamber music ensembles, the terms duet, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet and dectet describe groups of two up to ten musicians, respectively. A group of musicians, such as found in The Carnival of the Animals, is called either a hendectet or an undectet. A soloist playing unaccompanied is not an ensemble because it contains one musician. A string quartet consists of two violins, a viola and a cello, there is a vast body of music written for string quartets, as it is seen as an important genre in classical music. A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet, a brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone and a tuba. A saxophone quartet consists of a saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone. The string quintet is a type of group. It is similar to the quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely. Terms such as piano quintet or clarinet quintet frequently refer to a string quartet plus a fifth instrument
Musical ensemble
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The
Jalisco Philarmonic Orchestra is an example of a musical ensemble.
Musical ensemble
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The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921
Musical ensemble
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The
Kneisel String Quartet, led by Franz Kneisel, is an example of chamber music. This American ensemble debuted
Dvořák 's American Quartet, opus 96.
Musical ensemble
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an
Iranian musical ensemble in 1886
21.
Instrumentation (music)
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In music, instrumentation is the particular combination of musical instruments employed in a composition, and the properties of those instruments individually. Instrumentation is sometimes used as a synonym for orchestration, the haunting second movement of Schubert’s Trio in E flat exemplifies the variety and interest that is possible with just three instruments. Kern Holoman, G. W. Hopkins, Paul Griffiths, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, pp.397, 575-577, in The Cambridge Companion to Schubert, edited by Christopher H. Gibbs, 72–98. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, a Treatise on Instrumentation, A Practical Guide to Orchestration
Instrumentation (music)
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This notation indicates differing pitches, dynamics, articulations, instrumentation, timbre, and rhythm (durations and onsets). Created by Hyacinth (talk) 12:57, 22 May 2014 (UTC) using Sibelius.
22.
Popular music
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Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training and it stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or folk music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of music, although since the beginning of the recording industry. Traditional music forms such as blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller. The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States, although popular music sometimes is known as pop music, the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies, in the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have an appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local traditions to create new hybrid styles. Sales of recordings or sheet music are one measure, middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Manuel states that one criticism of music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, moreover, understandings of popular music have changed with time. A societys popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published, david Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values and this allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music. Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, chorus form *, and twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics, the verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the melody, but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus usually has a phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated
Popular music
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The 19th century singer
Jenny Lind depicted performing
La sonnambula
23.
Oh! Susanna
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Susanna is a minstrel song by Stephen Foster, first published in 1848. It is among the most popular American songs ever written, members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time. In 1846, Stephen Foster moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, while in Cincinnati, Foster wrote Oh. Susanna, possibly for his mens social club, the song was first performed by a local quintet at a concert in Andrews Eagle Ice Cream Saloon in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on September 11,1847. It was first published by W. C. Peters & Co. in Cincinnati in 1848, other minstrel troupes performed the work, and, as was common at the time, many registered the song for copyright under their own names. As a result, it was copyrighted and published at least 21 times from February 25,1848, the name Susanna may refer to Fosters deceased sister Charlotte, whose middle name was Susannah. The song blends together a variety of musical traditions, the opening line refers to a banjo on my knee, but the song takes its beat from the polka, which had just reached the U. S. from Europe. Glenn Weiser suggests the song was influenced by a work, Rose of Alabama, with which it shares some similarities in lyrical theme. The first two phrases of the melody are based on the pentatonic scale. Play The lyrics are largely nonsense, as characterized by such as It raind all night the day I left, The weather it was dry. And I shut my eyes to hold my breath and it is one of the few songs by Foster that use the word nigger, which appears in the second verse. The song is not only one of Stephen Fosters best-known songs, no American song had sold more than 5,000 copies before, Oh. After its publication, it became known as an unofficial theme of the Forty-Niners. A traditional Pennsylvania Dutch version uses Fosters melody but replaces the lyrics entirely, Oh, I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee. Going to Louisiana, my love for to see Oh Susanna. For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee It rained all night the day I left, for I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee. For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee I soon will be in New Orleans, but if I do not find her, then surely about to die, And when Im dead and buried—Susanna, dont you cry. For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee Oh, Susanna, dont you cry for me
Oh! Susanna
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Original sheet music
Oh! Susanna
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Songs
24.
Ternary form
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Ternary form, sometimes called song form, is a three-part musical form where the first section is repeated after the second section ends. It is usually schematized as A–B–A, examples include the da capo aria The trumpet shall sound from Handels Messiah, Chopins Prelude in D-Flat Major and the opening chorus of Bachs St John Passion. In ternary form each section is self-contained both thematically as well as tonally (that is, each section contains distinct and complete themes and it usually also has a contrasting character, for example section A might be stiff and formal while the contrasting B section would be melodious and flowing. Da capo arias are usually in simple ternary form, commonly, the third section will feature more ornamentation than the first section. In these cases the last section is sometimes labeled A’ or A1 to indicate that it is different from the first A section. In a trio form each section is a movement in binary form. An example is the minuet and trio from the Haydns Surprise Symphony, the minuet consists of one section which is repeated and a second section which is also repeated. The trio section follows the same format, the complete minuet is then played again at the end of the trio represented as. By convention in the rendition of the minuet, the sections are not repeated with the scheme. The scherzo and trio, which is identical in structure to other trio forms, examples include the scherzo and trio from Beethovens Symphony No.9 and the scherzo and trio in Schuberts String Quintet. Another name for the latter is composite ternary form, trio form movements written from the early romantic era sometimes include a short coda and possibly a short introduction. The second movement of Beethovens Symphony No.9 is written in style which can be diagrammed as Polkas are also often in compound-ternary form. In a complex ternary form each section is itself in ternary form in the scheme of By convention each part is repeated, an example are the Impromptus by Jan Voříšek. Thirty-two-bar form Small Ternary Form by Jon Brantingham,17 October 2011, artofcomposing. com
Ternary form
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Diagram of a minuet and trio
25.
