1.
Triglycerides
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A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Triglycerides are the constituents of body fat in humans and other animals. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, there are many different types of triglyceride, with the main division between saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen – all available places where hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied and these have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some of the atoms, reducing the number of places where hydrogen atoms can bond to carbon atoms. These have a melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides are chemically tri esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Triglycerides are formed by combining glycerol with three fatty acid molecules, organic acids have a carboxyl group. Alcohols and organic acids join to form esters, the glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl groups. Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group, the chain lengths of the fatty acids in naturally occurring triglycerides vary, but most contain 16,18, or 20 carbon atoms. Bacteria, however, possess the ability to synthesise odd- and branched-chain fatty acids, as a result, ruminant animal fat contains odd-numbered fatty acids, such as 15, due to the action of bacteria in the rumen. Many fatty acids are unsaturated, some are polyunsaturated, most natural fats contain a complex mixture of individual triglycerides. Because of this, they melt over a range of temperatures. Cocoa butter is unusual in that it is composed of only a few triglycerides, derived from palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids in the 1-, 2-, the simplest triglycerides are those where the three fatty acids are identical. Their names indicate the fatty acid, stearin derived from acid, palmitin derived from palmitic acid. These compounds can be obtained as three forms or polymorphs, α, β, and β′ and these forms differ in terms of their melting points. If the first and third chain R and R″ are different, then the carbon atom is a chiral centre. The pancreatic lipase acts at the bond, hydrolysing the bond. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum, fatty acids, monoglycerides, and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down
2.
Chemical element
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A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei. There are 118 elements that have identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, iron is the most abundant element making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earths crust. Chemical elements constitute all of the matter of the universe. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are rarer than those that follow. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis, the high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. The term element is used for atoms with a number of protons as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element. A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure, when different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals, among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon, and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form. While about 32 of the elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, the history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal, alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more, almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope, Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected, the very heaviest elements undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized
3.
Bromine
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Bromine is a chemical element with symbol Br and atomic number 35. It is the third-lightest halogen, and is a fuming red-brown liquid at room temperature that readily to form a similarly coloured gas. Its properties are intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. Isolated independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Jérôme Balard, its name was derived from the Ancient Greek βρῶμος stench, referencing its sharp and disagreeable smell. Elemental bromine is very reactive and thus does not occur free in nature, while it is rather rare in the Earths crust, the high solubility of the bromide ion has caused its accumulation in the oceans. Commercially the element is easily extracted from brine pools, mostly in the United States, Israel, the mass of bromine in the oceans is about one three-hundredth of that of chlorine. At high temperatures, organobromine compounds readily convert to free bromine atoms and this effect makes organobromine compounds useful as fire retardants and more than half the bromine produced worldwide each year is put to this purpose. Unfortunately, the same property causes sunlight to convert volatile organobromine compounds to free bromine atoms in the atmosphere, as a result, many organobromide compounds—such as the pesticide methyl bromide—are no longer used. Bromine compounds are used in well drilling fluids, in photographic film. Bromine has sometimes been considered to be essential in humans, but with the support of only limited circumstantial evidence. As a pharmaceutical, the bromide ion has inhibitory effects on the central nervous system. They retain niche uses as antiepileptics, bromine was discovered independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Balard, in 1825 and 1826, respectively. Löwig isolated bromine from a water spring from his hometown Bad Kreuznach in 1825. Löwig used a solution of the mineral salt saturated with chlorine, after evaporation of the ether a brown liquid remained. With this liquid as a sample for his work he applied for a position in the laboratory of Leopold Gmelin in Heidelberg, the publication of the results was delayed and Balard published his results first. Balard found bromine chemicals in the ash of seaweed from the marshes of Montpellier. The seaweed was used to produce iodine, but also contained bromine, Balard distilled the bromine from a solution of seaweed ash saturated with chlorine. In his publication, Balard states that he changed the name from muride to brôme on the proposal of M. Anglada, brôme derives from the Greek βρωμος
4.
Emulsion
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
5.
Citrus
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Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops like oranges, lemons, grapefruit, pomelo, the most recent research indicates an origin in Australia, New Caledonia and New Guinea. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an area since ancient times. At various times, citrus plants were thought to be native to Asia, Europe, but the European oranges were originally brought from India at around the time of Alexander the Great, and the native oranges of Florida actually originated with the Spanish Conquistadors. The lemon reached Europe during the time of classical Rome, the generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as Citron or a conifer tree. It is somehow related to the ancient Greek word for cedar and this may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are known by the Romance loanword agrumes. The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years, Citrus plants diverged from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, which was about when it diverged from the closely related severinia, for example the Chinese box orange. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts, the three original species in the citrus genus that have been hybridized into most modern commercial citrus fruit are the mandarin orange, pummelo, and citron. Within the last few years, all common citrus fruits were created by crossing those original species. Something similar has occurred with the array of chili peppers originating in the hybridization of a few initial species. Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, apart from these four core citrus species, there are Australian limes and the recently discovered Mangshanyegan. Kumquats and Clymenia sp. are now considered to belong within the citrus genus. Trifoliate orange, which is used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis suggests the species of Oxanthera from New Caledonia should be transferred to the genus Citrus and these plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in corymbs, each flower 2–4 cm diameter, with five white petals and numerous stamens. The fruit is a hesperidium, a berry, globose to elongated, 4–30 cm long and 4–20 cm diameter. The outermost layer of the pericarp is a called the flavedo
6.
Soft drink
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A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
7.
Parts-per notation
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In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e. g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they are pure numbers with no associated units of measurement, commonly used are ppm, ppb, ppt and ppq. Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the unit “1 ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution. When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water. Consequently,1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L, similarly, parts-per notation is used also in physics and engineering to express the value of various proportional phenomena. For instance, a metal alloy might expand 1.2 micrometers per meter of length for every degree Celsius. For instance, the accuracy of distance measurements when using a laser rangefinder might be 1 millimeter per kilometer of distance, this could be expressed as “Accuracy =1 ppm. ”Parts-per notations are all dimensionless quantities, in mathematical expressions. In fractions like “2 nanometers per meter” so the quotients are pure-number coefficients with positive values less than 1, when parts-per notations, including the percent symbol, are used in regular prose, they are still pure-number dimensionless quantities. However, they take the literal “parts per” meaning of a comparative ratio. Parts-per notations may be expressed in terms of any unit of the same measure, in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, chemical shift is usually expressed in ppm. It represents the difference of a frequency in parts per million from the reference frequency. The reference frequency depends on the magnetic field and the element being measured. It is usually expressed in MHz, typical chemical shifts are rarely more than a few hundred Hz from the reference frequency, so chemical shifts are conveniently expressed in ppm. Parts-per notation gives a quantity that does not depend on the instruments field strength. One part per hundred is generally represented by the percent symbol and denotes one part per 100 parts, one part in 102, and this is equivalent to approximately one drop of water diluted into 5 milliliters or about fifteen minutes out of one day. One part per thousand should generally be spelled out in full and it may also be denoted by the millage symbol. Note however, that specific disciplines such as oceanography, as well as educational exercises, one part per thousand denotes one part per 1000 parts, one part in 103, and a value of 1 × 10−3. This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 milliliters or about one, one part per ten thousand is denoted by the permyriad symbol
8.
Density
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The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
9.
Linoleic acid
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Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. It is a liquid at room temperature. In physiological literature, it has a number of 18,2 cis. Linoleic acid is an acid with an 18-carbon chain and two cis double bonds, with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon from the methyl end. