1.
Longitude Act
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The Longitude Act was an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in July 1714 at the end of the reign of Queen Anne. It established the Board of Longitude and offered rewards for anyone who could find a simple. The Act of 1714 was followed by a series of other Longitude Acts that revised or replaced the original, as transoceanic travel grew in significance, so did the importance of accurate and reliable navigation at sea. Scientists and navigators had been working on the problem of measuring longitude for a long time, while determining latitude was relatively easy, early ocean navigators had to rely on dead reckoning to find longitude. This brought the problem of measuring longitude at sea into sharp focus once more, following the Merchants and Seamen Petition, which called for finding an adequate solution and was presented to Westminster Palace in May 1714, the Longitude Act was passed in July 1714. For details on many of the efforts towards determining the longitude, the Longitude Act offered a series of rewards, rather than a single prize. The rewards increased with the accuracy achieved, £10,000 for anyone who could find a way of determining longitude at sea to an accuracy of not greater than one degree of longitude. The reward was to be increased to £15,000 if the accuracy was not greater than 40 minutes, many rewards were paid out over the 114 years of the Board of Longitudes existence. John Harrison received more money than any individual, with several rewards from the 1730s-1750s. Subsequent Longitude Acts offered different rewards, in 1820 £5,000 was paid to the officers and crews of HMS Hecla and HMS Griper under this Act. Alexi Baker, Longitude Acts, Board of Longitude project, University of Cambridge Digital Library
2.
1707 Scilly naval disaster
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The Scilly naval disaster of 1707 was the loss of four warships of a Royal Navy fleet off the Isles of Scilly in severe weather on 22 October 1707. 1550 sailors aboard the vessels lost their lives, making the incident one of the worst maritime disasters in the history of the British Isles. The main cause of the disaster was the inability to accurately calculate their positions. During this campaign, which was fought from 29 July to 21 August, the overall campaign was nevertheless unsuccessful and the alliance was ultimately defeated by Franco-Spanish units. The British fleet was ordered to home, and set sail from Gibraltar to Portsmouth in late September. The force under Shovells command comprised fifteen ships of the line as well as four fireships, the sloop Weazel, the passage was marked by extremely bad weather and constant squalls and gales. As the fleet sailed out on the Atlantic, passing the Bay of Biscay on their way to England, the weather worsened and storms gradually pushed the ships off their planned course. Finally, on the night of 22 October 1707 Old Style, the fleet was thought to be sailing safely west of Ushant, an island outpost off the coast of Brittany. Following behind the Association was St George, whose crew saw the flagship go down in three or four minutes. St George also struck rocks and suffered damage but eventually managed to get off, HMS Eagle, a 70-gun third-rate ship of the line commanded by Captain Robert Hancock, hit the Crim Rocks and was lost with all hands on Tearing Ledge amongst the Western Rocks. It is estimated that the HMS Eagle had at least as many crew as the HMS Association, sinking a few hundred metres away from Bishop Rock, her wreck lies in a depth of 130 feet. HMS Romney, a 50-gun fourth-rate ship of the commanded by Captain William Coney, hit Bishop Rock. The sole survivor from the three largest ships was George Lawrence, who had worked as a butcher before joining the crew of Romney as quartermaster. HMS Firebrand, a fireship commanded by Captain Francis Percy, struck the Outer Gilstone Rock like Association, the exact number of officers, sailors and marines who were killed in the sinking of the four ships is unknown. Statements vary between 1,400 and over 2,000, making it one of the greatest maritime disasters in British history, for days afterwards, bodies continued to wash onto the shores of the isles along with the wreckage of the warships and personal effects. Many dead sailors from the wrecks were buried on the island of St Agnes, a small memorial was later erected at this site. The circumstances under which the remains were found gave rise to stories. Shovell was temporarily buried on the beach on St Marys, by order of Queen Anne his body was later exhumed, embalmed and taken to London where he was interred in Westminster Abbey
3.
Cloudesley Shovell
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Admiral of the Fleet Sir Cloudesley Shovell, was an English naval officer. As a junior officer he saw action at the Battle of Solebay, as a captain he fought at the Battle of Bantry Bay during the Williamite War in Ireland. As a flag officer Shovell commanded a division at the Battle of Barfleur during the Nine Years War, along with Admiral Henry Killigrew and Admiral Ralph Delaval, Shovell was put in joint command of the fleet shortly afterwards. During the War of the Spanish Succession Shovell commanded a squadron which served under Admiral George Rooke at the capture of Gibraltar, working in conjunction with a landing force under the Earl of Peterborough his forces undertook the siege and capture of Barcelona. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Navy while at Lisbon the following year and he also commanded the naval element of a combined attack on Toulon, base of the main French fleet, in coordination with the Austrian army under Prince Eugene of Savoy in the summer of 1707. His life was brought to an end in a shipwreck in the Isles of Scilly later that year. He also served as MP for Rochester from 1695 to 1701, born in Cockthorpe, the son of John Shovell, a Norfolk gentleman, and Anne Shovell, Shovell was born into a family of property and distinction which, although not poor, was by no means wealthy. The unusual first name of Cloudesley derives from the surname of his maternal grandmother Lucy Cloudisley and he went to sea as a cabin boy in the care of a paternal relative, Admiral Sir Christopher Myngs, in 1663. After Myngs death he remained at sea in the care of Admiral Sir John Narborough, promoted to masters mate on 17 September 1672, Shovell transferred to the third-rate HMS Fairfax later that month and then moved to the third-rate HMS Henrietta in November 1672. Promoted to lieutenant on 25 September 1673, he transferred to the third-rate HMS Harwich in 1675, Shovell led a surprise attack on the pirates, sinking a number of their ships in January 1676. For this action he received the sum of £80 from Narborough, two months later he undertook a second raid against the pirates, for which he was awarded a gold medal from King Charles II. In a letter from the Admiralty, Samuel Pepys recorded the Kings satisfaction with Shovell’s actions, promoted to captain 17 September 1677, Shovell was given command of the fifth-rate HMS Sapphire. He transferred to the fourth-rate HMS Phoenix in April 1679 and returned to HMS Sapphire in May 1679 before transferring to the fifth-rate HMS Nonsuch in July 1680, throughout this period Shovell was engaged in the defence of Tangier from Salé raiders. After the battle, Commodore John Ashby and Shovell were knighted and he transferred to the third-rate HMS Monck in October 1689 and ordered to patrol the area between Ireland and the Isles of Scilly. In June 1690 he was commodore of a squadron, which convoyed King William across St Georges Channel to Carrickfergus. Promoted to rear-admiral on 3 June 1690, Shovell hoisted his flag in the first-rate HMS Royal William and he provided naval support for Percy Kirkes Capture of Waterford in July 1690. At Barfleur Shovells flagship was the first ship to break through the enemys line and he received a wound in the thigh during the action, which later incapacitated him during preparations for the attack which destroyed the French ships that had taken refuge at La Hogue. Along with Admiral Henry Killigrew and Admiral Ralph Delaval, Shovell was put in joint command of the fleet in January 1693, after the disastrous attack on the Smyrna merchantmen at the Battle of Lagos in June 1693, all three admirals were dismissed from their joint command
4.
Isles of Scilly
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The Isles of Scilly are an archipelago off the south western tip of the Cornish peninsula of Great Britain. It is the southernmost location in England and the United Kingdom, the population of all the islands at the 2011 census was 2,203. Scilly forms part of the county of Cornwall, and some services are combined with those of Cornwall. However, since 1890, the islands have had a local authority. Since the passing of the Isles of Scilly Order 1930, this authority has had the status of a county council, the adjective Scillonian is sometimes used for people or things related to the archipelago. The Duchy of Cornwall owns most of the land on the islands. Tourism is a part of the local economy, along with agriculture — particularly the production of cut flowers. Scilly has been inhabited since the Stone Age, and until the early 20th century its history had been one of subsistence living, farming and fishing continue, but the main industry now is tourism. The islands may correspond to the Cassiterides visited by the Phoenicians, however, the archipelago itself does not contain much tin—it may be that the islands were used as a staging post. It is likely that until recent times the islands were much larger. The word Ennor is a contraction of the Old Cornish En Noer, remains of a prehistoric farm have been found on Nornour, which is now a small rocky skerry far too small for farming. There once was an Iron Age Britain community here that extended into Roman times and this community was likely formed by immigrants from Brittany, probably the Veneti who were active in the tin trade that originated in mining activity in Cornwall and Devon. At certain low tides the sea becomes shallow enough for people to walk between some of the islands and this is possibly one of the sources for stories of drowned lands, e. g. Lyonesse. Ancient field walls are visible below the tide line off some of the islands. Some of the Cornish language place names appear to reflect past shorelines. The whole of southern England has been sinking in opposition to post-glacial rebound in Scotland, this has caused the rias on the southern Cornish coast, e. g. River Fal. Scilly has been identified as the place of exile of two heretical 4th century bishops, Instantius and Tiberianus, who were followers of Priscillian, in 995, Olaf Tryggvason became King Olaf I of Norway. 960, Olaf had raided various European cities and fought in several wars, in 986 he met a Christian seer on the Isles of Scilly
5.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain
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Anne became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, two of her realms, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, united as a sovereign state known as Great Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death, Anne was born in the reign of her uncle Charles II, who had no legitimate children. Her father, James, was first in line to the throne and his suspected Roman Catholicism was unpopular in England, and on Charless instructions Anne was raised as an Anglican. Three years after he succeeded Charles, James was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Annes Dutch Protestant brother-in-law and cousin William III became joint monarch with his wife, Annes elder sister Mary II. Although the sisters had been close, disagreements over Annes finances, status and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Marys accession, William and Mary had no children. After Marys death in 1694, William continued as sole monarch until he was succeeded by Anne upon his death in 1702, as queen, Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians, who were more likely to share her Anglican religious views than their opponents, the Whigs. The Whigs grew more powerful during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession and her close friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, turned sour as the result of political differences. Anne was plagued by ill health throughout her life, from her thirties onwards, she grew increasingly lame and obese. Despite seventeen pregnancies by her husband, Prince George of Denmark, she died without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Anne was born at 11,39 p. m. on 6 February 1665 at St Jamess Palace, London, the child and second daughter of James, Duke of York. At her Anglican baptism in the Chapel Royal at St Jamess, her sister, Mary, was one of her godparents, along with the Duchess of Monmouth. The Duke and Duchess of York had eight children, but Anne, as a child, Anne suffered from an eye condition, which manifested as excessive watering known as defluxion. For medical treatment, she was sent to France, where she lived with her grandmother, Queen Henrietta Maria. Following her grandmothers death in 1669, Anne lived with an aunt, Henrietta Anne, on the sudden death of her aunt in 1670, Anne returned to England. Her mother died the following year, as was traditional in the royal family, Anne and her sister were brought up separated from their father in their own establishment at Richmond, London. On the instructions of Charles II, they were raised as Protestants, placed in the care of Colonel Edward and Lady Frances Villiers, their education was focused on the teachings of the Anglican church. Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was appointed as Annes preceptor, around 1671, Anne first made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who later became her close friend and one of her most influential advisors
6.
John Harrison
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John Harrison was a self-educated English carpenter and clockmaker who invented the marine chronometer, a long-sought-after device for solving the problem of calculating longitude while at sea. His solution revolutionized navigation and greatly increased the safety of long-distance sea travel, the problem he solved was considered so important following the Scilly naval disaster of 1707 that the British Parliament offered financial rewards of up to £20,000 under the 1714 Longitude Act. Harrison came 39th in the BBCs 2002 public poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, John Harrison was born in Foulby, near Wakefield in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the first of five children in his family. His father worked as a carpenter at the nearby Nostell Priory estate, a house on the site of what may have been the family home bears a blue plaque. In around 1700, the Harrison family moved to the Lincolnshire village of Barrow upon Humber, following his fathers trade as a carpenter, Harrison built and repaired clocks in his spare time. Legend has it that at the age of six, while in bed with smallpox, he was given a watch to amuse himself and he spent hours listening to it and he also had a fascination for music, eventually becoming choirmaster for Barrow parish church. Harrison built his first longcase clock in 1713, at the age of 20, the mechanism was made entirely of wood, which was a natural choice of material for a joiner. The second is also in the Science Museum in London, and the third is at Nostell Priory in Yorkshire, in the early 1720s, Harrison was commissioned to make a new turret clock at Brocklesby Park, North Lincolnshire. The clock still works, and like his previous clocks has a movement of oak. Unlike his early clocks, it incorporates some features to improve timekeeping. Between 1725 and 1728, John and his brother James, also a skilled joiner, the grid-iron pendulum was developed during this period. These precision clocks are thought by some to have been the most accurate clocks in the world at the time and they are the direct link to the Harrisons sea clocks. Number 1, now in a collection, belonged to the Time Museum, USA, until the museum closed in 2000. Number 2 is in the Leeds City Museum, Number 3 is in the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers collection. Harrison was a man of many skills and he used these to improve the performance of the pendulum clock. He invented the pendulum, consisting of alternating brass and iron rods assembled so that the thermal expansions and contractions essentially cancel each other out. Another example of his genius was the grasshopper escapement – a control device for the step-by-step release of a clocks driving power. Developed from the escapement, it was almost frictionless, requiring no lubrication because the pallets were made from wood
7.
Tobias Mayer
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Tobias Mayer was a German astronomer famous for his studies of the Moon. He was born at Marbach, in Württemberg, and brought up at Esslingen in poor circumstances, a self-taught mathematician, he earned a living by teaching mathematics while still a youth. He had already published two original geometrical works when, in 1746, he entered J. B. Homanns cartographic establishment at Nuremberg. Here he introduced improvements in mapmaking, and gained a scientific reputation which led to his election to the chair of economy. In 1754 he became superintendent of the observatory, where he worked until his death in 1762 and his first important astronomical work was a careful investigation of the libration of the moon, and his chart of the full moon was unsurpassed for half a century. But his fame rests chiefly on his tables, communicated in 1752, with new solar tables to the Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. In 1755 he submitted to the British government an amended body of manuscript tables and he found these to be sufficiently accurate to determine the moons position to 5, and consequently the longitude at sea to about half a degree. An improved set was published in London, as also the theory upon which the tables are based. His widow, with whom they were sent to England, received in consideration from the British government a grant of £3,000, Mayer left behind him a considerable quantity of manuscript material, part of which was collected by G. C. Lichtenberg and published in one volume, the remaining manuscripts included papers on atmospheric refraction from 1755, on the motion of Mars as affected by the perturbations of Jupiter and the Earth, and on terrestrial magnetism. In 1881 Ernst Klinkerfues published photo-lithographic reproductions of Mayers local charts and his star catalogue was re-edited by Francis Baily in 1830 and by Arthur Auwers in 1894. His son Johann Tobias Mayer became a noted German physicist, VI,746,1039 Siegmund Günther, Mayer, Johann Tobias, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,21, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, pp. 109–116 Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain. Eric G. Forbes, Tobias Mayer, pioneer of enlightened science in Germany, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,1980 ISBN 3-525-85268-1 German edition as, Tobias Mayer, Pionier der Naturwissenschaften der deutschen Aufklärungszeit übers. von Maria Forbes u. Hans-Heinrich Vogt. Marbach am Neckar, Tobias-Mayer-Museum-Verein,1993 Sarah Lowengard, Tobias Mayers Trichromatic Graph, The Creation of Color in Eighteenth-Century Europe New York, Columbia University Press,2006. Http, //www. gutenberg-e. org/lowengard/A_Chap03. html#31 Tobias Mayer, Tobias Mayers Opera inedita, London, Macmillan,1971 ISBN 0-333-12743-9 (American ed. New York, American Elsevier,1971 ISBN 0-444-19578-5 Tobias Mayer, ISBN 3-525-85257-6, ISBN 3-525-85258-4, ISBN 3-525-85259-2 The Euler-Mayer correspondence, 1751-1755, a new perspective on eighteenth-century advances in the lunar theory, by Eric G. Forbes. London, Macmillan,1971 ISBN 0-333-12742-0 OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Tobias Mayer, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, entry in the Mathematics Genealogy Project
8.
Leonhard Euler
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He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, Euler was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century, and is held to be one of the greatest in history. He is also considered to be the most prolific mathematician of all time. His collected works fill 60 to 80 quarto volumes, more than anybody in the field and he spent most of his adult life in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, then the capital of Prussia. A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Eulers influence on mathematics, Read Euler, read Euler, Leonhard Euler was born on 15 April 1707, in Basel, Switzerland to Paul III Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and Marguerite née Brucker, a pastors daughter. He had two sisters, Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena, and a younger brother Johann Heinrich. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, Paul Euler was a friend of the Bernoulli family, Johann Bernoulli was then regarded as Europes foremost mathematician, and would eventually be the most important influence on young Leonhard. Eulers formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. In 1720, aged thirteen, he enrolled at the University of Basel, during that time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupils incredible talent for mathematics. In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono, at that time, he was unsuccessfully attempting to obtain a position at the University of Basel. In 1727, he first entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, Pierre Bouguer, who became known as the father of naval architecture, won and Euler took second place. Euler later won this annual prize twelve times, around this time Johann Bernoullis two sons, Daniel and Nicolaus, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to Saint Petersburg while he applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel. Euler arrived in Saint Petersburg on 17 May 1727 and he was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled life in Saint Petersburg. He also took on a job as a medic in the Russian Navy. The Academy at Saint Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia, as a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler
9.
Greenwich
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Greenwich is an early-established district of todays London, England, centred 5.5 miles east south-east of Charing Cross. The town lends its name to the Royal Borough of Greenwich, Greenwich is generally described as being part of South-east London and sometimes as being part of East London. Greenwich is notable for its history and for giving its name to the Greenwich Meridian. The town became the site of a palace, the Palace of Placentia from the 15th century. The palace fell into disrepair during the English Civil War and was rebuilt as the Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors by Sir Christopher Wren and his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. These buildings became the Royal Naval College in 1873, and they remained an establishment for military education until 1998 when they passed into the hands of the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms within these buildings remain open to the public, other buildings are used by University of Greenwich and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. The town became a resort in the 18th century and many grand houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle established on Maze Hill. From the Georgian period estates of houses were constructed above the town centre, Greenwich formed part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created. The place-name Greenwich is first attested in a Saxon charter of 918 and it is recorded as Grenewic in 964, and as Grenawic in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1013. It is Grenviz in the Domesday Book of 1086, and Grenewych in the Taxatio Ecclesiastica of 1291, the name means green wic or settlement. An article in The Times of 13 October 1967 stated, East Greenwich, gateway to the Blackwall Tunnel, remains solidly working class, the manpower for one eighth of Londons heavy industry. West Greenwich is a hybrid, the spirit of Nelson, the Cutty Sark, the Maritime Museum, an industrial waterfront and a number of elegant houses, ripe for development. Royal charters granted to English colonists in North America, often used the name of the manor of East Greenwich for describing the tenure as that of free socage, New England charters provided that the grantees should hold their lands as of his Majesty’s manor of East Greenwich. Grants named the castle of Windsor, places in North America that have taken the name East Greenwich include a township in Gloucester County, New Jersey, a hamlet in Washington County, New York, and a town in Kent County, Rhode Island. Tumuli to the south-west of Flamsteed House, in Greenwich Park, are thought to be early Bronze Age barrows re-used by the Saxons in the 6th century as burial grounds, to the east between the Vanbrugh and Maze Hill Gates is the site of a Roman villa or temple. A small area of red paving tesserae protected by railings marks the spot and it was excavated in 1902 and 300 coins were found dating from the emperors Claudius and Honorius to the 5th century. This was excavated by the Channel 4 television programme Time Team in 1999, broadcast in 2000, the Roman road from London to Dover, Watling Street crossed the high ground to the south of Greenwich, through Blackheath
10.
History of longitude
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The history of longitude is a record of the effort, by astronomers, cartographers and navigators over several centuries, to discover a means of determining longitude. The measurement of longitude is important to both cartography and navigation, in particular to provide safe ocean navigation, knowledge of both latitude and longitude was required. Finding an accurate and reliable method of determining longitude took centuries of study, eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC first proposed a system of latitude and longitude for a map of the world. By the 2nd century BC Hipparchus was the first to use such a system to uniquely specify places on the earth and he also proposed a system of determining longitude by comparing the local time of a place with an absolute time. This is the first recognition that longitude can be determined by knowledge of time. In the 11th century Al-Biruni believed the earth rotated on its axis and this forms our modern notion of how time and longitude are related. Determining latitude was relatively easy in that it could be found from the altitude of the sun at noon with the aid of a table giving the suns declination for the day, for longitude, early ocean navigators had to rely on dead reckoning. This was inaccurate on long voyages out of sight of land, determining longitude at sea was also much harder than on land. Whatever could be discovered from solving the problem at sea would improve the determination of longitude on land. In order to avoid problems with not knowing ones position accurately, navigators have and they would sail to the latitude of their destination, turn toward their destination and follow a line of constant latitude. This was known as running down a westing and this prevented a ship from taking the most direct route or a route with the most favourable winds and currents, extending the voyage by days or even weeks. This increased the likelihood of short rations, which could lead to health or even death for members of the crew due to scurvy or starvation. Errors in navigation have also resulted in shipwrecks. for such person or persons as shall discover the Longitude, the prizes were to be awarded for the discovery and demonstration of a practical method for determining the longitude of a ship at sea. Prizes were offered in graduated amounts for solutions of increasing accuracy and these prizes, worth the equivalent of millions of pounds in todays currency, motivated many to search for a solution. Britain was not alone in the desire to solve the problem, frances King Louis XIV founded the Académie Royale des Sciences in 1666. It was charged with, among a range of scientific activities, advancement of the science of navigation. From 1715, the Académie offered one of the two Prix Rouillés specifically for navigation, spains Philip II offered a prize for the discovery of a solution to the problem of the longitude in 1567, Philip III increased the prize in 1598. Holland added to the effort with a prize offered in 1636, navigators and scientists in most European countries were aware of the problem and were involved in finding a solution
11.
Lunar distance (navigation)
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In celestial navigation, lunar distance is the angle between the Moon and another celestial body. The lunar distances method uses this angle, also called a lunar, by comparing that calculated time to the measured local time, the navigator can determine longitude. The method was published in 1763 and used until about 1850 when it was superseded by the marine chronometer. It saw limited usage all the way up to the beginning of the 20th century on smaller vessels that could not afford a chronometer or had to rely on this technique for correction of the chronometer, a similar method uses the positions of the Galilean moons of Jupiter. In celestial navigation, knowledge of the time at Greenwich and the positions of one or more celestial objects allows the navigator to calculate latitude and longitude. Reliable marine chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century, conversely, a mariner with a chronometer could check its accuracy using a lunar determination of Greenwich time. The method saw usage all the way up to the beginning of the 20th century on smaller vessels that could not afford a chronometer or had to rely on the technique for correction of the chronometer. The method relies on the quick movement of the moon across the background sky. In an hour then, it will move about half a degree, roughly its own diameter, with respect to the background stars, using a sextant, the navigator precisely measures the angle between the moon and another body. That could be the Sun or one of a group of bright stars lying close to the Moons path, near the ecliptic. At that moment, anyone on the surface of the earth who can see the two bodies will observe the same angle. The navigator then consults a prepared table of distances and the times at which they will occur. By comparing the corrected lunar distance with the values, the navigator finds the Greenwich time for that observation. Knowing Greenwich time and local time, the navigator can work out longitude, local time can be determined from a sextant observation of the altitude of the Sun or a star. Then the longitude is readily calculated from the difference between time and Greenwich Time, at 15 degrees per hour. Having measured the distance and the heights of the two bodies, the navigator can find Greenwich time in three steps. Step one – Preliminaries Almanac tables predict lunar distances between the centre of the Moon and the other body, however, the observer cannot accurately find the centre of the Moon. Instead, lunar distances are measured to the sharply lit
12.
Thomas Young (scientist)
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Thomas Young was an English polymath and physician. Young made notable contributions to the fields of vision, light, solid mechanics, energy, physiology, language, musical harmony. He made a number of original and insightful innovations in the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs before Jean-François Champollion eventually expanded on his work and he was mentioned by, among others, William Herschel, Hermann von Helmholtz, James Clerk Maxwell, and Albert Einstein. Young has been described as The Last Man Who Knew Everything, Young belonged to a Quaker family of Milverton, Somerset, where he was born in 1773, the eldest of ten children. At the age of fourteen Young had learned Greek and Latin and was acquainted with French, Italian, Hebrew, German, Aramaic, Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, in 1797 he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In the same year he inherited the estate of his granduncle, Richard Brocklesby, which made him financially independent, Young published many of his first academic articles anonymously to protect his reputation as a physician. In 1801 Young was appointed professor of philosophy at the Royal Institution. In two years, he delivered 91 lectures, in 1802, he was appointed foreign secretary of the Royal Society, of which he had been elected a fellow in 1794. He resigned his professorship in 1803, fearing that its duties would interfere with his medical practice and his lectures were published in 1807 in the Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and contain a number of anticipations of later theories. In 1811 Young became physician to St Georges Hospital, and in 1814 he served on an appointed to consider the dangers involved in the general introduction of gas into London. Young was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, a few years before his death he became interested in life insurance, and in 1827 he was chosen one of the eight foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences. In 1828, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Thomas Young died in London on 10 May 1829, and was buried in the cemetery of St. Giles Church in Farnborough, Kent, England. Westminster Abbey houses a marble tablet in memory of Young bearing an epitaph by Hudson Gurney, Young was highly regarded by his friends. He was said never to impose his knowledge, but if asked was able to even the most difficult scientific question with ease. Although very learned he had a reputation for sometimes having difficulty in communicating his knowledge and it was said by one of his contemporaries that His words were not those in familiar use, and the arrangement of his ideas seldom the same as those he conversed with. He was therefore worse calculated than any man I ever knew for the communication of knowledge, later scholars and scientists have praised Youngs work although they may know him only through achievements he made in their fields. His contemporary Sir John Herschel called him a truly original genius, Albert Einstein praised him in the 1931 foreword to an edition of Newtons Opticks
13.
Michael Faraday
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Michael Faraday FRS was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. It was by his research on the field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was a relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principles of induction and diamagnetism. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others and summarized it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all theories of electromagnetic phenomena. The SI unit of capacitance is named in his honour, the farad, albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell. Faraday was born in Newington Butts, which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark but was then a part of Surrey. His family was not well off and his father, James, was a member of the Glassite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith, Michael was born in the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, at the age of 14 he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street. During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Wattss The Improvement of the Mind, at this time he also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet, many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures, davys reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, very soon Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance. In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman, Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davys wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal, the trip did, however, give him access to the scientific elite of Europe and exposed him to a host of stimulating ideas
14.
Edward Sabine
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General Sir Edward Sabine KCB PRS was an Irish astronomer, geophysicist, ornithologist, explorer, soldier and the 30th President of the Royal Society. Edward Sabine was born on Great Britain Street, Dublin to Joseph Sabine and his mother, Sarah Hunt, died when he was just one month old. His elder brother was naturalist Joseph Sabine and he was educated at Marlow and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. In 1803, at age 15, he obtained a commission in the Royal Artillery as a 2nd lieutenant, becoming a captain ten years later and eventually attaining the rank of general in 1870. Sabine was stationed in Gibraltar during the Peninsular War, but it was in the War of 1812 against the United States that he had his first taste of combat, in May 1813, while making for Canada, the English packet-ship Manchester was attacked by an American privateer. In the ensuing battle Sabine, who was the Manchesters astronomer, Sabine continued to see action in the War of 1812, particularly in the Niagara Campaign, where he commanded the batteries at the siege of Fort Erie. The expedition failed to discover the Northwest Passage and ended in controversy, when Ross found his progress through Lancaster Sound blocked by sea ice, he turned around and headed back to Britain, much to the annoyance of the other members of the expedition. Both Sabine and Rosss second-in-command William Edward Parry doubted the existence of the so-called Croker Mountains. To make matters worse, a public row broke out between the two men when they arrived home. Sabine objected when Ross claimed the credit for certain magnetic observations and he also accused Ross of stealing magnetic measurements without giving him due credit, and of refusing to allow him enough time on the expedition to take accurate readings. The results of Sabines magnetic researches were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, although he viewed his work as confirming and extending the discoveries of earlier magnetic collectors, he stressed the need for the multiplication and repetition of observations. Sabine was a diligent and careful scientist, the following year both Sabines returned to the Arctic as members of Lieutenant William Edward Parrys expedition in search of the Northwest Passage. The Admiralty once again instructed the participants to gather scientific data as must prove most valuable. They were to pay attention to magnetic measurements, especially the possible interactions between magnetic needles, atmospheric electricity and the aurora borealis. They were also to attempt to establish the location of the Earths North Magnetic Pole, like Ross, Parry did not find the passage, but he did set a new record for the furthest west, which stood for several decades. In order to alleviate the tedium of the long Arctic winter, known as the North Georgia Gazette and Winter Chronicle, it ran for twenty-one issues. Due to public demand, it was published on their return to Britain – much to Sabines surprise. During this expedition, which lasted from May 1819 to November 1820 and he attributed such changes to either a fluctuation in the Earths magnetic intensity or the shifting positions of the terrestrial magnetic poles
15.
Longitude (book)
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The book was made into a television series entitled Longitude. In 1998, The Illustrated Longitude was published, supplementing the text with 180 images of characters, events, instruments, maps. Determining longitude on land was fairly easy compared to the task at sea, a stable surface to work from, a comfortable location to live in while performing the work and the ability to repeat determinations over time made for great accuracy. Whatever could be discovered from solving the problem at sea would improve the determination of longitude on land. Determining latitude was relatively easy in that it could be found from the altitude of the sun at noon with the aid of a table giving the suns declination for the day, for longitude, early ocean navigators had to rely on dead reckoning. This was inaccurate on long voyages out of sight of land, in order to avoid problems with not knowing ones position accurately, navigators have, where possible, relied on taking advantage of their knowledge of latitude. They would sail to the latitude of their destination, turn toward their destination and this was known as running down a westing. This prevented a ship taking the most direct route or a route with the most favourable winds and currents. This increased the likelihood of short rations, scurvy or starvation leading to health or even death for members of the crew. Errors in navigation have also resulted in shipwrecks. and announced the Longitude Prize for such person or persons as shall discover the Longitude, the prizes were to be awarded to the first person to demonstrate a practical method for determining the longitude of a ship at sea. Each prize, in increasing amounts, was for solutions of increasing accuracy and these prizes, worth millions of dollars in todays currency, motivated many to search for a solution. Britain was not alone in the desire to solve the problem, frances King Louis XIV founded the Académie Royale des Sciences in 1666. It was charged with, among a range of scientific activities, from 1715, the Académie offered one of the two Prix Rouillés specifically for navigation. Spains Philip II offered a prize for the discovery of a solution to the problem of the longitude in 1567, holland added to the effort with a prize offered in 1636. Navigators and scientists in most European countries were aware of the problem and were involved in finding the solution, due to the international effort in solving the problem and the scale of the enterprise, it represents one of the largest scientific endeavours in history. As Dava Sobel explains, to know ones longitude at sea, one needs to know what time it is aboard ship, the two clock times enable the navigator to convert the hour difference into geographical separation. Since the earth takes 24 hours to revolve 360 degrees, one hour marks 1/24 of a revolution or 15 degrees, and so each hours time difference between the ship and starting point marks a progress of fifteen degrees of longitude to the east or west. One degree of longitude equals four minutes of time the world over, although in terms of distance, one degree shrinks from 60.15 nautical miles or 111 km, to virtually nothing at the poles
16.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
17.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
18.
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
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The Royal Observatory, Greenwich is an observatory situated on a hill in Greenwich Park, overlooking the River Thames. It played a role in the history of astronomy and navigation. The observatory was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II, with the stone being laid on 10 August. The site was chosen by Sir Christopher Wren and he appointed John Flamsteed as the first Astronomer Royal. The building was completed in the summer of 1676, the building was often called Flamsteed House, in reference to its first occupant. The scientific work of the observatory was relocated elsewhere in stages in the first half of the 20th century,1675 –22 June, Royal Observatory founded. 1675 –10 August, construction began,1714 Longitude Act established the Board of Longitude and Longitude rewards. The Astronomer Royal was, until the Board was dissolved in 1828,1767 Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne began publication of the Nautical Almanac, based on observations made at the Observatory. 1833 Daily time signals began, marked by dropping a Time ball,1899 The New Physical Observatory was completed. 1924 Hourly time signals from the Royal Observatory were first broadcast on 5 February,1948 Office of the Astronomer Royal was moved to Herstmonceux. 1957 Royal Observatory completed its move to Herstmonceux, becoming the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the Greenwich site is renamed the Old Royal Observatory. Greenwich site is returned to its name, the Royal Observatory. The Ordnance Office was given responsibility for building the Observatory, with Moore providing the key instruments, Moore donated two clocks, built by Thomas Tompion, which were installed in the 20 foot high Octagon Room, the principal room of the building. They were of unusual design, each with a pendulum 13 feet in length mounted above the face, giving a period of four seconds. British astronomers have used the Royal Observatory as a basis for measurement. Four separate meridians have passed through the buildings, defined by successive instruments, subsequently, nations across the world used it as their standard for mapping and timekeeping. When the Airy circle became the reference for the meridian, the difference resulting from the change was considered enough to be neglected. When a new triangulation was done between 1936 and 1962, scientists determined that in the Ordnance Survey system the longitude of the international Greenwich meridian was not 0° and this old astronomical prime meridian has been replaced by a more precise prime meridian
19.
Cambridge University Library
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Cambridge University Library is the main research library of the University of Cambridge in England. It is also the biggest of 114 libraries within the University. The Library is a scholarly resource for both the members of the University of Cambridge and for external researchers. Cambridge University Library comprises the main University Library and its affiliated libraries, as at August 2015, twenty-one affiliated libraries were associated with the main University Library, which is often referred to within the University as the University Library or just the UL. Through legal deposit, purchase and donation it receives around 100,000 items every year, the main University Library holds approximately 8 million items. Its original location was the Universitys Old Schools near Senate House until it outgrew the space there, the current acting librarian is Professor Christopher Young. As early as the century, Cambridge University owned a collection of manuscripts. These would have kept in chests along with other valuables. A common library can be traced to the beginning of the 15th century, the earliest catalogue is dated ca. 1424, at which there were 122 volumes in the library. The second earliest surviving catalogue was drawn up in 1473, from the 16th century onwards it received generous donations or bequests of books and growth was considerably increased once the privilege of legal deposit had been granted. The current main University Library building was constructed between 1931 and 1934 under architect Giles Gilbert Scott, who designed the neighbouring Clare Memorial Court. The site had been used by the First Eastern General Hospital, built at the outbreak of the First World War on the 8 acres joint cricket field of Kings and Clare Colleges. The hospital had 1,700 beds at its height and treated some 70,000 casualties between 1914 and 1919, the library is a Grade II listed building. Inside are a number of 17th- and 18th century bookcases including the ones designed for the old University Library by James Essex in 1731-4, the building bears a marked resemblance to Scotts industrial architecture, including Bankside Power Station. The library tower stands 157 feet tall,6 feet shorter than the top of St Johns College Chapel and 10 feet taller than the peak of Kings College Chapel. Supposedly, in opening the building, Neville Chamberlain referred to it as this magnificent erection, contrary to popular belief, pornographic material is not stored in the tower. The library has been extended several times, the main building houses the Japanese and Chinese collections in the Aoi Pavilion, an extension donated by Tadao Aoi and opened in 1998. The library is building a new facility in Ely
20.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
21.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
22.
First Lord of the Admiralty
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The Admiralty Commission was dissolved in 1701, but was reconstituted in 1709 on the death of Prince George of Denmark, who had been appointed Lord High Admiral. The office has held in commission from that time onwards, however. The Board of the Admiralty comprised a number of “Lords Commissioners” headed by a First Lord, from the early 1800s the post was always held by a civilian. In 1832 First Lord Sir James Graham instituted reforms and amalgamated the Board of Admiralty, by the provisions of the Admiralty Act of 1832, two Lords in committee could legalize any action of the Board. In 1868 Prime Minister, William Gladstone appointed Hugh Childers First Lord, however these changes restricted communication between the board members who were affected by these new regulations and the sittings of the Board were discontinued altogether. This situation described was further exacerbated by the disaster of HMS Captain in 1870 a poorly designed new vessel for the navy. However by describing the Lords of the Admiralty as the assistants of the First Lord, in 1931 for the First time since 1709 the First Lord was not a member of the cabinet. M. S. Pinafore, is Sir Joseph Henry Porter, KCB, the counterparts shared a known lack of naval background. It has been suggested the character was drawn on Smiths actual Radical predecessor of 1868–71, the Making of the Modern Admiralty, British Naval Policy-Making, 1805-1927
23.