Domenico Scarlatti
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Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti was an Italian composer who spent much of his life in the service of the Portuguese and Spanish royal families. Like his renowned father Alessandro Scarlatti, he composed in a variety of musical forms, Domenico Scarlatti was born in Naples, Kingdom of Naples, belonging to Spanish Crown, in 1685, the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel. He was the sixth of ten children of the composer and teacher Alessandro Scarlatti, domenicos older brother Pietro Filippo was also a musician. He probably first studied music under his father, other composers who may have been his early teachers include Gaetano Greco, Francesco Gasparini, and Bernardo Pasquini, all of whom may have influenced his musical style. He was appointed as composer and organist at the chapel in Naples in 1701. In 1704, he revised Carlo Francesco Pollarolos opera Irene for performance at Naples, soon afterwards, his father sent him to Venice. After this, nothing is known of Scarlattis life until 1709, later in life, he was known to cross himself in veneration when speaking of Handels skill. In Rome, Scarlatti composed several operas for Queen Casimires private theatre and he was Maestro Di Cappella at St. Peters from 1715 to 1719. In 1719 he travelled to London to direct his opera Narciso at the Kings Theatre, according to Vicente Bicchi, Domenico Scarlatti arrived in Lisbon on 29 November 1719. There he taught music to the Portuguese princess Maria Magdalena Barbara and he left Lisbon on 28 January 1727 for Rome, where he married Maria Caterina Gentili on 6 May 1728. In 1729 he moved to Seville, staying for four years, in 1733 he went to Madrid as music master to Princess Maria Barbara, who had married into the Spanish royal house. The Princess later became Queen of Spain, Scarlatti remained in the country for the remaining twenty-five years of his life, and had five children there. After the death of his first wife in 1742, he married a Spaniard, among his compositions during his time in Madrid were a number of the 555 keyboard sonatas for which he is best known. Scarlatti befriended the castrato singer Farinelli, a fellow Neapolitan also enjoying royal patronage in Madrid, the musicologist and harpsichordist Ralph Kirkpatrick commented that Farinellis correspondence provides most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day. Domenico Scarlatti died in Madrid, at the age of 71 and his residence on Calle Leganitos is designated with a historical plaque, and his descendants still live in Madrid. He was buried at a convent there, in Madrid, only a small fraction of Scarlattis compositions were published during his lifetime, Scarlatti himself seems to have overseen the publication in 1738 of the most famous collection, his 30 Essercizi. These were well received throughout Europe, and were championed by the foremost English writer on music of the eighteenth century, the many sonatas which were unpublished during Scarlattis lifetime have appeared in print irregularly in the two and a half centuries since. Scarlattis 555 keyboard sonatas are single movements, mostly in form, and some in early sonata form
Domenico Scarlatti
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1738 portrait by
Domingo Antonio Velasco
26.
Chopin nocturnes
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The Chopin nocturnes consist of 21 pieces for solo piano written by Frédéric Chopin between 1827 and 1846. They are generally considered among the finest short solo works for the instrument, although Chopin did not invent the nocturne, he popularized and expanded on it, building on the form developed by Irish composer John Field. Chopins nocturnes numbered 1 to 18 were published during his lifetime, in twos or threes, however, numbers 19 and 20 were actually written first, prior to Chopins departure from Poland, but published posthumously. Number 20 was not originally entitled nocturne at all, but since its publication in 1870 as such, it is included with publications. By the time of Chopins birth in 1810, John Field was already an accomplished composer, eventually, the young Chopin became a great admirer of Field, taking some influence from the Irish composers playing and composing technique. Chopin had composed five of his nocturnes before meeting Field for the first time, in his youth, Chopin was often told that he sounded like Field, who in turn was later described as sounding Chopinesque. The composer Friedrich Kalkbrenner, one of Chopins greatest influences and early teachers, while Chopin held Field in high respect and considered him one of his primary influences, Field had a rather negative view of Chopins work. Upon meeting Chopin and hearing his nocturnes in 1832, Field is said to have described the composer as a sickroom talent, nonetheless, Chopin still admired Field and his work and continued to take inspiration throughout his life. Chopins nocturnes carry many similarities with those of Field while at the same time retaining a distinct, one aspect of the nocturne that Chopin continued from Field is the use of a song-like melody in the right hand. This is one of the most if not the most important features to the nocturne as a whole, the use of the melody as vocals bestowed a greater emotional depth to the piece, drawing the listener in to a greater extent. Along with the melody, Chopin continued the use of another nocturne necessity. Another technique used by Field and continued by Chopin was the extensive use of the pedal. By using the more, the music gains more emotional expression through sustained notes. With these main attributes of the Field nocturne Chopin was inspired, one of the greatest innovations made by Chopin to the nocturne was his use of a more freely flowing rhythm, a technique based on the classical music style. Also, Chopin further developed the structure of the nocturne, taking inspiration from the Italian, composer Franz Liszt even insisted that Chopins nocturnes were influenced by Vincenzo Bellinis bel canto arias, a statement affirmed and echoed by many in the music world. A further innovation of Chopins was his use of counterpoint to create tension in the nocturnes and it was mainly through these themes of operatic influence, freer rhythms, and an expansion into more complex structures and melodic playing that Chopin made his mark on the nocturne. Many think of the Chopin nocturne as a mix between the form and structure of Field and the sound of Mozart, displaying a classic/romantic-influenced theme within the music. While meters and keys vary, the nocturnes are generally set in form, featuring a melancholy mood
Chopin nocturnes
27.
