1.
Female
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Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, that produces non-mobile ova. Most female mammals, including humans, have two X chromosomes. The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, a female individual cannot reproduce sexually without access to the gametes of a male. Some organisms can reproduce sexually and asexually. There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species, oogamy is a form of anisogamy. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Other than the difference in the type of gamete produced. The concept is not limited to animals, egg cells are produced by chytrids, diatoms, water moulds and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, the word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning woman. It is not etymologically related to the male, but in the late 14th century the spelling was altered in English to parallel the spelling of male. A distinguishing characteristic of the class Mammalia is the presence of mammary glands, the mammary glands are modified sweat glands that produce milk, which is used to feed the young for some time after birth. Mammary glands are most obvious in humans, as the human body stores large amounts of fatty tissue near the nipples. Mammary glands are present in all mammals, although they are vestigial in the male of the species, most mammalian females have two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in size, one of the females X chromosomes is inactivated in each cell of placental mammals while the paternally derived X is inactivated in marsupials. In birds and some reptiles, by contrast, it is the female which is heterozygous and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes. Intersex conditions can give rise to other combinations, such as XO or XXX in mammals. However, these conditions result in sterility. A common symbol used to represent the female sex is ♀, according to Schott, the most established view is that the male and female symbols are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of these planets, namely Thouros and Phosphoros
2.
Egg incubation
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Incubation refers to the process by which certain oviparous animals hatch their eggs, it also refers to the development of the embryo within the egg. Multiple and various factors are vital to the incubation of various species of animal, in many species of reptile for example, no fixed temperature is necessary, but the actual temperature determines the sex ratio of the offspring. In birds in contrast, the genders of offspring are genetically determined, especially in poultry, the act of sitting on eggs to incubate them is called brooding. A wide range of incubation habits is displayed among birds, the Namaqua sandgrouse of the deserts of southern Africa, needing to keep its eggs cool during the heat of the day, stands over them drooping its wings to shade them. The humidity is also critical, because if the air is too dry the egg will lose too much water to the atmosphere, which can make hatching difficult or impossible. As incubation proceeds, an egg will normally become lighter, in the species that incubate, the work is divided differently between the sexes. Possibly the most common pattern is that the female all the incubation, as in the coscoroba swan. In some species, such as the crane, the male. In others, such as the cassowaries, only the male incubates, the male mountain plover incubates the females first clutch, but if she lays a second, she incubates it herself. In hoatzins, some birds help their parents incubate later broods, the incubation period, the time from the start of uninterrupted incubation to the emergence of the young, varies from 11 days to 85 days. In these latter, the incubation is interrupted, the longest uninterrupted period is 64 to 67 days in the emperor penguin, in general smaller birds tend to hatch faster, but there are exceptions, and cavity nesting birds tend to have longer incubation periods. It can be a demanding process, with adult albatrosses losing as much as 83 g of body weight a day. Megapode eggs take from 49 to 90 days depending on the mound, even in other birds, ambient temperatures can lead to variation in incubation period. Normally, of course, the egg is incubated outside the body, however, in one recorded case, the egg incubation occurred entirely within a chicken. The chick hatched inside and emerged from its mother without the shell, embryo development remains suspended until the onset of incubation. The freshly laid eggs of fowl, ostrich, and several other species can be stored for about two weeks when maintained under 5 C. Extended periods of suspension have been observed in marine birds. Some start to incubate after the last egg of the clutch, incubation periods for birds Very few mammals lay eggs
3.
Egg
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An egg is the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the animal hatches. An egg results from fertilization of an ovum, most arthropods, vertebrates, and mollusks lay eggs, although some do not, such as scorpions and most mammals. Reptile eggs, bird eggs, and monotreme eggs are laid out of water, eggs laid on land or in nests are usually kept within a favorable temperature range while the embryo grows. When the embryo is developed it hatches, i. e. breaks out of the eggs shell. Some embryos have an egg tooth with which to crack, pip. The largest recorded egg is from a shark, and was 30 cm ×14 cm ×9 cm in size. At 1.5 kg and up to 17.8 cm ×14 cm, the bee hummingbird produces the smallest known bird egg, which weighs half of a gram. The eggs laid by some reptiles and most fish can be smaller. Reproductive structures similar to the egg in other kingdoms are termed spores, or in spermatophytes seeds, several major groups of animals typically have readily distinguishable eggs. The most common strategy for fish is known as oviparity. Typically large numbers of eggs are laid at one time and the eggs are left to develop without parental care. When the larvae hatch from the egg, they carry the remains of the yolk in a yolk sac which continues to nourish the larvae for a few days as they learn how to swim. Once the yolk is consumed, there is a point after which they must learn how to hunt. A few fish, notably the rays and most sharks use ovoviviparity in which the eggs are fertilized, however the larvae still grow inside the egg consuming the eggs yolk and without any direct nourishment from the mother. The mother then gives birth to relatively mature young, in certain instances, the physically most developed offspring will devour its smaller siblings for further nutrition while still within the mothers body. This is known as intrauterine cannibalism, the eggs of fish and amphibians are jellylike. Cartilagenous fish eggs are fertilized internally and exhibit a variety of both internal and external embryonic development. Most fish species spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after the female lays them and these eggs do not have a shell and would dry out in the air
4.
