1.
Medical diagnosis
–
Medical diagnosis is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a persons symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history, often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as diagnostic tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes Posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis, Diagnosis is often challenging, because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific. For example, redness of the skin, by itself, is a sign of many disorders, thus differential diagnosis, in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted, must be performed. This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns, occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom that is pathognomonic. Diagnosis is a component of the procedure of a doctors visit. From the point of view of statistics, the procedure involves classification tests. The first recorded examples of medical diagnosis are found in the writings of Imhotep in ancient Egypt, a Babylonian medical textbook, the Diagnostic Handbook written by Esagil-kin-apli, introduced the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in the diagnosis of an illness or disease. Traditional Chinese Medicine, as described in the Yellow Emperors Inner Canon or Huangdi Neijing, specified four diagnostic methods, inspection, auscultation-olfaction, interrogation, hippocrates was known to make diagnoses by tasting his patients urine and smelling their sweat. This article uses diagnostician as any of these person categories, a diagnostic procedure does not necessarily involve elucidation of the etiology of the diseases or conditions of interest, that is, what caused the disease or condition. Such elucidation can be useful to optimize treatment, further specify the prognosis or prevent recurrence of the disease or condition in the future, the initial task is to detect a medical indication to perform a diagnostic procedure. Indications include, Detection of any deviation from what is known to be normal, such as can be described in terms of, for example, anatomy, physiology, pathology, psychology, a complaint expressed by a patient. The fact that a patient has sought a diagnostician can itself be an indication to perform a diagnostic procedure, even during an already ongoing diagnostic procedure, there can be an indication to perform another, separate, diagnostic procedure for another, potentially concomitant, disease or condition. A diagnostic test is any kind of medical test performed to aid in the diagnosis or detection of disease, Diagnostic tests can also be used to provide prognostic information on people with established disease. Processing of the answers, findings or other results, consultations with other providers and specialists in the field may be sought. There are a number of methods or techniques that can be used in a diagnostic procedure, in reality, a diagnostic procedure may involve components of multiple methods. The final result may also remain a list of possible conditions, the resultant diagnostic opinion by this method can be regarded more or less as a diagnosis of exclusion
Medical diagnosis
–
Radiography is an important tool in diagnosis of certain disorders.
2.
Medical Subject Headings
–
Medical Subject Headings is a comprehensive controlled vocabulary for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences, it serves as a thesaurus that facilitates searching. Created and updated by the United States National Library of Medicine, it is used by the MEDLINE/PubMed article database, MeSH is also used by ClinicalTrials. gov registry to classify which diseases are studied by trials registered in ClinicalTrials. gov. MeSH was introduced in 1960, with the NLMs own index catalogue, the yearly printed version of MeSH was discontinued in 2007 and MeSH is now available online only. It can be browsed and downloaded free of charge through PubMed, originally in English, MeSH has been translated into numerous other languages and allows retrieval of documents from different languages. The 2009 version of MeSH contains a total of 25,186 subject headings, most of these are accompanied by a short description or definition, links to related descriptors, and a list of synonyms or very similar terms. This additional information and the structure make the MeSH essentially a thesaurus. The descriptors or subject headings are arranged in a hierarchy, a given descriptor may appear at several locations in the hierarchical tree. The tree locations carry systematic labels known as numbers. The tree numbers of a given descriptor are subject to change as MeSH is updated, every descriptor also carries a unique alphanumerical ID that will not change. Most subject headings come with a description or definition. See the MeSH description for diabetes type 2 as an example, the explanatory text is written by the MeSH team based on their standard sources if not otherwise stated. References are mostly encyclopaedias and standard textbooks of the subject areas, references for specific statements in the descriptions are not given, instead readers are referred to the bibliography. In addition to the hierarchy, MeSH contains a small number of standard qualifiers. For example, Measles is a descriptor and epidemiology is a qualifier, the epidemiology qualifier can be added to all other disease descriptors. Not all descriptor/qualifier combinations are allowed some of them may be meaningless. In all there are 83 different qualifiers, in addition to the descriptors, MeSH also contains some 139,000 supplementary concept records. These do not belong to the vocabulary as such, instead they enlarge the thesaurus. Many of these records describe chemical substances, by default, a search for a descriptor will include all the descriptors in the hierarchy below the given one
Medical Subject Headings
–
Medical Subject Headings
3.
Mass
–
In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is the measure of a resistance to acceleration when a net force is applied. It also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies. The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram, Mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the objects weight using a spring scale, rather than comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity and this is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that determines the strength of this force. In Newtonian physics, mass can be generalized as the amount of matter in an object, however, at very high speeds, special relativity postulates that energy is an additional source of mass. Thus, any body having mass has an equivalent amount of energy. In addition, matter is a defined term in science. There are several distinct phenomena which can be used to measure mass, active gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted by an object. Passive gravitational mass measures the force exerted on an object in a known gravitational field. The mass of an object determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force, according to Newtons second law of motion, if a body of fixed mass m is subjected to a single force F, its acceleration a is given by F/m. A bodys mass also determines the degree to which it generates or is affected by a gravitational field and this is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass. The standard International System of Units unit of mass is the kilogram, the kilogram is 1000 grams, first defined in 1795 as one cubic decimeter of water at the melting point of ice. Then in 1889, the kilogram was redefined as the mass of the prototype kilogram. As of January 2013, there are proposals for redefining the kilogram yet again. In this context, the mass has units of eV/c2, the electronvolt and its multiples, such as the MeV, are commonly used in particle physics. The atomic mass unit is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, the atomic mass unit is convenient for expressing the masses of atoms and molecules. Outside the SI system, other units of mass include, the slug is an Imperial unit of mass, the pound is a unit of both mass and force, used mainly in the United States
Mass
–
Depiction of early
balance scales in the
Papyrus of Hunefer (dated to the
19th dynasty, ca. 1285 BC). The scene shows
Anubis weighing the heart of Hunefer.
Mass
–
The kilogram is one of the seven
SI base units and one of three which is defined ad hoc (i.e. without reference to another base unit).
Mass
–
Galileo Galilei (1636)
Mass
–
Distance traveled by a freely falling ball is proportional to the square of the elapsed time
4.
Mass versus weight
–
In common usage, the mass of an object is often referred to as its weight, though these are in fact different concepts and quantities. In scientific contexts, mass refers loosely to the amount of matter in an object, in other words, an object with a mass of 1.0 kilogram will weigh approximately 9.81 newtons on the surface of the Earth. Its weight will be less on Mars, more on Saturn, and negligible in space far from any significant source of gravity. Objects on the surface of the Earth have weight, although sometimes this weight is difficult to measure, thus, the weightless object floating in water actually transfers its weight to the bottom of the container. Similarly, a balloon has mass but may appear to have no weight or even negative weight, however the weight of the balloon and the gas inside it has merely been transferred to a large area of the Earths surface, making the weight difficult to measure. The weight of an airplane is similarly distributed to the ground. If the airplane is in flight, the same weight-force is distributed to the surface of the Earth as when the plane was on the runway. A better scientific definition of mass is its description as being composed of inertia and this force can be added to by any other kind of force. While the weight of an object varies in proportion to the strength of the gravitational field, accordingly, for an astronaut on a spacewalk in orbit, no effort is required to hold a communications satellite in front of him, it is weightless. However, since objects in orbit retain their mass and inertia, on Earth, a swing seat can demonstrate this relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. Applying the same impetus to a child would produce a much greater speed. Mass is a property, that is, the tendency of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. Inertia is seen when a ball is pushed horizontally on a level, smooth surface. This is quite distinct from its weight, which is the gravitational force of the bowling ball one must counter when holding it off the floor. The weight of the ball on the Moon would be one-sixth of that on the Earth. Consequently, whenever the physics of recoil kinetics dominate and the influence of gravity is a negligible factor, in the physical sciences, the terms mass and weight are rigidly defined as separate measures, as they are different physical properties. For example, in commerce, the net weight of products actually refers to mass. Conversely, the index rating on automobile tires, which specifies the maximum structural load for a tire in kilograms, refers to weight, that is
Mass versus weight
–
If one were to stand behind this girl at the bottom of the arc and try to stop her, one would be acting against her
inertia, which arises from mass, not weight.
Mass versus weight
–
Matter's mass strongly influences many familiar kinetic properties.
Mass versus weight
–
A hot air balloon when it has
neutral buoyancy has no weight for the men to support but still retains its great mass and inertia.
Mass versus weight
–
A balance-type weighing scale: Unaffected by the strength of gravity.
5.
Square (algebra)
–
In mathematics, a square is the result of multiplying a number by itself. The verb to square is used to denote this operation, squaring is the same as raising to the power 2, and is denoted by a superscript 2, for instance, the square of 3 may be written as 32, which is the number 9. In some cases when superscripts are not available, as for instance in programming languages or plain text files, the adjective which corresponds to squaring is quadratic. The square of an integer may also be called a number or a perfect square. In algebra, the operation of squaring is often generalized to polynomials, other expressions, for instance, the square of the linear polynomial x +1 is the quadratic polynomial x2 + 2x +1. One of the important properties of squaring, for numbers as well as in other mathematical systems, is that. That is, the function satisfies the identity x2 =2. This can also be expressed by saying that the function is an even function. The squaring function preserves the order of numbers, larger numbers have larger squares. In other words, squaring is a function on the interval. Hence, zero is its global minimum, the only cases where the square x2 of a number is less than x occur when 0 < x <1, that is, when x belongs to an open interval. This implies that the square of an integer is never less than the original number, every positive real number is the square of exactly two numbers, one of which is strictly positive and the other of which is strictly negative. Zero is the square of one number, itself. For this reason, it is possible to define the square root function, no square root can be taken of a negative number within the system of real numbers, because squares of all real numbers are non-negative. There are several uses of the squaring function in geometry. The name of the squaring function shows its importance in the definition of the area, the area depends quadratically on the size, the area of a shape n times larger is n2 times greater. The squaring function is related to distance through the Pythagorean theorem and its generalization, Euclidean distance is not a smooth function, the three-dimensional graph of distance from a fixed point forms a cone, with a non-smooth point at the tip of the cone. However, the square of the distance, which has a paraboloid as its graph, is a smooth, the dot product of a Euclidean vector with itself is equal to the square of its length, v⋅v = v2
Square (algebra)
–
The
composition of the tiling
Image:ConformId.jpg (understood as a function on the complex plane) with the complex square function
Square (algebra)
–
5⋅5, or 5 2 (5 squared), can be shown graphically using a
square. Each block represents one unit, 1⋅1, and the entire square represents 5⋅5, or the area of the square.
6.
Human height
–
Human height or stature is the distance from the bottom of the feet to the top of the head in a human body, standing erect. It is measured using a stadiometer, usually in centimetres when using the system, or feet. When populations share genetic background and environmental factors, average height is frequently characteristic within the group, exceptional height variation within such a population is sometimes due to gigantism or dwarfism, which are medical conditions caused by specific genes or endocrine abnormalities. The development of human height can serve as an indicator of two key components, namely nutritional quality and health. The study of height is known as auxology, Growth has long been recognized as a measure of the health of individuals, hence part of the reasoning for the use of growth charts. For individuals, as indicators of problems, growth trends are tracked for significant deviations. Genetics is a factor in determining the height of individuals. Average height is relevant to the measurement of the health and wellness of populations, changes in diet and a general rise in quality of health care and standard of living are the cited factors in the Asian populations. Malnutrition including chronic undernutrition and acute malnutrition is known to have caused stunted growth in various populations and this has been seen in North Korea, parts of Africa, certain historical Europe, and other populations. Developing countries such as Guatemala have rates of stunting in children under 5 living as high as 82. 2% in Totonicapán, Height measurements are by nature subject to statistical sampling errors even for a single individual. In a clinical situation, height measurements are taken more often than once per office visit. The smooth 50th percentile male and female growth curves illustrated above are aggregate values from thousands of individuals sampled at ages from birth to age 20. In reality, a single individuals growth curve shows large upward and downward spikes, partly due to differences in growth velocity. Height, like other traits, is determined by a combination of genetics. Genetic potential and a number of hormones, minus illness, is a determinant for height. Other factors include the response to external factors such as diet, exercise, environment. On average, female growth speed trails off to zero at about 15 or 16 years, whereas the male curve continues for approximately 3 more years and these are also critical periods where stressors such as malnutrition have the greatest effect. Moreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical period, a healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide optimal prenatal conditions
Human height
–
Sir
Francis Galton 's (1889) data showing the relationship between offspring height (928 individuals) as a function of mean parent height (205 sets of parents). The
correlation was 0.57.
Human height
–
Median (50th percentile) growth curves for male and female 0–20 years.
Human height
–
Troops of the
Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900, shows British and American soldiers significantly taller than some soldiers of the world. Left-to-right: Britain, United States, Australian colonial, British India, Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Japan.
7.
Units of measurement
–
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same quantity. Any other value of quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity, the metre is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length. When we say 10 metres, we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined length called metre, the definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in human endeavour from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very common, now there is a global standard, the International System of Units, the modern form of the metric system. In trade, weights and measures is often a subject of regulation, to ensure fairness. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures is tasked with ensuring worldwide uniformity of measurements, metrology is the science for developing nationally and internationally accepted units of weights and measures. In physics and metrology, units are standards for measurement of quantities that need clear definitions to be useful. Reproducibility of experimental results is central to the scientific method, a standard system of units facilitates this. Scientific systems of units are a refinement of the concept of weights, science, medicine, and engineering often use larger and smaller units of measurement than those used in everyday life and indicate them more precisely. The judicious selection of the units of measurement can aid researchers in problem solving, in the social sciences, there are no standard units of measurement and the theory and practice of measurement is studied in psychometrics and the theory of conjoint measurement. A unit of measurement is a quantity of a physical property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans, primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks, constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials. Weights and measures are mentioned in the Bible and it is a commandment to be honest and have fair measures. As of the 21st Century, multiple unit systems are used all over the world such as the United States Customary System, the British Customary System, however, the United States is the only industrialized country that has not yet completely converted to the Metric System. The systematic effort to develop an acceptable system of units dates back to 1790 when the French National Assembly charged the French Academy of Sciences to come up such a unit system. After this treaty was signed, a General Conference of Weights, the CGPM produced the current SI system which was adopted in 1954 at the 10th conference of weights and measures. Currently, the United States is a society which uses both the SI system and the US Customary system
Units of measurement
–
The former Weights and Measures office in
Seven Sisters, London
Units of measurement
–
Units of measurement,
Palazzo della Ragione,
Padua
Units of measurement
–
An example of
metrication in 1860 when Tuscany became part of modern Italy (ex. one "libbra" = 339,54 grams)
8.
Kilogram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometer. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Kilogram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Kilogram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Kilogram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Kilogram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
9.
Metre
–
The metre or meter, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units. The metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds, the metre was originally defined in 1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In 1799, it was redefined in terms of a metre bar. In 1960, the metre was redefined in terms of a number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. In 1983, the current definition was adopted, the imperial inch is defined as 0.0254 metres. One metre is about 3 3⁄8 inches longer than a yard, Metre is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English-speaking nations except the United States and the Philippines, which use meter. Measuring devices are spelled -meter in all variants of English, the suffix -meter has the same Greek origin as the unit of length. This range of uses is found in Latin, French, English. Thus calls for measurement and moderation. In 1668 the English cleric and philosopher John Wilkins proposed in an essay a decimal-based unit of length, as a result of the French Revolution, the French Academy of Sciences charged a commission with determining a single scale for all measures. In 1668, Wilkins proposed using Christopher Wrens suggestion of defining the metre using a pendulum with a length which produced a half-period of one second, christiaan Huygens had observed that length to be 38 Rijnland inches or 39.26 English inches. This is the equivalent of what is now known to be 997 mm, no official action was taken regarding this suggestion. In the 18th century, there were two approaches to the definition of the unit of length. One favoured Wilkins approach, to define the metre in terms of the length of a pendulum which produced a half-period of one second. The other approach was to define the metre as one ten-millionth of the length of a quadrant along the Earths meridian, that is, the distance from the Equator to the North Pole. This means that the quadrant would have defined as exactly 10000000 metres at that time. To establish a universally accepted foundation for the definition of the metre, more measurements of this meridian were needed. This portion of the meridian, assumed to be the length as the Paris meridian, was to serve as the basis for the length of the half meridian connecting the North Pole with the Equator
Metre
–
Belfry, Dunkirk —the northern end of the meridian arc
Metre
Metre
–
Fortress of Montjuïc —the southerly end of the meridian arc
Metre
–
Creating the metre-alloy in 1874 at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Present Henri Tresca, George Matthey, Saint-Claire Deville and Debray
10.
