1.
Medical genetics
–
Medical genetics is the branch of medicine that involves the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders. In contrast, the study of typically non-medical phenotypes such as the genetics of eye color would be considered part of human genetics, but not necessarily relevant to medical genetics. Genetic medicine is a term for medical genetics and incorporates areas such as gene therapy, personalized medicine. Medical genetics is becoming relevant to many common diseases. In some ways, many of the fields within medical genetics are hybrids between clinical care and research. This is due in part to recent advances in science and technology that have enabled an unprecedented understanding of genetic disorders, Clinical genetics is the practice of clinical medicine with particular attention to hereditary disorders. Referrals are made to genetics clinics for a variety of reasons, including birth defects, developmental delay, autism, epilepsy, short stature, in the United States, physicians who practice clinical genetics are accredited by the American Board of Medical Genetics and Genomics. In order to become a practitioner of Clinical Genetics, a physician must complete a minimum of 24 months of training in a program accredited by the ABMGG. Examples of metabolic disorders include galactosemia, glycogen storage disease, lysosomal storage disorders, metabolic acidosis, peroxisomal disorders, phenylketonuria, cytogenetics is the study of chromosomes and chromosome abnormalities. While cytogenetics historically relied on microscopy to analyze chromosomes, new technologies such as array comparative genomic hybridization are now becoming widely used. Examples of chromosome abnormalities include aneuploidy, chromosomal rearrangements, and genomic deletion/duplication disorders, molecular genetics involves the discovery of and laboratory testing for DNA mutations that underlie many single gene disorders. Molecular tests are used in the diagnosis of syndromes involving epigenetic abnormalities, such as Angelman syndrome, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, Prader-willi syndrome. Mitochondrial genetics concerns the diagnosis and management of mitochondrial disorders, which have a molecular basis, there exists some overlap between medical genetic diagnostic laboratories and molecular pathology. Genetic counseling is the process of providing information about conditions, diagnostic testing. Genetic counselors are non-physician members of the medical team who specialize in family risk assessment. The precise role of the genetic counselor varies somewhat depending on the disorder, although genetics has its roots back in the 19th century with the work of the Bohemian monk Gregor Mendel and other pioneering scientists, human genetics emerged later. It started to develop, albeit slowly, during the first half of the 20th century, mendelian inheritance was studied in a number of important disorders such as albinism, brachydactyly, and hemophilia. Mathematical approaches were devised and applied to human genetics
Medical genetics
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Geneticist working with a pedigree
2.
Medical Subject Headings
–
Medical Subject Headings is a comprehensive controlled vocabulary for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences, it serves as a thesaurus that facilitates searching. Created and updated by the United States National Library of Medicine, it is used by the MEDLINE/PubMed article database, MeSH is also used by ClinicalTrials. gov registry to classify which diseases are studied by trials registered in ClinicalTrials. gov. MeSH was introduced in 1960, with the NLMs own index catalogue, the yearly printed version of MeSH was discontinued in 2007 and MeSH is now available online only. It can be browsed and downloaded free of charge through PubMed, originally in English, MeSH has been translated into numerous other languages and allows retrieval of documents from different languages. The 2009 version of MeSH contains a total of 25,186 subject headings, most of these are accompanied by a short description or definition, links to related descriptors, and a list of synonyms or very similar terms. This additional information and the structure make the MeSH essentially a thesaurus. The descriptors or subject headings are arranged in a hierarchy, a given descriptor may appear at several locations in the hierarchical tree. The tree locations carry systematic labels known as numbers. The tree numbers of a given descriptor are subject to change as MeSH is updated, every descriptor also carries a unique alphanumerical ID that will not change. Most subject headings come with a description or definition. See the MeSH description for diabetes type 2 as an example, the explanatory text is written by the MeSH team based on their standard sources if not otherwise stated. References are mostly encyclopaedias and standard textbooks of the subject areas, references for specific statements in the descriptions are not given, instead readers are referred to the bibliography. In addition to the hierarchy, MeSH contains a small number of standard qualifiers. For example, Measles is a descriptor and epidemiology is a qualifier, the epidemiology qualifier can be added to all other disease descriptors. Not all descriptor/qualifier combinations are allowed some of them may be meaningless. In all there are 83 different qualifiers, in addition to the descriptors, MeSH also contains some 139,000 supplementary concept records. These do not belong to the vocabulary as such, instead they enlarge the thesaurus. Many of these records describe chemical substances, by default, a search for a descriptor will include all the descriptors in the hierarchy below the given one
Medical Subject Headings
–
Medical Subject Headings
3.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
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Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
4.