Clutch (eggs)
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A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds, amphibians, or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest. In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators results in double-clutching, the technique is used to double the production of a species eggs, in the California condor case, specifically to increase population size. The act of putting ones hand in a nest to remove eggs is known as dipping the clutch, clutch size differs greatly between species, sometimes even within the same genus. It may also differ within the species due to many factors including habitat, health, nutrition, predation pressures. Clutch size variation can also reflect variation in optimal reproduction effort, in birds, clutch size can vary within a species due to various features, while some species are determinant layers, laying a species-specific number of eggs. Long-lived species tend to have smaller clutch sizes than short-lived species, the evolution of optimal clutch size is also driven by other factors, such as parent-offspring conflict. Clutch size recorded in field notes may or may not include lost or broken eggs
5.
Condor
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Condor is the common name for two species of New World vultures, each in a monotypic genus. The name derives from the Quechua kuntur and they are the largest flying land birds in the Western Hemisphere. They are, The Andean condor which inhabits the Andean mountains, the California condor currently restricted to the western coastal mountains of the United States and Mexico and the northern desert mountains of Arizona in the United States. Condors are part of the family Cathartidae, whereas the 15 species of Old World vultures are in the family Accipitridae, that includes hawks, eagles. The New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors, however, they both are carrion-eaters and have distinctive bare heads. Both condors are very large broad-winged soaring birds, the Andean condor being 5 cm shorter on average than the northern species, California condors are the largest flying land birds in North America. The Andean condor is second only to the albatross in terms of wingspan among all living flying birds. The adult plumage is black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly surrounding the base of the neck which are meticulously kept clean by the bird. As an adaptation for hygiene, the head and neck have few feathers. The head is flattened above. In the male it is crowned with a caruncle or comb, while the skin of the neck in the lies in folds. The skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state, the middle toe is greatly elongated, and the hinder one but slightly developed, while the talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt. The feet are more adapted to walking as in their relatives the storks. The female, contrary to the rule among birds of prey, is smaller than the male.5 to 11 kg for females. Overall length can range from 117 to 135 cm Measurements are usually taken from specimens reared in captivity, California condors wingspan measures up to 2.9 m, and they can weigh up to 10.4 kg. The skin on the necks will vary in color, depending on the age of the birds, adult birds skin color can range from cream, pink, yellow, or even orange during breeding season. Some scientists also believe that an ancient relative of the condor, Argentavis magnificens from South America, sexual maturity and breeding behavior do not appear in the condor until 5 or 6 years of age. They may live for 50 years or more, and mate for life, the worlds oldest condor died at 100 in the Jardin dEssai du Hamma in Algiers
6.
Grey partridge
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The grey partridge, also known as the English partridge, Hungarian partridge, or hun, is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. The scientific name is the Latin for partridge, and is derived from Ancient Greek perdix. Widespread and common throughout much of its range, the partridge is evaluated as of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, it has suffered a decline in the UK. This partridge breeds on farmland across most of Europe into western Asia, a popular gamebird in vast areas of North America, it is commonly known as Hungarian partridge or just hun. The grey partridge is a bird, 28–32 cm long, brown-backed, with grey flanks. The belly is white, usually marked with a large chestnut-brown horse-shoe mark in males, hens lay up to twenty eggs in a ground nest. The nest is usually in the margin of a cereal field and these are present after around 16 weeks of age when the birds have moulted into adult plumage. Young grey partridges are mostly yellow-brown and lack the distinctive face, the song is a harsh kieerr-ik, and when disturbed, like most of the gamebirds, it flies a short distance on rounded wings, often calling rick rick rick as it rises. They are a species, but the young in particular take insects as an essential protein supply. During the first 10 days of life, the young can only digest insects, the parents lead their chicks to the edges of cereal fields, where they can forage for insects. They are also a terrestrial species, and form flocks outside the breeding season. Their numbers have fallen in these areas by as much as 85% in the last 25 years, efforts are being made in Great Britain by organizations such as the Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust to halt this decline by creating conservation headlands. In 1995, it was nominated a Biodiversity Action Plan species, gray Partridge Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Ageing and sexing by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Feathers of Grey partridge
7.