Adolphe Quetelet
–
Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet ForMemRS was a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist. He founded and directed the Brussels Observatory and was influential in introducing statistical methods to the social sciences and his name is sometimes spelled with an accent as Quételet. He developed the body mass index scale, Adolphe was born in Ghent, the son of François-Augustin-Jacques-Henri Quetelet, a Frenchman and Anne Françoise Vandervelde, a Flemish woman. His father, François, was born at Ham, Picardy, in that capacity, he traveled with his employer on the Continent, particularly spending time in Italy. At about 31, he settled in Ghent and was employed by the city, francois died when Adolphe was only seven years old. Adolphe studied at the Ghent lycée, where he started teaching mathematics in 1815 at the age of 19, in 1819 he moved to the Athenaeum in Brussels and in the same year he completed his dissertation. Quetelet received a doctorate in mathematics in 1819 from the University of Ghent, shortly thereafter, the young man set out to convince government officials and private donors to build an astronomical observatory in Brussels, he succeeded in 1828. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1820 and he lectured at the museum for sciences and letters and at the Belgian Military School. In 1825 he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, from 1841 to 1851 he was supernumerair associate in the Institute, and when it became Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences he became foreign member. In 1850, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Quetelet also founded several statistical journals and societies, and was interested in creating international cooperation among statisticians. In 1855 Quetelet suffered from apoplexy, which diminished but did not end his scientific activity and he died in Brussels on 17 February 1874, and is buried in the Brussels Cemetery. His scientific research encompassed a range of different scientific disciplines, meteorology, astronomy, mathematics, statistics, demography, sociology, criminology. He made significant contributions to development, but he also wrote several monographs directed to the general public. Quetelet was a liberal and an anticlerical, but not an atheist or materialist nor a socialist, the new science of probability and statistics was mainly used in astronomy at the time, where it was essential to account for measurement errors around means. This was done using the method of least squares, Quetelet was among the first to apply statistics to social science, planning what he called social physics. He was keenly aware of the complexity of social phenomena. His goal was to understand the statistical laws underlying such phenomena as crime rates and he wanted to explain the values of these variables by other social factors
Adolphe Quetelet
–
Adolphe Quetelet
11.
Ancel Keys
–
Ancel Benjamin Keys was an American physiologist who studied the influence of diet on health. In particular, he hypothesized that dietary saturated fat causes cardiovascular heart disease, Keys studied starvation in men and published The Biology of Human Starvation, which remains the only source of its kind. Science, diet, and health were central themes in his professional, Ancel Keys was born in Colorado Springs in 1904 to Benjamin Pious Keys and Carolyn Emma Chaney, the sister of Lon Chaney. In 1906 they moved to San Francisco before the 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck, shortly after the disaster, his family relocated to Berkeley where he grew up. His intellect was well-known ever since a young age, lewis Terman, a noted psychologist and inventor of the Stanford-Binet IQ Test, identified Keys as intellectually gifted. He eventually finished his education and was admitted to the University of California at Berkeley in 1922. At the University of California, Berkeley, Keys initially studied chemistry, president Wilson, which traveled to China. He then returned to Berkeley, switched majors, and graduated with a B. A. in economics and political science and M. S. in zoology. For a brief time, he took up a job as a management trainee at Woolworths, in 1930 he received his Ph. D. in oceanography and biology from UC Berkeley. He was then awarded a National Research Council fellowship that took him to Copenhagen, during his studies with Krogh, he studied fish physiology and contributed numerous papers on the subject. Once his fellowship ended, he went to Cambridge but took time off to teach at Harvard University, after which he returned to Cambridge. While doing fish research at Scripps, Keys would use regressions to determine the weight of fish from their length and he would also use this perfusion method to study the effects of adrenaline and vasopressin on gill fluid flow and osmotic regulation in fishes. He also designed an improved Kjeldahl apparatus which improved upon Kroghs earlier design and this would prove useful for activities as diverse as determining the protein content in grasshopper eggs and anemia in humans. While at Harvards Fatigue Laboratory, he was inspired by his Cambridge mentor John Barcrofts ascent to the top of Tenerifes highest peak, Keys wrote up a proposal for an expedition to the Andes suggesting the study could have practical value for Chilean miners that worked at high altitudes. He was given the go-ahead and, in 1935, assembled a team to study the effects of altitude on the body. He spent a couple of months at 9,500 feet, in 1936 Keys was offered a position at the Mayo Foundation in Rochester, where he would continue to carry out his studies in physiology. He left after a year, citing an intellectually stifling environment where research was secondary to clinical doc business, in 1937 he would leave the Mayo Foundation for the University of Minnesota to teach physiology, He founded the Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene there. This development did not begin without some turbulence, the initial ingredients of the K-ration were procured at a local Minneapolis grocery store—hard biscuits, dry sausage, hard candy, and chocolate
Ancel Keys
–
Ancel Keys
Ancel Keys
–
An example of a
K-ration dinner. All the components were intended to fit into a box which would fit into a soldier's pocket
12.
Body fat
–
In biology, adipose tissue /ˈædᵻˌpoʊs/, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as an endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin. The two types of tissue are white adipose tissue, which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene, Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin, around internal organs, in bone marrow, intermuscular, Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other types are present. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, around organs, it provides protective padding. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles, under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity, the mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, the layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue, sometimes these two types of fat are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes, minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the depots are the largest. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus, a panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as an apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat. This condition cannot be corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment, visceral fat or abdominal fat is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs
Body fat
–
Adipose tissue is one of the main types of
connective tissue.
Body fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Body fat
–
White adipose tissue in paraffin section
Body fat
–
Electronic instrument of body fat meter
13.
University of Utah
–
The University of Utah is a public coeducational space-grant research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. As the states flagship university, the university more than 100 undergraduate majors. The university is classified in the highest ranking, R-1, Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the Carnegie Classification also considers the university as selective, which is its second most selective admissions category. Quinney College of Law and the School of Medicine, Utahs only medical school, as of Fall 2015, there are 23,909 undergraduate students and 7,764 graduate students, for an enrollment total of 31,673. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret and it received its current name in 1892, four years before Utah attained statehood, and moved to its current location in 1900. The university ranks among the top 50 U. S. universities by total research expenditures with over $486 million spent in 2014, in addition, the universitys Honors College has been reviewed among 50 leading national Honors Colleges in the U. S. The university has also ranked the 12th most ideologically diverse university in the country. The universitys athletic teams, the Utes, participate in NCAA Division I athletics as a member of the Pac-12 Conference and its football team has received national attention for winning the 2005 Fiesta Bowl and the 2009 Sugar Bowl. A Board of Regents was organized by Brigham Young to establish a university in the Salt Lake Valley, early classes were held in private homes or wherever space could be found. The university closed in 1853 due to lack of funds and lack of feeder schools, the university moved out of the council house into the Union Academy building in 1876 and into Union Square in 1884. Additional Fort Douglas land has granted to the university over the years. Upon his death in 1900, Dr. John R. Park bequeathed his fortune to the university. One third of the faculty resigned in protest of these dismissals, the controversy was largely resolved when Kingsbury resigned in 1916, but university operations were again interrupted by World War I, and later The Great Depression and World War II. Student enrollment dropped to a low of 3,418 during the last year of World War II, ray Olpin made substantial additions to campus following the war, and enrollment reached 12,000 by the time he retired in 1964. Growth continued in the decades as the university developed into a research center for fields such as computer science. During the 2002 Winter Olympics, the university hosted the Olympic Village, the University of Utah Asia Campus opened as an international branch campus in the Incheon Global Campus in Songdo, Incheon, South Korea in 2014. Three other European and American universities are also participating, the Asia Campus was funded by the South Korean government. Campus takes up 1,534 acres, including the Health Sciences complex, Research Park and it is located on the east bench of the Salt Lake Valley, close to the Wasatch Range and approximately 2 miles east of downtown Salt Lake City
University of Utah
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The
Block U has overlooked the university since 1907
University of Utah
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Seal of the University of Utah
University of Utah
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The University of Utah campus in the early 1920s
University of Utah
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A view of lower campus
14.