Ausmultiplikation
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When this is done at more than one level, the result is reminiscent of a fractal. Threats and Promises, Lucifer, Hell, and Stockhausens Sunday from Light, perspectives of New Music 50, nos.1 &2, 393–424. Into the Middleground, Formula Syntax in Stockhausens Licht, perspectives of New Music 28, no. Wille zur Form und Wille zum Abenteuer, in his Texte zur Musik 6, edited by Christoph von Blumröder, 320–46
Ausmultiplikation
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Stockhausen lecturing at Darmstadt, July 1957
28.
Bar form
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Bar form is a musical form of the pattern AAB. In their work, a Bar is not a single stanza, rather, the word Bar is most likely a shortening of Barat, denoting a skillful thrust in fencing. The term was used to refer to a particularly artful song – the type one composes in songwriters guilds. The AAB pattern does, however, describe each stanza in a Meistersingers Bar, the musical form thus contains two repetitions of one melody followed by a different melody. One such tune by Hans Folz illustrates this, Note that the B section is not necessarily the same length as each A section. The B section can also incorporate parts of the A sections phrase, in the above example, composer Richard Wagner in act III of his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, used the word Bar incorrectly as referring to a stanza of the prize song. This was based on his misreading of Wagenseil, composer Johannes Brahms claimed the AAB form of the chorale Jesu, meine Freude generates larger formal structures in Bachs motet of the same name. Such AAB forms may be found in works ranging from Lutheran chorales to The Star-Spangled Banner to songs by Schubert, Schumann, bartok made use of the Bar form in the 20th Century, and most blues follow the pattern A1A2B. Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music, entries on Bar form and minnesingers, encyclopædia Britannica, article on Bar form. A History of Western Music by Donald Grout
Bar form
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The AAB pattern does, however, describe each stanza in a Meistersinger's Bar, which is divided into two Stollen (A), which are collectively termed the Aufgesang, followed by an Abgesang. The musical form thus contains two repetitions of one melody (Stollen - 'stanzas') followed by a different melody (Abgesang - 'aftersong'). One such tune (Ton in Meistersinger terminology) by
Hans Folz (c1437-1513) illustrates this:
29.
Call and response (music)
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In music, a call and response is a succession of two distinct phrases usually played by different musicians, where the second phrase is heard as a direct commentary on or response to the first. It corresponds to the pattern in human communication and is found as a basic element of musical form, such as verse-chorus form. Call and response patterns between two musicians are common in Indian Classical Music, particularly in the style of Jugalbandi, Call and response is likewise widely present in parts of the Americas touched by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. It is extensively used in Cuban music, both in the rumba and in the African religious ceremonies. In 1644, lining out – where one person sang a solo and it has influenced popular music singing styles. Scottish Gaelic psalm-singing by precenting the line was the earliest form of congregational singing adopted by Africans in America and it is common in folk traditions of choral singing of many people, especially in African musical cultures. In Cuban music and other Latin music genres such as salsa, call, the form is found in the military cadence or Jody which is used as an a cappella work song or to keep time when marching or running in formation. In Western classical music, call and response is known as antiphony, the phenomenon of call and response is pervasive in modern Western popular music, as well, largely because Western music has been so heavily shaped by African contributions. Cross-over rhythm and blues, rock n roll and rock music exhibit call-and-response characteristics, three examples are The Whos song My Generation, Black Dog by Led Zeppelin, and The Pogues Fairytale of New York. In Indian Film music, Ilaiyaraajas songs largely exhibit call-and-response pattern, but, each A and B part may itself consist of a short call and a short response, and those 2-bar calls and response may also be divided into 1-bar-each call-response pairs. To make an attempt at diagramming it, Twelve bars, A, 4-bar CALL A, 4-bar CALL B, a single leader makes a musical statement, and then the chorus responds together. American bluesman Muddy Waters utilizes call and response in one of his songs, Mannish Boy which is almost entirely leader/chorus call. CALL, Waters vocal, Now when I was a young boy RESPONSE, CALL, Waters, At the age of 5 RESPONSE, CALL, Drop the coin right into the slot. RESPONSE, CALL, You gotta get something thats really hot, RESPONSE, A contemporary example is from Carly Rae Jepsens Call Me Maybe. CALL, Hey I just met you RESPONSE, CALL, And this is crazy RESPONSE, while mostly in the chorus, it can also be heard in the breakdown between the vocals and distorted guitar. Part of the band poses a question, or a phrase that feels unfinished. In the blues, the B section often has a question-and-answer pattern, an example of this is the Christmas song Must Be Santa, CALL, Who laughs this way, ho ho ho. RESPONSE, Santa laughs this way, ho ho ho, a similar question-and-answer exchange occurs in the movie Casablanca between Sam and the band in the song Knock On Wood, CALL, Whos got trouble
Call and response (music)
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"My Generation" vocal melody with response. Play (
help ·
info)
30.