Avian clutch size
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Clutch size refers to the number of eggs laid in a single brood by a nesting pair of birds. Several patterns of variation have been noted and the relationship between latitude and clutch size has been a topic of interest in avian reproduction and evolution. David Lack, an ornithologist and evolutionary biologist, was one of the first scientists to investigate thoroughly the effect of latitude on the number of eggs per nest, since Lacks first paper in the mid-1940s, an extensive amount of research has been conducted in this area. Most bird species show a pattern of increasing clutch size with increasing latitude. The proximate and ultimate causes for this pattern have been a subject of intense debate involving the ideas of group, david Lack observed a direct relationship between latitude and avian clutch size. Birds near the equator laid approximately half as many eggs as those that resided in northern temperate habitats and he proposed the Food Limitation Hypothesis in an attempt to explain this unique pattern. The hypothesis states that avian clutch size differences arise from differences in food availability, nature favours clutch sizes that correspond to the average maximum number of offspring that the parent can sustain given a limited food supply. Thus, the shortage of supply in tropical habitats limits avian clutch size. Furthermore, the abundance of predators near the equator as compared to regions near the poles gave rise to the Nest Predation Hypothesis. High rates of nest predation may select for smaller clutches to reduce the investment in a single nesting attempt. Moreover, larger clutches are more likely to be spotted by predators due to a rate of food delivery by the parent. This increase in parental activity will increase the probability that predators will locate nests, various studies have been performed to find supporting evidence for these two hypotheses. However, field studies have provided support for either of these hypotheses. It is clear that Lacks Food Limitation Hypothesis and the Nest Predation Hypothesis are plausible explanations for explaining the variation in avian clutch size. However, further analysis is required as field studies have provided support for these hypotheses. Few field studies have been published on this hypothesis, in another study, researchers analyzed if the rates of food delivery and nest predation explain the variation in clutch size observed among species between and within South and North America. They analyzed whether Skutch’s Hypothesis explained clutch size differences within or between latitudes, the study analyzed bird populations in large intact forests in Arizona, USA and subtropical Argentina where they monitored 1,331 nests. The authors of the study suggested analyzing parental mortality rates in southern and northern climates in addition to considering Skutch’s theory, therefore, Skutch’s Hypothesis - by itself - is not an accurate predictor of the latitudinal clutch size trend and evidence for it remain equivocal
8.
Calcium carbonate
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Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms, snails. Calcium carbonate is the ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale. It is medicinally used as a supplement or as an antacid. Calcium carbonate shares the properties of other carbonates. CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca2 This reaction is important in the erosion of rock, forming caverns. An unusual form of calcium carbonate is the hexahydrate, ikaite, ikaite is stable only below 6 °C. The vast majority of calcium used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate, can be produced from a quarried source. Alternatively, calcium carbonate is prepared from calcium oxide, other forms can be prepared, the denser, orthorhombic λ-CaCO3 and μ-CaCO3, occurring as the mineral vaterite. The aragonite form can be prepared by precipitation at temperatures above 85 °C, calcite contains calcium atoms coordinated by 6 oxygen atoms, in aragonite they are coordinated by 9 oxygen atoms. The vaterite structure is not fully understood, magnesium carbonate MgCO3 has the calcite structure, whereas strontium and barium carbonate adopt the aragonite structure, reflecting their larger ionic radii. Calcite, aragonite and vaterite are pure calcium carbonate minerals, industrially important source rocks which are predominantly calcium carbonate include limestone, chalk, marble and travertine. Eggshells, snail shells and most seashells are predominantly calcium carbonate, oyster shells have enjoyed recent recognition as a source of dietary calcium, but are also a practical industrial source. While not practical as a source, dark green vegetables such as broccoli. Beyond Earth, strong evidence suggests the presence of Calcium carbonate on Mars, signs of Calcium Carbonate have been detected at more than one location. This provides some evidence for the past presence of liquid water, Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings and constitute an enormous carbon reservoir. Calcium carbonate occurs as aragonite, calcite and dolomite, the carbonate minerals form the rock types, limestone, chalk, marble, travertine, tufa, and others
9.
Passerine
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A passerine is any bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. A notable feature of passerines compared to other orders of Aves is the arrangement of their toes, sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders, with over 5,000 identified species. It has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders and it contains more than 110 families, the second-most of any order of tetrapods. The passerines contain several groups of parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches. Most passerines are omnivorous, while the shrikes are carnivorous, the order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni, Passeri, and the basal Acanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a range of songs and other vocalizations. Most passerines are smaller than members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the thick-billed raven and the races of common raven. The superb lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall. The smallest passerine is the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, at 6.5 cm and 4.2 g, the foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called anisodactyl arrangement. This arrangement enables the birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas, the hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. The passeriformes have this toe arrangement in common with hunting birds like eagles, the leg arrangement of passerine birds contains a special adaptation for perching. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off and this is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles. Most passerine birds develop 12 tail feathers, although the superb lyrebird has 16, certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces. Some passerines, specifically in the family Ploceidae, are known for their elaborate sexual ornaments. A well-known example is the long-tailed widowbird, the chicks of passerines are altricial, blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care, vinous-throated parrotbill has two egg colours, white and blue