Board of Admiralty
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The Board of Admiralty was established in 1628 when Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission. This system remained in place until 1832, when the Board of Admiralty became the authority charged with both administrative and operational control of the navy when the Navy Board was abolished. The office of Lord High Admiral was created in around 1400 to take charge of the Royal Navy and it was one of the Great Officers of State. The office could be exercised by an individual, by the Crown directly, in 1679 this was changed, and the number of Commissioners was reduced to seven, who were to receive salaries and need not be members of the Privy Council. The eighteenth century Board of Admiralty usually contained a preponderance of civilians, although there was a naval element and often a sea officer was First Lord. The Lords Commissioners were all active politicians, even the naval members, after 1806 the First Lord was always a civilian and a senior member of the ministry, while the separate post of First Sea Lord was evolved for the senior professional member. Until the absorption of the High Court of Admiralty into the Court of Judicature they nominally retained, as executors of the office of Lord High Admiral, their centuries-old link with that court. When the Navy Board was abolished in 1832 and responsibility for the administration of the Navy passed to the Board of Admiralty. It now consisted of the First Lord of the Admiralty, four Naval Lords, known from 1904 as Sea Lords, and a Civil Lord, with a Parliamentary and a Permanent Secretary. Between 1832 and 1869 following the abolition of Navy Board a number of Civilian Naval Officials were also appointed as members. During the First World War the number of Sea Lords was increased at one time to eight, in 1938 the title of the Board member designated Assistant Chief of Naval Staff was altered to Fifth Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Air Services. For fuller details of Board membership during this period see The Second World War, duties were assigned to each Lord Commissioner by the First Lord and defined in a Minute of the Board, and amended form time to time. The Secretary to the Admiralty to be posted in the room of each Member of the Board, more informally, they were known in short as The Lords of the Admiralty. That, for example, is the term used throughout the well-known Horatio Hornblower series of historical novels. In 2011, currently Queen Elizabeth II bestowed the title of Lord High Admiral on the Duke of Edinburgh. nationalarchives. gov. uk/details/r/C706. © Crown copyright, which is available under the Open Government Licence v3.0 The Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, London, By His Majestys Statute and Law Printer. Naval Administration, The Constitution, Character, and Functions of the Board of Admiralty, the Admiralty, Reforms and Re-organization, 1868-1892. The Origin and Constitution of the Admiralty and Navy Boards, to which is added an Account of the various Buildings in which the Business of the Navy has been transacted from time to time, London, For Her Majestys Stationary Office
24.
Navy Board
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The Navy Board also known as the Navy Office was the organisation with responsibility for day-to-day civil administration of the Royal Navy between 1546 and 1832. In addition, the Board co-ordinated provision of victuals for the fleet and it was also responsible for the appointment of junior officers and warrant officers, and had several other duties in addition. The Comptroller of the Navy, was in charge of Naval spending he also acted as Chairman of the Board from 1660, the Surveyor of the Navy, was in charge of Naval shipbuilding, ship design and running the Royal Dockyards. The Clerk of the Acts, was in charge of the running of the Board. As the size of the fleet grew, the Admiralty sought to focus the activity of the Navy Board on two areas, ships and their maintenance, and naval expenditure. Therefore, from the mid- to late-17th century, a number of subsidiary Boards began to be established to other aspects of the Boards work. Theseincluded, The Victualling Board The Sick and Hurt Board The Transport Board, each of these subsidiary Boards went on to gain a degree of independence. The Surveyor of the Navy, the Clerk of the Navy, as defined by a set of Ordinances drawn up under Henrys successor, Edward VI, the Navy Board was given a high degree of autonomy while yet remaining subordinate to the Lord High Admiral. This - at times ambiguous - relationship with The Admiralty was a characteristic of the Board. During the Commonwealth the business of both Navy Board and Admiralty was carried out by a committee of Parliament, following the Restoration, James, Duke of York oversaw the reconstitution of the Navy Board. Alongside the aforementioned Principal Officers further officials were appointed to serve as Commissioners of the Navy, by tradition, commissioners were always Navy officers of the rank of post-captain or captain who had retired from active service at sea. List of Principal Officers and Commissioners 1660-1796 included, henceforward, the Board would consist of the Controller and a Deputy Controller, the Surveyor and around seven other Commissioners to whom no specific duties were attached. The Treasurer, though technically a member of the Board, was seldom in attendance. In actual fact the post of Treasurer was by this stage more than a sinecure, the main work of his department was carried out by its senior clerk. Not every Dockyard had a resident Commissioner in charge, but the larger Yards, both at home and overseas, generally did. From the 1650s the Board, together with its staff of around 60 clerks, was accommodated in a house at the corner of Crutched Friars and Seething Lane. Following a fire, the house was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren and this new Navy Office provided accommodation for the Commissioners, as well as office space. Different departments were accommodated in different parts of the building, the rear wing housed the offices of the Sick, the Victualling Office was also located nearby, on Little Tower Hill, close to its early manufacturing base at Eastminster
25.
First Sea Lord
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The First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff is the professional head of the United Kingdoms Royal Navy and the whole Naval Service, originally the title was the First Naval Lord. The concept of a professional First Naval Lord was introduced in 1805, from 1923 onward, the First Sea Lord was a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, he now sits on the Defence Council and the Admiralty Board. The current First Sea Lord is Admiral Sir Philip Jones, the flagship of the First Sea Lord is HMS Victory. Lords High Admiral were appointed from the 15th century until the 18th, from 1683 to 1684, there were seven paid Commissioners and one supernumerary Commissioner who served without salary. The number varied between five and seven Commissioners through the 18th century, the standing of all the Commissioners was in theory the same, although the First Commissioner or First Lord exercised an ascendancy over his colleagues from an early date. The title of the First Naval Lord was changed to First Sea Lord on the appointment of Sir Jackie Fisher in 1904, in 1917, the First Sea Lord was designated as Chief of the Naval Staff. The title was retained when the Board of Admiralty was abolished in 1964, under the current organisation, the First Sea Lord sits on both the Defence Council and the Admiralty Board. In John Buchans novel, The Thirty-Nine Steps, the First Sea Lord is named as Lord Alloa, the real First Sea Lord at the time the story is set was Prince Louis of Battenberg, coincidentally also bearded. Chief of the Defence Staff Second Sea Lord Third Sea Lord Fourth Sea Lord Fifth Sea Lord Heathcote, the British Admirals of the Fleet 1734 -1995. Prince Louis of Battenberg, Admiral of the Fleet, mackay, Ruddock F. Fisher of Kilverstone