Cell (music)
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The 1957 Encyclopédie Larousse defines a cell in music as a small rhythmic and melodic design that can be isolated, or can make up one part of a thematic context. A cell can be developed, independent of its context, as a melodic fragment and it can be the source for the whole structure of the work, in that case it is called a generative cell. A rhythmic cell is a cell without melodic connotations and it may be entirely percussive or applied to different melodic segments
Cell (music)
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Tresillo, a rhythmic cell of the
tango and
habanera. Play (
help ·
info)
31.
Coda (music)
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Coda is a term used in music primarily to designate a passage that brings a piece to an end. Technically, it is an expanded cadence and it may be as simple as a few measures, or as complex as an entire section. The presence of a coda as an element in a movement is especially clear in works written in particular musical forms. Codas were commonly used in both form and variation movements during the Classical era. In a sonata movement, the recapitulation section will, in general, follow the exposition in its thematic content. In works in form, the coda occurs following the last variation. For one famous example, see Symphony No.8, codetta has a similar purpose to the coda, but on a smaller scale, concluding a section of a work instead of the work as a whole. A typical codetta concludes the exposition and recapitulation sections of a work in sonata form, following the second theme, thus, in the exposition, it usually appears in the secondary key, but, in the recapitulation, in the primary key. The codetta ordinarily closes with a cadence in the appropriate key. If the exposition is repeated, the codetta is also, but sometimes it has its ending slightly changed, cauda, a Latin word meaning tail, edge or trail is the root of coda and is used in the study of conductus of the 12th and 13th centuries. The cauda was a long melisma on one of the last syllables of the text, conducti were traditionally divided into two groups, conductus cum cauda and conductus sine cauda, based on the presence of the melisma. Thus, the cauda provided a role, also similar to the modern coda. Many songs in rock and other genres of music have sections identifiable as codas. A coda in these genres is sometimes referred to as an outro, while in jazz, modern church music, in music notation, the coda symbol, which resembles a set of crosshairs, is used as a navigation marker, similar to the dal Segno sign. It is used where the exit from a section is within that section rather than at the end. The instruction To Coda indicates that, upon reaching that point during the final repetition, for example, this can be used to provide a special ending for the final verse of a song. Coda Da capo Epilogue Repeat sign Transition Fade This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Coda (music)
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Coda sign
32.
Conclusion (music)
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In music, the conclusion is the ending of a composition and may take the form of a coda or outro. Pieces using sonata form typically use the recapitulation to conclude a piece, for example, The slow movement of Bachs Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, where a chord progression interrupts the final cadence. The slow movement of Symphony No.5 by Beethoven, where, echoing afterthoughts, follow the initial statements of the first theme and only return expanded in the coda. Varèses Density 21.5, where partitioning of the scale into whole tone scales provides the missing tritone of b implied in the previously exclusive partitioning by diminished seventh chords. Coda is a used in music in a number of different senses. An outro is the opposite of an intro, outro is a blend as it replaces the element in of the intro with its opposite, to create a new word. The term is used only in the realm of pop music. It can refer to the track of an album or to an outro-solo. Jeremy as recorded by Pearl Jam, outro - The final track of the M83 album Hurry Up, Were Dreaming. Repeat and fade is a direction used in sheet music when more than one repeat of the last few measures or so of a piece is desired with a fade-out as the manner in which to end the music. It originated as an effect made possible by the volume controls on sound recording equipment. No equivalent Italian term was in the lexicon of musical terms, so it was written in English. Repeat and fade endings are found in live performances, but are often used in studio recordings. Examples include, Hey Jude as recorded by The Beatles Time and a Word as recorded by Yes Crazy. as recorded by PaRappa and The Moonlight Da capo Epilogue
Conclusion (music)
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"
Jingle Bells "'s outro Play (
help ·
info)
33.
Exposition (music)
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In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term implies that the material will be developed or varied. In sonata form, the exposition is the very first major section, incorporating at least one important modulation to the dominant or other secondary key and presenting the principal thematic material. In a fugue, the exposition is the statement of the subject in imitation by the voices, especially the first such statement. The term is most widely used as a convenience to denote a portion of a movement identified as an example of classical tonal sonata form. The exposition typically establishes the musics tonic key, and then modulates to, and ends in, if the exposition starts in a minor key, it typically modulates to the relative major key, or less commonly, the minor dominant. There are many exceptions—for example the exposition of the first movement of Beethovens Waldstein Sonata modulates from C major to the mediant E major, the exposition in classical symphonies is typically repeated, although there are many examples where the composer does not specify such a repeat. If the movement starts with a section, this introduction is not usually analysed as being part of the movements exposition. In many works of the Classical period and some of the Romantic era and this is something which is not always done in concert from the 20th Century onwards. A fugue usually has two sections, the exposition and the body. In the exposition, each voice plays its own adaptation of the theme, in either a subject or an answer, the exposition usually ends on either a I or V chord, and is then followed by the body
Exposition (music)
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Exposition
Haydn's Sonata in G major,
Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 1-28 Play (
help ·
info).