Dominance (genetics)
–
Dominance in genetics is a relationship between alleles of one gene, in which the effect on phenotype of one allele masks the contribution of a second allele at the same locus. The first allele is dominant and the allele is recessive. For genes on an autosome, the alleles and their traits are autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. Dominance is a key concept in Mendelian inheritance and classical genetics, often the dominant allele codes for a functional protein whereas the recessive allele does not. A classic example of dominance is the inheritance of seed shape in peas, peas may be round, associated with allele R or wrinkled, associated with allele r. In this case, three combinations of alleles are possible, RR, Rr, and rr, the RR individuals have round peas and the rr individuals have wrinkled peas. In Rr individuals the R allele masks the presence of the r allele, thus, allele R is dominant to allele r, and allele r is recessive to allele R. This use of upper case letters for dominant alleles and lower case ones for recessive alleles is a widely followed convention, more generally, where a gene exists in two allelic versions, three combinations of alleles are possible, AA, Aa, and aa. Dominance is not inherent to either an allele or its phenotype and it is a relationship between two alleles of a gene and their associated phenotypes, one allele can be dominant over a second allele, recessive to a third allele, and codominant to a fourth. Also, an allele may be dominant for an aspect of phenotype. Dominance differs from epistasis, a relationship in which an allele of one gene affects the expression of another allele at a different gene, the concept of dominance was introduced by Gregor Johann Mendel. Though Mendel, The Father of Genetics, first used the term in the 1860s, when bred separately, the plants always produced the same phenotypes, generation after generation. However, when lines with different phenotypes were crossed, one, Mendel did not use the terms gene, allele, phenotype, genotype, homozygote, and heterozygote, all of which were introduced later. He did introduce the notation of capital and lowercase letters for dominant and recessive alleles, respectively, most animals and some plants have paired chromosomes, and are described as diploid. They have two versions of each chromosome, one contributed by the mothers ovum, and the other by the sperm, known as gametes, described as haploid. Each chromosome of a pair is structurally similar to the other. The DNA in each chromosome functions as a series of genes that influence various traits. Thus, each also has a corresponding homologue, which may exist in different versions called alleles
Dominance (genetics)
–
Peas in pods
Dominance (genetics)
–
Co-dominance in a
Camellia cultivar
5.
Nomogram
–
Nomograms use a parallel coordinate system invented by dOcagne rather than standard Cartesian coordinates. A nomogram consists of a set of n scales, one for each variable in an equation. Knowing the values of n-1 variables, the value of the variable can be found, or by fixing the values of some variables. The result is obtained by laying a straightedge across the values on the scales. The virtual or drawn line created by the straightedge is called a line or isopleth. Nomograms flourished in different contexts for roughly 75 years because they allowed quick. Results from a nomogram are obtained very quickly and reliably by simply drawing one or more lines, the user does not have to know how to solve algebraic equations, look up data in tables, use a slide rule, or substitute numbers into equations to obtain results. The user does not even need to know the underlying equation the nomogram represents, in addition, nomograms naturally incorporate implicit or explicit domain knowledge into their design. For example, to create larger nomograms for greater accuracy the nomographer usually includes only scale ranges that are reasonable, many nomograms include other useful markings such as reference labels and colored regions. All of these provide useful guideposts to the user, while the slide rule is intended to be a general-purpose device, a nomogram is designed to perform a specific calculation, with tables of values effectively built into the construction of the scales. Nomograms are typically used in applications where the level of accuracy they offer is sufficient, alternatively, a nomogram can be used to check an answer obtained from another, more exact but possibly error-prone calculation. Other types of graphical calculators such as charts, trilinear diagrams. These do not meet the definition of a nomogram as a graphical calculator whose solution is found by the use of one or more linear isopleths. A nomogram for a three-variable equation typically has three scales, although there exist nomograms in which two or even all three scales are common, here two scales represent known values and the third is the scale where the result is read off. The simplest such equation is u1 + u2 + u3 =0 for the three variables u1, u2 and u3, an example of this type of nomogram is shown on the right, annotated with terms used to describe the parts of a nomogram. More complicated equations can sometimes be expressed as the sum of functions of the three variables. For example, the nomogram at the top of this article could be constructed as a parallel-scale nomogram because it can be expressed as such a sum after taking logarithms of both sides of the equation. The scale for the variable can lie between the other two scales or outside of them
Nomogram
–
A typical parallel-scale nomogram. This example calculates the value of T when S = 7.30 and R = 1.17 are substituted into the equation. The isopleth crosses the scale for T at just under 4.65.
6.