Exponentiation
–
Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as bn, involving two numbers, the base b and the exponent n. The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the base, Some common exponents have their own names, the exponent 2 is called the square of b or b squared, the exponent 3 is called the cube of b or b cubed. The exponent −1 of b, or 1 / b, is called the reciprocal of b, when n is a positive integer and b is not zero, b−n is naturally defined as 1/bn, preserving the property bn × bm = bn + m. The definition of exponentiation can be extended to any real or complex exponent. Exponentiation by integer exponents can also be defined for a variety of algebraic structures. The term power was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid for the square of a line, archimedes discovered and proved the law of exponents, 10a 10b = 10a+b, necessary to manipulate powers of 10. In the late 16th century, Jost Bürgi used Roman numerals for exponents, early in the 17th century, the first form of our modern exponential notation was introduced by Rene Descartes in his text titled La Géométrie, there, the notation is introduced in Book I. Nicolas Chuquet used a form of notation in the 15th century. The word exponent was coined in 1544 by Michael Stifel, samuel Jeake introduced the term indices in 1696. In the 16th century Robert Recorde used the square, cube, zenzizenzic, sursolid, zenzicube, second sursolid. Biquadrate has been used to refer to the power as well. Some mathematicians used exponents only for greater than two, preferring to represent squares as repeated multiplication. Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as ax + bxx + cx3 + d, another historical synonym, involution, is now rare and should not be confused with its more common meaning. In 1748 Leonhard Euler wrote consider exponentials or powers in which the exponent itself is a variable and it is clear that quantities of this kind are not algebraic functions, since in those the exponents must be constant. With this introduction of transcendental functions, Euler laid the foundation for the introduction of natural logarithm as the inverse function for y = ex. The expression b2 = b ⋅ b is called the square of b because the area of a square with side-length b is b2, the expression b3 = b ⋅ b ⋅ b is called the cube of b because the volume of a cube with side-length b is b3. The exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together, for example,35 =3 ⋅3 ⋅3 ⋅3 ⋅3 =243. The base 3 appears 5 times in the multiplication, because the exponent is 5
Exponentiation
–
Graphs of y = b x for various bases b: base 10 (green), base e (red), base 2 (blue), and base 1 / 2 (cyan). Each curve passes through the point (0, 1) because any nonzero number raised to the power of 0 is 1. At x = 1, the value of y equals the base because any number raised to the power of 1 is the number itself.
15.
Adipose tissue
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In biology, adipose tissue /ˈædᵻˌpoʊs/, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as an endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin. The two types of tissue are white adipose tissue, which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene, Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin, around internal organs, in bone marrow, intermuscular, Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other types are present. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, around organs, it provides protective padding. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles, under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity, the mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, the layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue, sometimes these two types of fat are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes, minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the depots are the largest. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus, a panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as an apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat. This condition cannot be corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment, visceral fat or abdominal fat is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs
Adipose tissue
–
Adipose tissue is one of the main types of
connective tissue.
Adipose tissue
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Adipose tissue
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White adipose tissue in paraffin section
Adipose tissue
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Electronic instrument of body fat meter
16.
World Health Organization
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The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
World Health Organization
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Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
World Health Organization
–
World Health Organization
World Health Organization
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WHO Headquarters in Geneva
World Health Organization
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Demonstration on
Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in
Geneva
17.
Percentile
–
A percentile is a measure used in statistics indicating the value below which a given percentage of observations in a group of observations fall. For example, the 20th percentile is the value below which 20% of the observations may be found, the term percentile and the related term percentile rank are often used in the reporting of scores from norm-referenced tests. For example, if a score is at the 86th percentile, the 25th percentile is also known as the first quartile, the 50th percentile as the median or second quartile, and the 75th percentile as the third quartile. In general, percentiles and quartiles are specific types of quantiles, when ISPs bill burstable internet bandwidth, the 95th or 98th percentile usually cuts off the top 5% or 2% of bandwidth peaks in each month, and then bills at the nearest rate. In this way infrequent peaks are ignored, and the customer is charged in a fairer way, the reason this statistic is so useful in measuring data throughput is that it gives a very accurate picture of the cost of the bandwidth. The 95th percentile says that 95% of the time, the usage is below this amount, just the same, the remaining 5% of the time, the usage is above that amount. Physicians will often use infant and childrens weight and height to assess their growth in comparison to national averages and percentiles which are found in growth charts. The 85th percentile speed of traffic on a road is used as a guideline in setting speed limits. The methods given in the Definitions section are approximations for use in small-sample statistics, in general terms, for very large populations following a normal distribution, percentiles may often be represented by reference to a normal curve plot. The normal distribution is plotted along an axis scaled to standard deviations, mathematically, the normal distribution extends to negative infinity on the left and positive infinity on the right. Note, however, that only a small proportion of individuals in a population will fall outside the −3 to +3 range. For example, with human heights very few people are above the +3 sigma height level, Percentiles represent the area under the normal curve, increasing from left to right. Each standard deviation represents a fixed percentile and this is related to the 68–95–99.7 rule or the three-sigma rule. There is no definition of percentile, however all definitions yield similar results when the number of observations is very large. Some methods for calculating the percentiles are given below and this is obtained by first calculating the ordinal rank and then taking the value from the ordered list that corresponds to that rank. A percentile calculated using the Nearest Rank method will always be a member of the ordered list. The 100th percentile is defined to be the largest value in the ordered list, Example 1, Consider the ordered list, which contains five data values. What are the 5th, 30th, 40th, 50th and 100th percentiles of this list using the Nearest Rank method
Percentile
–
Representation of the
three-sigma rule. The dark blue zone represents observations within one
standard deviation (σ) to either side of the
mean (μ), which accounts for about 68.2% of the population. Two standard deviations from the mean (dark and medium blue) account for about 95.4%, and three standard deviations (dark, medium, and light blue) for about 99.7%.
18.
Hospital Authority
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The Hospital Authority is a statutory body managing all the public hospitals and institutes in Hong Kong. It is under the governance of its board and is under the monitor of the Secretary for Food and its chairman is John Leong Chi-yan. Before the establishment of the authority, all health and medical issues were under the management of the Medical, in 1990, a new health administration system was introduced. In 2003, the General Outpatient Clinics of Department of Health were transferred to the authority, Hospital Authority has been providing services to the public under a cluster-based structure since 1993. It currently manages 42 public hospitals and institutions,48 specialist outpatient clinics and 73 general outpatient clinics and these facilities are organised into seven hospital clusters according to their geographical locations, as shown in the table below. Each hospital cluster comprises a mix of acute and convalescent or rehabilitation hospitals to provide a range of healthcare services. According to the Hospital Authority Ordinance, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong appoints members of the Hospital Authority Board governing the authority, the present board consists of 27 members, including the chairman. Membership of the authority comprises 23 non-public officers, three officers and the chief executive of the authority. Apart from the executive of the authority, other members are not remunerated in the capacity as board members. To enhance community participation and governance of public hospitals, the authority has established 31 Hospital Governing Committees in 38 hospitals, to provide the authority with advice on the healthcare needs for specific regions of Hong Kong, the authority has established three Regional Advisory Committees. Each of the committees meets four times a year, the authority is funded primarily by Hong Kong Government subvention, which amounted to HK$42.5 billion for 2012–2013, equating to over 90% of the authoritys total income. Its other incomes include hospital and clinic fees and charges, donations, the authoritys total expenditure was HK$46.1 billion for 2012–2013, with 70% used to pay staff, and 14% to pay for drugs and other supplies. Deputy Director of Health Gloria Tam said that it was not something so urgent that it needs to be dealt with in 24 hours and they can go during office hours tomorrow. Medical sector legislator Leung Ka-lau said the lack of cover during the crisis was insensitive. Chow pledged 18 additional facilities around Hong Kong would be operational the next day, waiting time for elective treatment is quite high. The average waiting time for surgery in 2014 was 22 months. Health in Hong Kong List of hospitals in Hong Kong Fung Hong Health informatics Official website
Hospital Authority
–
Hospital Authority Building, where the Hospital Authority Head Office is located
19.
Hong Kong
–
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour —between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
Hong Kong
–
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in WWI and WWII.
Hong Kong
–
Flag
Hong Kong
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Stamp with portrait of
Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
Hong Kong
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Development of
Hong Kong Island in 1986
20.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
National Institutes of Health
–
Aerial photo of the NIH Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center, Bethesda, Maryland
National Institutes of Health
–
National Institutes of Health logo
National Institutes of Health
–
The Laboratory of Hygiene in 1887
National Institutes of Health
–
Ida A. Bengtson, a
bacteriologist who in 1916 was the first woman hired to work in the Hygienic Laboratory.