34.
Lick (music)
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In popular music genres such as rock or jazz music, a lick is a stock pattern or phrase consisting of a short series of notes that is used in solos and melodic lines and accompaniment. Licks in rock and roll are often used through a formula, in a jazz band, a lick may be performed during an improvised solo, either during an accompanied solo chorus or during an unaccompanied solo break. Jazz licks are usually original short phrases which can be altered so that they can be used over a songs changing harmonic progressions, a lick is different from the related concept of a riff in that riffs can also include repeated chord progressions. Licks are usually associated with single-note melodic lines rather than chord progressions, however, like riffs, licks can be used as the basis of an entire song. Single-line riffs or licks used as the basis of Western classical music pieces are called ostinatos, contemporary jazz writers also use riff- or lick-like ostinatos in modal music and Latin jazz. A lick can be a hook, if the lick meets the definition of a hook, a idea, a passage or phrase, that is believed to be appealing and make the song stand out. A lick may be incorporated into a fill, which is a short passage played in the pause between phrases of a melody, for musicians, learning a lick is usually a form of imitation. Imitating style is as important as learning the appropriate scale over a given chords, by imitating, musicians understand and analyze what others have done, which in turn allows them to build a vocabulary of their own
Lick (music)
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Carter-style lick. Play (
help ·
info)
35.
Motif (music)
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It is commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still maintains its identity as a musical idea. The smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity, a harmonic motif is a series of chords defined in the abstract, that is, without reference to melody or rhythm. A melodic motif is a formula, established without reference to intervals. A rhythmic motif is the term designating a characteristic rhythmic formula, a motif thematically associated with a person, place, or idea is called a leitmotif. Occasionally such a motif is a cryptogram of the name involved. A head-motif is an idea at the opening of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements. In hearing a phrase as a figure, rather than a motif, we are at the time placing it in the background, even if it is. strong. Any motif may be used to construct complete melodies, themes and pieces, musical development uses a distinct musical figure that is subsequently altered, repeated, or sequenced throughout a piece or section of a piece of music, guaranteeing its unity. Such motivic development has its roots in the sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti. Motivic saturation is the immersion of a motive in a composition. The use of motives is discussed in Adolph Weiss The Lyceum of Schönberg, hugo Riemann defines a motif as, the concrete content of a rhythmically basic time-unit. Anton Webern defines a motif as, the smallest independent particle in a musical idea, arnold Schoenberg defines a motif as, a unit which contains one or more features of interval and rhythm presence is maintained in constant use throughout a piece. Head-motif refers to a musical idea of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements. It may also be called a motto, and is a frequent device in cyclic masses
Motif (music)
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A phrase originally presented as a motif may become a
figure which accompanies another
melody, as in the second movement of
Claude Debussy 's
String Quartet (1893). Play (
help ·
info) White would classify the accompaniment as motivic material since it was, "derived from an important motive stated earlier".
36.
Period (music)
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In music, period refers to certain types of recurrence in small-scale formal structure. Earlier usage varied somewhat, but usually referred to a similar notions of symmetry, recurrence, the concept of a musical period originates in comparisons between music structure and rhetoric at least as early as the 16th century. In Western art music or Classical music, a period is a group of phrases consisting usually of at least one antecedent phrase and one consequent phrase totaling about 8 measures in length. Generally, the antecedent ends in a weaker and the consequent in a cadence, often. Frequently, the consequent strongly parallels the antecedent, even sharing most of the save the final measures. In other cases, the consequent may differ greatly, the 1958 Encyclopédie Fasquelle defines a period as follows, A complex phrase, in which the various parts are enchained. A double period is, a group of at least four phrases. in which the first two form the antecedent and the third and fourth phrases together form the consequent. The antecedent phrase of a period begins with a basic idea. Measures 3-4 of the antecedent phrase bring an idea that leads to a weak cadence of some kind. The consequent phrase of the period repeats the antecedent but concludes with a stronger cadence, more specifically, the basic idea returns in measures 5-6 and then leads to a contrasting idea, which may or may not be based on that of the antecedent. In some sub-Saharan music and music of the African diaspora, the bell pattern embodies this definition of period, the bell pattern is repeated throughout the entire piece, and is the principal unit of musical time and rhythmic structure by which all other elements are arranged. The period is often a single measure, the seven-stroke standard bell pattern is one of the most commonly used representations of the musical period in sub-Saharan music. The first three strokes of the bell are antecedent, and the four strokes are consequent. The consequent diametrically opposes the antecedent, cuban musicologist Emilio Grenet represents the period in two measures of 2/4. As Grenet and many others describe the period, the antecedent is strong. This is the opposite of Western harmonic theory, where resolution is described as strong, despite this difference, both the harmonic and rhythmic periods have consequent resolution. In simplest terms, that resolution occurs harmonically when the tonic is sounded, metric consonance is achieved when the last stroke of clave coincides with the last main beat of the consequent measure. The antecedent measure has three strokes and is called the three-side of clave, the consequent measure has two strokes and is called the two-side
Period (music)
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Period (two four-bar phrases) in Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathetique), second movement. Play (
help ·
info) Second phrase built from new material, "gives the effect of greater freedom of melodic thought."
37.
Recapitulation (music)
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In music theory, the recapitulation is one of the sections of a movement written in sonata form. The recapitulation occurs after the development section, and typically presents once more the musical themes from the movements exposition. This material is most often recapitulated in the key of the movement. In some sonata form movements, the recapitulation presents an image of the movements exposition. However, many sonata form movements, even early examples, depart from this simple procedure, the composer of a sonata form movement may disguise the start of the recapitulation as an extension of the development section
Recapitulation (music)
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Recapitulation.
Haydn's Sonata in G Major,
Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 58-80 Play (
help ·
info).
38.
Repetition (music)
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Repetition is important in music, where sounds or sequences are often repeated. It may be called restatement, such as the restatement of a theme, while it plays a role in all music, with noise and musical tones lying along a spectrum from irregular to periodic sounds, it is especially prominent in specific styles. A literal repetition of a passage is often indicated by the use of a repeat sign. Repetition is a part and parcel of symmetry—and of establishing motifs and you find a melodic or rhythmic figure that you like, and you repeat it throughout the course of the melody or song. This sort of repetition. helps to unify your melody, its the equivalent of a steady drumbeat. However, too much of a thing can get annoying. If you repeat your figure too often, it start to bore the listener. Memory affects the music-listening experience so profoundly that it would be not be hyperbole to say that without memory there would be no music, as scores of theorists and philosophers have noted. music is based on repetition. Music works because we remember the tones we have just heard and are relating them to the ones that are just now being played, theodor Adorno criticized repetition and popular music as being psychotic and infantile. There is no universal norm or convention for the amount or type of repetition, all music contains repetition - but in differing amounts, thus Middleton distinguishes between discursive and musematic repetition. A museme is a unit of meaning, analogous to morpheme in linguistics. Discursive repetition is at the level of the phrase or section and he gives paradigmatic case, the riff and the phrase. Musematic repetition includes circularity, synchronic relations, and openness, discursive repetition includes linearity, rational control, and self-sufficiency. Discursive repetition is most often nested in larger repetitions and may be thought of as sectional, put more simply, musematic repetition is simple repetition of precisely the same musical figure, such as a repeated chorus. Discursive repetition is, both repetitive and non-repetitive, such as the repetition of the rhythmic figure with different notes. Therefore, they would repeat parts of their song at times, making music like sonata very repetitive, Repetition is important in musical form. The repetition of any section of ternary form results in expanded ternary form, types of repetition include exact repetition, repetition after digression, and nonrepetition. Copland and Slatkin offer Au clair de la lune and Ach. du lieber Augustin Play as examples of aba, at the tone level, repetition creates a drone
Repetition (music)
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Motivic repetition in
Beethoven 's
Sonata in F Major, op. 10 no. 2.(Jonas 1982, p.3) Play (
help ·
info)
39.
Rondo
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In rondo form, a principal theme alternates with one or more contrasting themes, generally called episodes, but also occasionally referred to as digressions or couplets. Possible patterns in the Classical period include, ABA, ABACA and these are sometimes designated first rondo, second rondo, and third rondo, respectively. The number of themes can vary from piece to piece, a Baroque predecessor to the rondo was the ritornello. Ritornello form was used in the fast movements of baroque concertos, the entire orchestra plays the main ritornello theme, while soloists play the intervening episodes. Here, the second acts in a similar way to the second theme group in sonata form by appearing first in a key other than the tonic. Unlike sonata form, thematic development does not need to occur except possibly in the coda, Rondo as a character-type refers to music that is fast and vivacious – normally Allegro. Many classical rondos feature music of a popular or folk character, Music that has been designated as rondo normally subscribes to both the form and character. On the other hand, there are examples of slow and reflective works that are rondo in form but not in character. The term -- and perhaps formal principle -- may have derived from the poetic form, rondeau. Jean-Philippe Rameaus Rondeau des Indes Galantes or Les Barricades Mystérieuses which is not really a rondo. Rondo and Ritornello Forms in Tonal Music Rondo form in traditional marches from Limoux carnival http, //www. karmina. cz/mp3/cd7/09. mp3 Texts on Wikisource, Rondo
Rondo
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Typical tonal structure of classical seven-part rondo, late 18th & early 19th centuries.
40.
Section (music)
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In music, a section is a complete, but not independent musical idea. Types of sections include the introduction or intro, exposition, recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, conclusion, coda or outro, fadeout, bridge or interlude. In sectional forms such as binary, the unit is built from various smaller clear-cut units in combination. Some well known songs consist of one or two sections, for example Jingle Bells commonly contains verses and choruses. It may contain auxiliary members such as an introduction and/or outro, a section is, a major structural unit perceived as the result of the coincidence of relatively large numbers of structural phenomena. An episode may also refer to a section, a passage is a musical idea that may or may not be complete or independent. For example, fill, riff, and all sections, musical material is any musical idea, complete or not, independent or not, including motifs. Song structure Period Phrase Repetition and repeat sign
Section (music)
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Rhythm changes bridge (B section of an
AABA form) in the key of C. Play (
help ·
info)
41.