Genetics
–
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is generally considered a field of biology, but intersects frequently with other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist, Mendel studied trait inheritance, patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance and this term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism, genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life, including bacteria, plants, animals, genetic processes work in combination with an organisms environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off, a classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate. The word genetics stems from the ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning genitive/generative, the observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word genetics. He described several rules of inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature. His second law is the same as what Mendel published, in his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation. Other theories of inheritance preceded his work, a popular theory during Mendels time was the concept of blending inheritance, the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendels work provided examples where traits were not blended after hybridization. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics, other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin and Francis Galtons reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a scientist and Augustinian friar who studied the nature of inheritance in plants, the importance of Mendels work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendels work, coined the word genetics in 1905, Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. After the rediscovery of Mendels work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance, in 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies
Genetics
–
Morgan's observation of
sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in
Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.
Genetics
–
Walther Flemming 's 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division. Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and organized. Then, as the cell divides, chromosome copies separate into the daughter cells.
Genetics
–
Siamese cats have a temperature-sensitive pigment-production mutation.
7.
Locus (genetics)
–
A locus in genetics is the position on a chromosome. Each chromosome carries many genes, humans estimated haploid protein coding genes are 19, 000-20,000, a variant of the similar DNA sequence located at a given locus is called an allele. The ordered list of known for a particular genome is called a gene map. Gene mapping is the process of determining the locus for a biological trait. The chromosomal locus of a gene might be written 3p22.1, here 3 means chromosome 3, p means p-arm. And 22 refers to region 2, band 2 and this is read as two two, not as twenty-two. So the entire locus is read as three P two two point one, the cytogenetic bands are counting from the centromere out toward the telomeres. A range of loci is specified in a similar way. For example, the locus of gene OCA1 may be written 11q1. 4-q2.1, meaning it is on the arm of chromosome 11. The ends of a chromosome are labeled pter and qter, a centisome is defined as 1% of a chromosome length. Chromosomal translocation Cytogenetic notation Karyotype Null allele Michael, R. Cummings, belmont, California, Brooks/Cole Overview at ornl. gov Chromosome Banding and Nomenclature from NCBI
Locus (genetics)
–
Chromosome components: (1)
Chromatid (2)
Centromere (3) Short (p) arm (4) Long (q) arm
Locus (genetics)
–
Short and long arms
8.
IHH (protein)
–
Indian hedgehog homolog, also known as IHH, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the IHH gene. This cell signaling protein is in the signaling pathway. The several mammalian variants of the Drosophila hedgehog gene have been named after the species of hedgehog. The gene is not specific to Indian hedgehogs, the Indian hedgehog protein is one of three proteins in the mammalian hedgehog family, the others being desert hedgehog and sonic hedgehog. It is involved in differentiation, proliferation and maturation especially during endochondral ossification. It regulates its effects by feedback control of parathyroid hormone-related peptide
IHH (protein)
IHH (protein)
–
PDB rendering based on 1vhh.
9.
Autosomal dominant
–
Dominance in genetics is a relationship between alleles of one gene, in which the effect on phenotype of one allele masks the contribution of a second allele at the same locus. The first allele is dominant and the allele is recessive. For genes on an autosome, the alleles and their traits are autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. Dominance is a key concept in Mendelian inheritance and classical genetics, often the dominant allele codes for a functional protein whereas the recessive allele does not. A classic example of dominance is the inheritance of seed shape in peas, peas may be round, associated with allele R or wrinkled, associated with allele r. In this case, three combinations of alleles are possible, RR, Rr, and rr, the RR individuals have round peas and the rr individuals have wrinkled peas. In Rr individuals the R allele masks the presence of the r allele, thus, allele R is dominant to allele r, and allele r is recessive to allele R. This use of upper case letters for dominant alleles and lower case ones for recessive alleles is a widely followed convention, more generally, where a gene exists in two allelic versions, three combinations of alleles are possible, AA, Aa, and aa. Dominance is not inherent to either an allele or its phenotype and it is a relationship between two alleles of a gene and their associated phenotypes, one allele can be dominant over a second allele, recessive to a third allele, and codominant to a fourth. Also, an allele may be dominant for an aspect of phenotype. Dominance differs from epistasis, a relationship in which an allele of one gene affects the expression of another allele at a different gene, the concept of dominance was introduced by Gregor Johann Mendel. Though Mendel, The Father of Genetics, first used the term in the 1860s, when bred separately, the plants always produced the same phenotypes, generation after generation. However, when lines with different phenotypes were crossed, one, Mendel did not use the terms gene, allele, phenotype, genotype, homozygote, and heterozygote, all of which were introduced later. He did introduce the notation of capital and lowercase letters for dominant and recessive alleles, respectively, most animals and some plants have paired chromosomes, and are described as diploid. They have two versions of each chromosome, one contributed by the mothers ovum, and the other by the sperm, known as gametes, described as haploid. Each chromosome of a pair is structurally similar to the other. The DNA in each chromosome functions as a series of genes that influence various traits. Thus, each also has a corresponding homologue, which may exist in different versions called alleles
Autosomal dominant
–
Peas in pods
Autosomal dominant
–
Co-dominance in a
Camellia cultivar
10.