21.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
–
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the leading national public health institute of the United States. The CDC is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services, headquartered near Atlanta and its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and internationally. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control, the Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1,1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations, the Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency. The new agency was a branch of the U. S, Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946, Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. Among its 369 employees, the jobs at CDC were originally entomology. In CDCs initial years, more than six and a million homes were sprayed. In 1946, there were only seven officers on duty. Under Joseph Walter Mountin, the CDC continued to advocate for health issues. In 1947, the CDC made a payment of $10 to Emory University for 15 acres of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase, the benefactor behind the “gift” was Robert W. Woodruff, chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company. Woodruff had a long-time interest in control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, the mission of CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U. S. Public Health Service was transferred to the CDC in 1957, shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1,1967, the organization was renamed the Center for Disease Control on June 24,1970, and Centers for Disease Control effective October 14,1980. An act of the United States Congress appended the words and Prevention to the name effective October 27,1992, however, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Currently the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
–
CDC headquarters in
Druid Hills, Georgia, as seen from
Emory University
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
–
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
–
CDC′s Roybal campus in Atlanta, Georgia
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
–
Arlen Specter Headquarters and Emergency Operations Center
22.
Keith Devlin
–
Keith J. Devlin is a British mathematician and popular science writer. Since 1987 he has lived in the United States, Devlin earned a BSc in Mathematics at Kings College London in 1968, and a PhD in Mathematics at the University of Bristol in 1971 under the supervision of Frederick Rowbottom. He is a commentator on National Public Radios Weekend Edition Saturday, as of 2012, he is the author of 34 books and over 80 research articles. Several of his books are aimed at an audience of the general public, the Joy of Sets, Fundamentals of Contemporary Set Theory. Goodbye, Descartes, the End of Logic and the Search for a New Cosmology of the Mind, john Wiley & Sons, Inc.1997. The Language of Mathematics, Making the Invisible Visible, the Math Gene, How Mathematical Thinking Evolved and Why Numbers Are Like Gossip. The Millennium Problems, the Seven Greatest Unsolved Mathematical Puzzles of Our Time, the Math Instinct, Why Youre a Mathematical Genius. The Numbers Behind NUMB3RS, Solving Crime with Mathematics, with coauthor Gary Lorden The Unfinished Game, Pascal, Fermat, and the Seventeenth-Century Letter that Made the World Modern. The Man of Numbers, Fibonaccis Arithmetic Revolution, Mathematics Education for a New Era, Video Games as a Medium for Learning. Official website including his curriculum vitae Devlins Angle — column at the Mathematical Association of America
Keith Devlin
–
Keith Devlin (2011)
23.
University of Chicago
–
The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
University of Chicago
–
An early
convocation ceremony at the University of Chicago
University of Chicago
–
The University of Chicago
University of Chicago
–
View from the
Midway Plaisance
University of Chicago
–
The campus of the University of Chicago. From the top of
Rockefeller Chapel, the Main Quadrangles can be seen on the left (West), the
Oriental Institute and the
Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics can be seen in the center (North), and the
Booth School of Business and
Laboratory Schools can be seen on the right (East). The panoramic is bounded on both sides by the
Midway Plaisance (South).
24.
Body fat percentage
–
The body fat percentage of a human or other living being is the total mass of fat divided by total body mass, body fat includes essential body fat and storage body fat. Essential body fat is necessary to life and reproductive functions. The percentage of body fat for women is greater than that for men, due to the demands of childbearing. The percentage of fat is 2–5% in men, and 10–13% in women. Storage body fat consists of fat accumulation in adipose tissue, part of which protects internal organs in the chest, the minimum recommended total body fat percentage exceeds the essential fat percentage value reported above. A number of methods are available for determining body fat percentage, the body fat percentage is a measure of fitness level, since it is the only body measurement which directly calculates a persons relative body composition without regard to height or weight. The widely used body mass index provides a measure that allows the comparison of the adiposity of individuals of different heights and weights. As such, BMI is an indicator of overall fitness for a large group of people. Epidemiologically, the percentage of fat in an individual varies according to sex. Various theoretical approaches exist on the relationships between body fat percentage, health, athletic capacity, etc, different authorities have consequently developed different recommendations for ideal body fat percentages. 9% at age 16–19 years to 30. 9% at age 60–79 years. In females, mean body fat ranged from 32. 0% at age 8–11 years to 42. 4% at age 60–79 years. Controversy exists as to whether a body fat percentage is better for ones health. The leanest athletes typically compete at levels of about 6–13% for men or 14–20% for women, bodybuilders may compete at ranges even lower than these levels. Certified personal trainers will suggest to male bodybuilders that they aim for a fat percentage between 2% and 4% by contest time. Irrespective of the location from which they are obtained, the fat cells in humans are composed almost entirely of pure triglycerides with a density of about 0.9 kilograms per litre. A correction is made for the buoyancy of air in the lungs, if there were no errors whatsoever in measuring body density, the uncertainty in fat estimation would be about ±3. 8% of the body weight, primarily because of normal variability in body constituents. Whole-body air displacement plethysmography is a recognised and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure body fat percentage. ADP uses the principles as the gold-standard method of underwater weighing
Body fat percentage
–
Body composition measurement with
whole-body air displacement plethysmography (ADP) technology
25.
Sensitivity and specificity
–
Specificity measures the proportion of negatives that are correctly identified as such. Because most medical tests do not have sensitivity and specificity values above 99%, but for practical reasons, tests with sensitivity and specificity values above 90% have high credibility, albeit usually no certainty, in differential diagnosis. Sensitivity therefore quantifies the avoiding of false negatives, and specificity does the same for false positives and this trade-off can be represented graphically using a receiver operating characteristic curve. In reality, however, any non-deterministic predictor will possess a minimum error bound known as the Bayes error rate, imagine a study evaluating a new test that screens people for a disease. Each person taking the test either has or does not have the disease, the test outcome can be positive or negative. The test results for each subject may or may not match the actual status. The four outcomes can be formulated in a 2×2 contingency table or confusion matrix, as follows, Sensitivity refers to the tests ability to correctly detect patients who do have the condition. In the example of a medical test used to identify a disease, a high sensitivity test is reliable when its result is negative, since it rarely misdiagnoses those who have the disease. A test with 100% sensitivity will recognize all patients with the disease by testing positive, a negative test result would definitively rule out presence of the disease in a patient. A positive result in a test with high sensitivity is not useful for ruling in disease, suppose a bogus test kit is designed to show only one reading, positive. When used on diseased patients, all patients test positive, giving the test 100% sensitivity, however, sensitivity by definition does not take into account false positives. The bogus test also returns positive on all healthy patients, giving it a positive rate of 100%. The calculation of sensitivity does not take into account indeterminate test results, if a test cannot be repeated, indeterminate samples either should be excluded from the analysis or can be treated as false negatives. Specificity relates to the ability to correctly detect patients without a condition. Consider the example of a medical test for diagnosing a disease, Specificity of a test is the proportion of healthy patients known not to have the disease, who will test negative for it. The test rarely gives positive results in healthy patients, a test with 100% specificity will read negative, and accurately exclude disease from all healthy patients. A positive result signifies a high probability of the presence of disease, a test with a higher specificity has a lower type I error rate. If 100 patients known to have a disease were tested, and 43 test positive, if 100 with no disease are tested and 96 return a negative result, then the test has 96% specificity
Sensitivity and specificity
–
High sensitivity and low specificity
26.