Song structure (popular music)
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Song structure or the musical forms of songs in traditional music and music are typically sectional, repeating forms used in songs, such as strophic form and is a part of the songwriting process. Other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, verse-chorus form, and the twelve-bar blues, popular music songs traditionally use the same music for each verse of stanza of lyrics. Pop and traditional forms can be used even with songs that have differences in melodies. The most common format is intro, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, bridge, verse, chorus and outro. The formal sections found in songs have been identified as the verse, chorus, bridge, hook, the foundation of popular music is the verse and chorus structure. Pop and rock songs nearly always have both a verse and a chorus, both are essential elements, with the verse usually played first. Exceptions abound, with She Loves You by The Beatles being an example in the rock music genre. Each verse usually employs the melody, while the lyrics usually change for each verse. The chorus usually consists of a melodic and lyrical phrase which is repeated, pop songs may have an introduction and coda, but these elements are not essential to the identity of most songs. Pop songs often connect the verse and chorus via a bridge, the verse and chorus are usually repeated throughout a song though the bridge, intro, and coda are usually only used once. Some pop songs may have a section, particularly in rock or blues influenced pop. During the solo section one or more instruments play a line which may be the melody used by the singer, or. The introduction is a section that comes at the beginning of the piece. Generally speaking, an introduction will contain just music and no words and it usually builds up suspense for the listener so when the downbeat drops in, it creates a release or surprise. In some songs, the intro is one or more bars of the tonic chord, the introduction may also be based around the chords used in the verse, chorus, or bridge, or a stock turnaround progression may be played, such as the I–vi–ii–V progression. In some cases, a contains only drums or percussion parts which set the rhythm. Alternately the introduction may consist of a sung by the lead singer. In popular music, a verse roughly corresponds to a poetic stanza because it consists of rhyming lyrics most often with an AABB or ABAB rhyme scheme, when two or more sections of the song have almost identical music and different lyrics, each section is considered one verse
Song structure (popular music)
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"
Jingle Bells "'s introduction Play intro (
help ·
info) or full song (
help ·
info) Structure: Intro, Verse I, Chorus, Verse II, Chorus, Verse III, Chorus, Verse IV, Chorus, Outro.
42.
Strophic form
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Strophic form is the term applied to songs in which all verses or stanzas of the text are sung to the same music. The opposite of strophic form, with new music written for every stanza, is called through-composed, the term is derived from the Greek word στροφή, strophē, meaning turn. It is the simplest and most durable of musical forms, extending a piece of music by repetition of a formal section. This may be analyzed as A A A, a modified strophic form varies the pattern in some stanzas somewhat like a rudimentary theme and variations. Contrasting verse-chorus form is a form that alternates between two sections of music, although this may also be interpreted as constituting a larger strophic verse-refrain form. Many folk and popular songs are strophic in form, including the twelve bar blues, ballads, hymns, examples include Barbara Allen, Erie Canal, and Michael Row the Boat Ashore. Many classical art songs are composed in strophic form, from the 17th century French air de cour to 19th century German lieder. Haydn used the variation form in many of his string quartets. Franz Schubert composed many important strophic lieder, including settings of both poems and simpler, folk-like texts, such as his Heidenröslein and Der Fischer. Several of the songs in his song cycle Die schöne Müllerin use strophic form, online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusikforschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e. V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas Phleps
Strophic form
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Das Wandern, the opening song in
Franz Schubert's song cycle Die schöne Müllerin, is a classic example of a strophic song.
43.
Subject (music)
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In music, a subject is the material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a composition is based. In forms other than the fugue this may be known as the theme, a subject may be perceivable as a complete musical expression in itself, separate from the work in which it is found. In contrast to an idea or motif, a subject is usually a phrase or period. The Encyclopédie Fasquelle defines a theme as Any element, motif, Thematic changes and processes are often structurally important, and theorists such as Rudolph Reti have created analysis from a purely thematic perspective. Fred Lerdahl describes thematic relations as associational and thus outside his cognitive-based generative theorys scope of analysis, Music based on a single theme is called monothematic, while music based on several themes is called polythematic. Most fugues are monothematic and most pieces in sonata form are polythematic, in the exposition of a fugue, the principal theme is announced successively in each voice – sometimes in a transposed form. In some compositions, a subject is announced and then a second melody, sometimes called a countersubject or secondary theme. Music without subjects/themes, or without recognizable, repeating, and developing subjects/themes, is called athematic, examples include the pre-twelve-tone or early atonal works of Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, and Alois Hába. Schoenberg once said that, intoxicated by the enthusiasm of having freed music from the shackles of tonality, in fact, I … believed that now music could renounce motivic features and remain coherent and comprehensible nevertheless. Examples in the works of later composers include Polyphonie X and Structures I by Pierre Boulez, Sonata for Two Pianos by Karel Goeyvaerts, and Punkte by Karlheinz Stockhausen. In a fugue, when the first voice has completed the subject, and the voice is playing the answer. The countersubject usually contrasts with the subject/answer phrase shape, in a fugue, a countersubject is the continuation of counterpoint in the voice that began with the subject, occurring against the answer. It is not usually regarded as a feature of fugue. Attacco Cell Figure Formula composition Leitmotif Thematic transformation Benward, Bruce, Music in Theory and Practice, eighth edition, vol. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham. Une nouvelle grammaire musicale, prémices et premiers essais / A New Musical Grammar, Principles, la Scena Musicale 6, no.3. Lerdahl, Fred. Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Encyclopédie de la musique,3 vols, Music and Discourse, Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Caroline Abbate
Subject (music)
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First theme of
Haydn's Sonata in G Major,
Hob. XVI: G1, I,
mm. 1–12 Play (
help ·
info) (Benward & Saker 2009, p. 136)
44.
Thirty-two-bar form
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Examples of 32-bar AABA form songs include Over the Rainbow, Whatll I Do, Make You Feel My Love, Blue Skies, and Willie Nelsons Crazy. At its core, the basic AABA 32-bar song form consists of four sections, each section being 8 bars in length, each of these 8-bar sections is assigned a letter name, based on its melodic and harmonic content. The A sections all share the same melody, and the title lyric typically falls on either the first or last line of each A section. The B section musically and lyrically contrasts the A sections, the B section may use a different harmony that contrasts with the harmony of the A sections. For example in the song Ive Got Rhythm, the A sections are in the key of B♭, Song form terminology is not standardized, and the B section is also referred to as the middle eight, bridge, or primary bridge. This introductory section is usually sixteen bars long and establishes the background and mood of the number, the sectional verse is often omitted from modern performances. It is not assigned a letter in the AABA naming scheme, in music theory, the middle 8 or bridge is the B section of a 32-bar form. This section has a different melody from the rest of the song. It is called a middle 8 because it happens in the middle of the song, in early 20th century terminology, the main 32-bar AABA section, in its entirety, was called the refrain or chorus. This is in contrast to the usage of the term chorus. Additionally, verse, chorus and refrain all have different meanings in modern musical terminology, see the below chart for clarification, Though the 32-bar form resembles the ternary form of the operatic da capo aria, it did not become common until the late 1910s. It became the form of American popular song around 1925–1926. The 32-bar form was used in rock in the 1950s and 60s. Songwriters such as the Brill Building and Lennon–McCartney also used modified or extended 32-bar forms, the Beatles, like many others, would extend the form with an instrumental section, second bridge, break or reprise of the introduction, etc. and another return to the main theme. Introductions and codas also extended the form, in Down Mexico Way the A sections … are doubled in length, to sixteen bars—but this affects the overall scheme only marginally. Appen, Ralf von / Frei-Hauenschild, Markus AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms, online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusikforschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e. V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas Phleps
Thirty-two-bar form
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"
Over the Rainbow " (Arlen/Harburg) exemplifies the 20th-century popular thirty-two-bar song.
45.
Variation (music)
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In music, variation is a formal technique where material is repeated in an altered form. The changes may involve harmony, melody, counterpoint, rhythm, timbre, Variation forms include ground bass, passacaglia, chaconne, and theme and variations. Ground bass, passacaglia and chaconne are typically based on brief ostinato motifs providing a repetitive harmonic basis and are typically continuous evolving structures. Theme and variation forms are based specifically on melodic variation, in which the fundamental musical idea. This form may in part have derived from the practical inventiveness of musicians, Court dances were long, Variation forms can be written as free-standing pieces for solo instruments or ensembles, or can constitute a movement of a larger piece. Most jazz music is structured on a pattern of theme. 56, Elgars Enigma Variations, Francks Variations Symphoniques, and Richard Strausss Don Quixote, both Schuberts Death and the Maiden Quartet and Trout Quintet take their titles from his songs used as variation movements. Although the first isolated example emerged in the 14th century, works in theme-and-variation form first emerge in the sixteenth century. Possibly the earliest published example is the diferencias for vihuela by Luis de Narváez, a favorite form of variations in Renaissance music was divisions, a type in which the basic rhythmic beat is successively divided into smaller and smaller values. Keyboard works in form were written by a number of 16th-century English composers, including William Byrd, Hugh Aston. Outstanding examples of early Baroque variations are the ciaccone of Claudio Monteverdi, in the Classical era, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote a great number of variations, such as the first movement of his Piano Sonata in A, K.331, or the finale of his Clarinet Quintet. 103, the Drumroll, and the Variations in F minor for piano, ludwig van Beethoven wrote many variation sets in his career. Some were independent sets, for instance the Diabelli Variations, Op.120, others form single movements or parts of movements in larger works, such as first movement of the Piano Sonata No. 12, Op.26, or the variations in the movement of the Third Symphony. Variation sets also occur in several of his works, such as the slow movement of his String Quartet No. 12, Op.127, the movement of his final Piano Sonata No. 32, Op.111, and the third movement of the Ninth Symphony. Franz Schubert wrote five variation sets using his own lieder as themes, amongst them is the slow movement of his string quartet Death and the Maiden D.810, an intense set of variations on his somber lied of the same title
Variation (music)
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Phrase and variation from
Chopin 's
Nocturne in F minor. Play (
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