Phalanx bones
–
The phalanges /fəˈlæŋdʒiːz/ are digital bones in the hands and feet of most vertebrates. In primates, the thumbs and big toes have two phalanges while the other digits have three phalanges, the phalanges are classed as long bones. The phalanges are the bones that make up the fingers of the hand, there are 56 phalanges in the human body, with fourteen on each hand and foot. Three phalanges are present on each finger and toe, with the exception of the thumb and large toe, the middle and far phalanges of the fourth and fifth toes are often fused together. The phalanges of the hand are known as the finger bones. The phalanges of the foot differ from the hand in that they are shorter and more compressed, especially in the proximal phalanges. The phalanges are named according to whether they are proximal, intermediate or distal, the proximal phalanges are those that are closest to the hand or foot. In the hand, the prominent, knobby ends of the phalanx is often called the knuckle. The proximal phalanges join with the metacarpals of the hand or metatarsals of the foot at the joint or metatarsophalangeal joint. The intermediate phalanx is not only intermediate in location, but usually also in size, the thumb and large toe do not possess a middle phalanx. The distal phalanges are the bones at the tips of the fingers or toes, the proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges articulate with one another through interphalangeal articulations. Each phalanx consists of a part, called the body. The body is flat on either side, concave on the palmar surface and its sides are marked with rough areas giving attachment to fibrous sheaths of flexor tendons. The proximal extremities of the bones of the first row present oval, concave articular surfaces, the proximal extremity of each of the bones of the second and third rows presents a double concavity separated by a median ridge. In the foot, the proximal phalanges have a body that is compressed from side to side, convex above, the base is concave, and the head presents a trochlear surface for articulation with the second phalanx. The middle are remarkably small and short, but rather broader than the proximal, in the hand, the distal phalanges are flat on their palmar surface, small, and with a roughened, elevated surface of horseshoe form on the palmar surface, supporting the finger pulp. The flat, wide expansions found at the tips of the phalanges are called apical tufts. They support the fingertip pads and nails, the phalanx of the thumb has a pronounced insertion for the flexor pollicis longus, an ungual fossa, and a pair of unequal ungual spines
Phalanx bones
–
The phalanges in a human hand
Phalanx bones
–
Illustration of the phalanges
Phalanx bones
Phalanx bones
11.
GDF5
–
Growth/differentiation factor 5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GDF5 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is related to the bone morphogenetic protein family and is a member of the TGF-beta superfamily. This group of proteins is characterized by a proteolytic processing site which is cleaved to produce a mature protein containing seven conserved cysteine residues. The members of family are regulators of cell growth and differentiation in both embryonic and adult tissues. Mutations in this gene are associated with acromesomelic dysplasia, Hunter-Thompson type, brachydactyly, type C and these associations confirm that the gene product plays a role in skeletal development. It also increases the survival of neurones that respond to the neurotransmitter dopamine, and is a potential therapeutic molecule associated with Parkinsons disease
GDF5
–
Growth differentiation factor 5
12.
HOXD13
–
Homeobox protein Hox-D13 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HOXD13 gene. This gene belongs to the family of genes. The homeobox genes encode a highly conserved family of transcription factors play an important role in morphogenesis in all multicellular organisms. Mammals possess four similar homeobox gene clusters, HOXA, HOXB, HOXC and HOXD, located on different chromosomes and this gene is one of several homeobox HOXD genes located in a cluster on chromosome 2. Deletions that remove the entire HOXD gene cluster or the 5 end of this cluster have been associated with severe limb, mutations in this particular gene cause synpolydactyly and Brachydactyly. The product of the mouse Hoxd13 gene plays a role in axial skeleton development and forelimb morphogenesis
HOXD13
–
Homeobox D13
13.
Clubbed thumb
–
Clubbed Thumb is a downtown theater company in New York City that commissions, develops, and produces funny, strange, and provocative new plays by living American writers. Since its founding in 1996, the company has earned four OBIES and presented plays in every form of development, the company is well known for its annual Summerworks festival each June. The 2009 festival showcased new work by Gregory Moss, Madeleine George, and Kristin Newbom. and edited by Erin Detrick and Producing Artistic Director Maria Striar
Clubbed thumb
14.
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed
15.
National Institutes of Health
–
The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
National Institutes of Health
–
Aerial photo of the NIH Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center, Bethesda, Maryland
National Institutes of Health
–
National Institutes of Health logo
National Institutes of Health
–
The Laboratory of Hygiene in 1887
National Institutes of Health
–
Ida A. Bengtson, a
bacteriologist who in 1916 was the first woman hired to work in the Hygienic Laboratory.