Body volume index
–
The Body Volume Index is a new measurement for obesity, proposed as an alternative and enhancement to the body mass index. The data needed to calculate a persons BVI originally relied on data collection from 3D Scanners, by December 2016, over 400,000 men, women and children had been measured using this 3D technology, originally developed to measure body circumferences for retail clothing fit. The measurement extraction software has now been configured to develop part volume, based on height and weight, BMI was originally conceived between 1830 and 1850 by a Belgian polymath called Adolphe Quetelet. BMI uses these measurements to determine whether a person is carrying an amount of weight for an average person of their height. BVI allows for differentiation between people who have assigned the same BMI rating, but who have a different body shape. Specifically, BVI divides the 3D body image of a person into 7 distinct sections, Chest, Abdomen, Pelvis, Right Arm, Left arm, Right Leg, Left Leg. The Head, Hands and feet are specifically excluded as extra weight or fat in these areas are not considered to be a risk to general health, after primary development, initial validation was undertaken by Heartlands Hospital, an NHS Obesity, Diabetes and Endocrinology Centre in the UK. This was followed by testing in the US by Mayo Clinic in Rochester. Other organisations such as Aston University, University of Hull, the University of Westminster, there has been an awareness in recent years that abdominal fat and weight around the abdomen constitute a greater health risk, commonly known as central obesity. An accurate reading of this has now only been obtainable through either an MRI Scan or autopsy. BVI is based upon the principle that where weight is distributed on the body is perhaps an indication of risk than the total weight or total fat content of a person. A Study by The Mayo Clinic in 1995 looked into the effectiveness of measuring and predicting visceral and subcutaneous fat using computed tomography and it was concluded that a single-slice CT scan with or without DXA is required for accurate predictions of intraabdominal fat. Body composition Body fat percentage Body Mass Index Body shape Body weight Central obesity Obesity Overweight Childhood obesity bodyvolume. com
Body volume index
–
8 women with the same BMI rating (BMI - 30) but with different weight distribution and abdominal volume, so they have different BVI ratings
27.
Journal of the American Medical Association
–
JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association is a peer-reviewed medical journal published 48 times a year by the American Medical Association. It publishes original research, reviews, and editorials covering all aspects of the biomedical sciences, the journal was established in 1883 with Nathan Smith Davis as the founding editor. The journals current editor-in-chief is Howard Bauchner of Boston University, who succeeded Catherine DeAngelis on July 1,2011, the journal was established in 1883 by the American Medical Association and superseded the Transactions of the American Medical Association. The Councilors Bulletin was renamed the Bulletin of the American Medical Association which was absorbed by the Journal of the American Medical Association. In 1960 the journal obtained its current title, JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association, the journal is commonly referred to as JAMA. Continuing Education Opportunities for Physicians was a journal section providing lists for regional or national levels of continuing medical education. JAMA had provided this information since 1937, prior to 1955, the list was produced either quarterly or semiannually. Between 1955 and 1981, the list was available annually, as the number of CME offerings increased from 1,000 to 8,500, the JAMA website states that webinars are available for CME. The article was not subject to blind peer-review and argued for specific policies which future presidents could pursue in order to improve health care reform implementation. After the controversial firing of an editor-in-chief, George D. Lundberg, a seven-member journal oversight committee was created to evaluate the editor-in-chief and to help ensure editorial independence. Since its inception, the committee has met at least once a year, presently, JAMA states that article content should be attributed to authors and not the publisher. From 1964 to 2013, the journal used images of artwork on its cover, according to former editor George Lundberg, this practice was designed to link the humanities and medicine. In 2013, a redesign moved the art feature to an inside page, the purpose of the redesign was to standardize the appearance of all journals in the JAMA network. List of American Medical Association journals Official website American Medical Association Archives Free copies of volumes 1-80, from the Internet Archive and HathiTrust
Journal of the American Medical Association
–
Cover, May 26, 1993:
Jean Metzinger,
Soldier at a Game of Chess
28.
Waist-to-hip ratio
–
Waist–hip ratio or waist-to-hip ratio is the ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement, for example, a person with a 25″ waist and 38″ hips has a waist–hip ratio of about 0.66. The WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of health, hip circumference should be measured around the widest portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor. Other organizations use different standards. The United States National Institutes of Health and the National Health, waist measurements are usually obtained by laypersons by measuring around the waist at the navel, but research has shown that these measurements may underestimate the true waist circumference. For both measurements, the individual should stand with feet together, arms at the side and body weight evenly distributed. The subject should be relaxed, and the measurements should be taken at the end of a normal respiration, each measurement should be repeated twice, if the measurements are within 1 cm of one another, the average should be calculated. If the difference between the two measurements exceeds 1 cm, the two measurements should be repeated. Also, in case the waist is convex rather than concave, such as is the case in pregnancy, different body types, and obesity, the WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of health, and the risk of developing serious health conditions. Research shows that people with apple-shaped bodies face more risks than those with pear-shaped bodies who carry more weight around the hips. WHR is used as a measurement of obesity, which in turn is an indicator of other more serious health conditions. The WHO states that abdominal obesity is defined as a ratio above 0.90 for males and above 0.85 for females. WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in people than waist circumference or BMI. If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold, the body fat percentage is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist–hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two women to have different body mass indices but the same waist–hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index. WHR has been shown to be a predictor of cardiovascular disease than waist circumference. However, other studies have found waist circumference, not WHR, to be an indicator of cardiovascular risk factors, body fat distribution
Waist-to-hip ratio
–
Measurement of waist hip ratio: In a lean person (left), the waist can be measured at its narrowest point, while for a person with convex waist (right), it may be measured at about one inch above the navel. The hip is measured at its widest portion of the buttocks at left, and at the
greater trochanters at right.
29.
Visceral fat
–
In biology, adipose tissue /ˈædᵻˌpoʊs/, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as an endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin. The two types of tissue are white adipose tissue, which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene, Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin, around internal organs, in bone marrow, intermuscular, Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other types are present. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, around organs, it provides protective padding. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles, under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity, the mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, the layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue, sometimes these two types of fat are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes, minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the depots are the largest. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus, a panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as an apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat. This condition cannot be corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment, visceral fat or abdominal fat is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs
Visceral fat
–
Adipose tissue is one of the main types of
connective tissue.
Visceral fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Visceral fat
–
White adipose tissue in paraffin section
Visceral fat
–
Electronic instrument of body fat meter
30.
Allometry
–
Other methods include measurement-error models and a particular kind of principal component analysis. Allometry often studies shape differences in terms of ratios of the objects dimensions, Two objects of different size, but common shape, will have their dimensions in the same ratio. Take, for example, an object that grows as it matures. Its size changes with age, but the shapes are similar, lizards often exhibit allometric changes during their ontogeny. In addition to studies that focus on growth, allometry also examines shape variation among individuals of a given age, comparisons of species are used to examine interspecific or evolutionary allometry. Isometric scaling happens when proportional relationships are preserved as size changes during growth or over evolutionary time, an example is found in frogs — aside from a brief period during the few weeks after metamorphosis, frogs grow isometrically. Therefore, a frog whose legs are as long as its body will retain that relationship throughout its life, isometric scaling is governed by the square-cube law. An organism which doubles in length isometrically will find that the area available to it will increase fourfold, while its volume. This can present problems for organisms, therefore, this hypothetical organism would experience twice the bone and muscle loads of its smaller version. This mismatch can be avoided either by being overbuilt when small or by changing proportions during growth, isometric scaling is often used as a null hypothesis in scaling studies, with deviations from isometry considered evidence of physiological factors forcing allometric growth. Allometric scaling is any change that deviates from isometry, a classic example discussed by Galileo in his Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences is the skeleton of mammals. The skeletal structure become much stronger and robust relative to the size of the body as the body size increases. Allometry is often expressed in terms of a scaling exponent based on body mass, conversely, if a surface area based property scales to mass to the 0.8 power, the values are higher than predicted by isometry and the organism is said to show positive allometry. One example of positive allometry occurs among species of monitor lizards, the same is true for some fishes, e. g. the muskellunge, whose weight grows with about the power of 3.325 of its length. A 30-inch muskellunge will weigh about 8 pounds, while a 40-inch muskellunge will weigh about 18 lb, to determine whether isometry or allometry is present, an expected relationship between variables needs to be determined to compare data to. This is important in determining if the relationship in a dataset deviates from an expected relationship. The use of such as dimensional analysis is very helpful in determining expected slope. This ‘expected’ slope, as it is known, is essential for detecting allometry because scaling variables are comparisons to other things
Allometry
–
Skeleton of an
elephant
Allometry
–
Skeleton of a
Tiger Quoll (Dasyurus maculatus). Note the proportionately thicker bones in the elephant, an example of allometric scaling
Allometry
–
Allometric relations show as straight lines when plotted on
double-logarithmic axes
Allometry
–
Allometric law of cruising speed versus body mass
31.
Sagittal Abdominal Diameter
–
Sagittal abdominal diameter is a measure of visceral obesity, the amount of fat in the gut region. SAD is the distance from the small of the back to the upper abdomen, SAD may be measured when standing or supine. SAD may be measured at any point from the narrowest point between the last rib and the crests to the midpoint of the iliac crests. SAD is a predictor of coronary disease, with higher values indicating increased risk independent of BMI. For persons of normal BMI, SAD should be under 25 centimetres, the amount this measure exceeds 30 centimetres correlates to increased cardiovascular risk and insulin resistance. SAD measure of men in their 40s, greater than 25 cm, an article in Annals of Neurology links visceral fat to lower brain volume. A related measurement is Supine Abdominal Height, the height as measured in the supine position. The SAH method is easier for self-monitoring, but gives slightly lower due to gravity. Central obesity Waist-hip ratio Body mass index Body volume index Body fat percentage Index of Central Obesity
Sagittal Abdominal Diameter
–
SAH measure using supine abdominal height
32.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
33.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
–
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute is the third largest Institute of the National Institutes of Health, located in Bethesda, Maryland, United States. It is tasked with allocating about $3, nHLBIs Director is Gary H. Gibbons. Research is related to the causes, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of heart, blood vessel, lung, and blood diseases and it also supports research on clinical use of blood and all aspects of the management of blood resources. For health professionals and the public, the NHLBI conducts educational activities, including development and dissemination of materials in the above areas, the NHLBI coordinates relevant activities in the above areas, including the related causes of stroke, with other research institutes and federal health programs. There are 60 investigators, each of whom runs their own research program and they are supported by a group of core services that implement state-of-the-art techniques available to all NHLBI investigators. The NHLBI was home to Marshall Nirenberg, Nobel laureate for his part in the discovery of the genetic code, the DIR also has a large training component, with opportunities for undergraduate, graduate, and medical students as well as post-doctoral training. The NHLBI sponsors National Wear Red Day and the Heart Truth campaign, a national awareness campaign for women about heart disease
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014)
34.
Stone (unit)
–
The stone or stone weight is an English and imperial unit of mass now equal to 14 pounds. The United Kingdoms imperial system adopted the wool stone of 14 pounds in 1835, with the advent of metrication, Europes various stones were superseded by or adapted to the kilogram from the mid-19th century on. The stone continues in use in Britain and Ireland used for measuring body weight. The name stone derives from the use of stones for weights, the Biblical law against the carrying of diverse weights, a large and a small is more literally translated as you shall not carry a stone and a stone, a large and a small. There was no standardized stone in the ancient Jewish world, such weights varied in quality, the Yale Medical Library holds 10 and 50-pound examples of polished serpentine, while a 40-pound example at the Eschborn Museum is made of sandstone. The English stone under law varied by commodity and in practice varied according to local standards. The Assize of Weights and Measures, a statute of uncertain date from c. In 1350, Edward III issued a new statute defining the stone weight, to be used for wool and other Merchandizes, at 14 pounds, reaffirmed by Henry VII in 1495. In England, merchants traditionally sold potatoes in half-stone increments of 7 pounds, the Oxford English Dictionary also lists, The Scottish stone was equal to 16 Scottish pounds. In 1661, the Royal Commission of Scotland recommended that the Troy stone be used as a standard of weight, the tron stone of Edinburgh, also standardised in 1661, was 16 tron pounds. In 1789, an enumeration of measurements was printed for the use of his Majestys Sheriffs and Stewards Depute. And to the Magistrates of the Royal Boroughs of Scotland and provided a county-by-county and commodity-by-commodity breakdown of values and conversions for the stone and other measures. The Scots stone ceased to be used for trade when the Act of 1824 established a system of measure across the whole of the United Kingdom. Before the early 19th century, as in England, the stone varied both with locality and with commodity, for example, the Belfast stone for measuring flax equaled 16.75 avoirdupois pounds. )The most usual value was 14 pounds. Among the oddities related to the use of the stone was the practice in County Clare of a stone of potatoes being 16 lb in the summer and 18 lb in the winter. The 1772 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica defined the stone, STONE also denotes a certain quantity or weight of some commodities, a stone of beef, in London, is the quantity of eight pounds, in Hertfordshire, twelve pounds, in Scotland sixteen pounds. The Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which applied to all of the United Kingdom, consolidated the weights and measures legislation of several centuries into a single document. It revoked the provision that bales of wool should be made up of 20 stones, each of 14 pounds, ten years later, a stone still varied from 5 pounds to 8 pounds to 14 pounds. However, the Act of 1835 permitted using a stone of 14 pounds for trade, james Britten, in 1880 for example, catalogued a number of different values of the stone in various British towns and cities, ranging from 4 lb to 26 lb
Stone (unit)
–
A 16th-century
bronze 1 stone weight emblazoned with the
English coat of arms.
Stone (unit)
–
A 2nd-century stone weight of 40
Roman pounds (~13 kg), beside a
credit card for scale.
Stone (unit)
–
A depiction of a medieval German scale weighing bales of wool according to the local stone.
35.
The Independent (newspaper)
–
The Independent is a British online newspaper. The printed edition of the paper ceased in March 2016, nicknamed the Indy, it began as a broadsheet newspaper, but changed to tabloid format in 2003. Until September 2011, the paper described itself on the banner at the top of every newspaper as free from party political bias and it tends to take a pro-market stance on economic issues. The daily edition was named National Newspaper of the Year at the 2004 British Press Awards. In June 2015, it had a daily circulation of just below 58,000,85 per cent down from its 1990 peak. On 12 February 2016, it was announced that The Independent, the last print edition of The Independent on Sunday was published on 20 March 2016, with the main paper ceasing print publication the following Saturday. Launched in 1986, the first issue of The Independent was published on 7 October in broadsheet format and it was produced by Newspaper Publishing plc and created by Andreas Whittam Smith, Stephen Glover and Matthew Symonds. All three partners were former journalists at The Daily Telegraph who had left the paper towards the end of Lord Hartwells ownership, marcus Sieff was the first chairman of Newspaper Publishing, and Whittam Smith took control of the paper. The paper was created at a time of a change in British newspaper publishing. Rupert Murdoch was challenging long-accepted practices of the print unions and ultimately defeated them in the Wapping dispute, consequently, production costs could be reduced which, it was said at the time, created openings for more competition. As a result of controversy around Murdochs move to Wapping, the plant was effectively having to function under siege from sacked print workers picketing outside, the Independent attracted some of the staff from the two Murdoch broadsheets who had chosen not to move to his companys new headquarters. Launched with the advertising slogan It is, and challenging both The Guardian for centre-left readers and The Times as the newspaper of record, The Independent reached a circulation of over 400,000 by 1989. Competing in a market, The Independent sparked a general freshening of newspaper design as well as, within a few years. Some aspects of production merged with the paper, although the Sunday paper retained a largely distinct editorial staff. It featured spoofs of the other papers mastheads with the words The Rupert Murdoch or The Conrad Black, a number of other media companies were interested in the paper. Tony OReillys media group and Mirror Group Newspapers had bought a stake of about a third each by mid-1994, in March 1995, Newspaper Publishing was restructured with a rights issue, splitting the shareholding into OReillys Independent News & Media, MGN, and Prisa. In April 1996, there was another refinancing, and in March 1998, OReilly bought the other 54% of the company for £30 million, brendan Hopkins headed Independent News, Andrew Marr was appointed editor of The Independent, and Rosie Boycott became editor of The Independent on Sunday. Marr introduced a dramatic if short-lived redesign which won critical favour but was a commercial failure, Marr admitted his changes had been a mistake in his book, My Trade
The Independent (newspaper)
–
The Independent front page, 15 February 2014
The Independent (newspaper)
–
The Independent
36.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
37.
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed
38.
Open access
–
Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access and free of many restrictions on use. These additional usage rights are granted through the use of various specific Creative Commons licenses. There are multiple ways authors can provide access to their work. One way is to publish it and then self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed for free, such as their institutional repository and this is known as green open access. Some publishers require delays, or an embargo, on when an output in a repository may be made open access. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the American and English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc. A second way authors can make their work open access is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research output immediately available from the publisher. This is known as open access, and within the sciences this often takes the form of publishing an article in either an open access journal. Pure open access journals do not charge fees, and may have one of a variety of business models. Many, however, do charge an article processing fee, widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access movement, and prompted both the green open access way and the creation of open access journals. Conventional non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, some non-open access journals provide open access after an embargo period of 6–12 months or longer. The Budapest statement defined open access as follows, There are many degrees, despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea and practise of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term open access was formally coined. Computer scientists had been self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s, the Subversive Proposal to generalize the practice was posted in 1994. Gratis OA refers to online access, and libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional re-use rights. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions had corresponded only to libre OA, the re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses, these almost all require attribution of authorship to the original authors. Open access itself began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet, the momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Electronic publishing created new benefits as compared to paper publishing but beyond that, rather than applying traditional notions of copyright to academic publications, they could be libre or free to build upon. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers, Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to
Open access
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authors may use form language like this to request an open access license when submitting their work to a publisher
Open access
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Open access logo, originally designed by
Public Library of Science. Whilst no official open access logo exists, organisations are free to select the logo style that best supports their visual language. Other logos are also in use (see
Signalling OA-ness).
39.
Slate (magazine)
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Slate is an online liberal / progressive magazine that covers current affairs, politics and culture in the United States. It was created in 1996 by former New Republic editor Michael Kinsley, on 21 December 2004, it was purchased by The Washington Post Company, later renamed the Graham Holdings Company. Since 4 June 2008, Slate has been managed by The Slate Group, Slate is based in New York City, with an additional office in Washington, DC. A French version was launched in February 2009 by a group of four journalists, including Jean-Marie Colombani, Eric Leser, among them, the founders hold 50% in the publishing company, while The Slate Group holds 15%. In 2011, slate. fr started a separate site covering African news, Slate Afrique, in July 2014, Julia Turner replaced David Plotz, who had been editor of Slate since 2008. Plotz had been the deputy editor to Jacob Weisberg, Slates editor from 2002 until his designation as the Chairman, the Washington Post Companys John Alderman is Slates publisher. Slate, which is updated throughout the day, covers politics, arts and culture, sports, as of mid-2015, it publishes about 1500 stories per month. Slate is also known for adopting contrarian views, giving rise to the term Slate Pitches and it is ad-supported and has been available to read free of charge since 1999, but restricted access for non-US readers via a metered paywall in 2015. Slate features regular and semi-regular columns such as Explainer, Moneybox, Spectator, Transport, many of the articles are short and argument-driven. Around 2010, the magazine began running long-form journalism. Many of the stories are an outgrowth of the Fresca Fellowships. In the context of a 2014 reader discussion, it was stated that the magazine is perceived to have left-liberal leanings, in 1998, Slate introduced a paywall-based business model that attracted up 20,000 subscribers but was abandoned afterwards. A similar subscription model would later be implemented by Slates independently owned competitor, Salon. com, on November 30,2005, Slate started a daily feature ”Todays Pictures”, featuring fifteen to twenty photographs from the archive at Magnum Photos that share a common theme. The column also features two flash animated ”Interactive Essays” a month, in June 2006, on its tenth anniversary, Slate unveiled a redesigned website. In 2007, it introduced Slate V, a video magazine with content that relates to or expands upon their written articles. In 2013, the magazine was redesigned under the guidance of Design Director Vivian Selbo, in 2011, Slate was nominated for four digital National Magazine Awards and won the NMA for General Excellence. In the same year, the laid off several high-profile journalists, including co-founder Jack Shafer. At the time, it had around 40 full-time editorial staff, the following year, a dedicated ad sales team was created
Slate (magazine)
40.
National Health Service
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The National Health Service is the name of the public health services of England, Scotland and Wales, and is commonly used to refer to those of Northern Ireland. They were established together as one of the social reforms following the Second World War on the founding principles of being comprehensive, universal. Today, each provides a range of health services, the vast majority of which are free for people ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. Taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a budget of £136.7 billion. For non-residents, the NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner, the NHS began on the Appointed Day of 5 July 1948. This put into practice Westminster legislation for England and Wales from 1946 and Scotland from 1947, when Clement Attlees Labour Party won the 1945 election he appointed Aneurin Bevan as Health Minister. Bevan then embarked upon what the historian of the NHS, Charles Webster. Three years after the founding of the NHS, Bevan resigned from the Labour government in opposition to the introduction of charges for the provision of dentures and glasses, the following year, Winston Churchills Conservative government introduced prescription charges. These charges were the first of many controversies over reforms to the NHS throughout its history, each of the UKs four nations have their own separate NHS, each with its own history. From its earliest days, the history of the NHS has shown its place in British society reflected and debated in film, TV, cartoons. However, some functions might be performed by one health service on behalf of another. There have been issues about cross-border payments, taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a combined budget of £136.7 billion. In 2014 the total health sector workforce across the UK was 2,165,043 and this broke down into 1,789,586 in England,198,368 in Scotland,110,292 in Wales and 66,797 in Northern Ireland. The NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner and emergency treatment not including admission to hospital, people with the right to medical care in European Economic Area nations are also entitled to free treatment by using the European Health Insurance Card. Those from other countries with which the UK has reciprocal arrangements also qualify for free treatment, people not ordinarily resident in the UK are in general not entitled to free hospital treatment, with some exceptions such as refugees. People not ordinarily resident may be subject to an interview to establish their eligibility, patients who do not qualify for free treatment are asked to pay in advance, or to sign a written undertaking to pay, except for emergency treatment. The provision of treatment to non-UK-residents, formerly interpreted liberally, has been increasingly restricted. As of 2016 the surcharge was £200 per year, with exemptions and reductions in some cases, the systems are 98. 8% funded from general taxation and National Insurance contributions, plus small amounts from patient charges for some services
National Health Service
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Leaflet concerning the launch of the NHS in England and Wales.
National Health Service
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Aneurin Bevan, who spearheaded the establishment of the National Health Service
41.
ArXiv
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In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository. Begun on August 14,1991, arXiv. org passed the half-million article milestone on October 3,2008, by 2014 the submission rate had grown to more than 8,000 per month. The arXiv was made possible by the low-bandwidth TeX file format, around 1990, Joanne Cohn began emailing physics preprints to colleagues as TeX files, but the number of papers being sent soon filled mailboxes to capacity. Additional modes of access were added, FTP in 1991, Gopher in 1992. The term e-print was quickly adopted to describe the articles and its original domain name was xxx. lanl. gov. Due to LANLs lack of interest in the rapidly expanding technology, in 1999 Ginsparg changed institutions to Cornell University and it is now hosted principally by Cornell, with 8 mirrors around the world. Its existence was one of the factors that led to the current movement in scientific publishing known as open access. Mathematicians and scientists regularly upload their papers to arXiv. org for worldwide access, Ginsparg was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2002 for his establishment of arXiv. The annual budget for arXiv is approximately $826,000 for 2013 to 2017, funded jointly by Cornell University Library, annual donations were envisaged to vary in size between $2,300 to $4,000, based on each institution’s usage. As of 14 January 2014,174 institutions have pledged support for the period 2013–2017 on this basis, in September 2011, Cornell University Library took overall administrative and financial responsibility for arXivs operation and development. Ginsparg was quoted in the Chronicle of Higher Education as saying it was supposed to be a three-hour tour, however, Ginsparg remains on the arXiv Scientific Advisory Board and on the arXiv Physics Advisory Committee. The lists of moderators for many sections of the arXiv are publicly available, additionally, an endorsement system was introduced in 2004 as part of an effort to ensure content that is relevant and of interest to current research in the specified disciplines. Under the system, for categories that use it, an author must be endorsed by an established arXiv author before being allowed to submit papers to those categories. Endorsers are not asked to review the paper for errors, new authors from recognized academic institutions generally receive automatic endorsement, which in practice means that they do not need to deal with the endorsement system at all. However, the endorsement system has attracted criticism for allegedly restricting scientific inquiry, perelman appears content to forgo the traditional peer-reviewed journal process, stating, If anybody is interested in my way of solving the problem, its all there – let them go and read about it. The arXiv generally re-classifies these works, e. g. in General mathematics, papers can be submitted in any of several formats, including LaTeX, and PDF printed from a word processor other than TeX or LaTeX. The submission is rejected by the software if generating the final PDF file fails, if any image file is too large. ArXiv now allows one to store and modify an incomplete submission, the time stamp on the article is set when the submission is finalized
ArXiv
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arXiv
ArXiv
–
A screenshot of the arXiv taken in 1994, using the browser
NCSA Mosaic. At the time,
HTML forms were a new technology.
42.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
.
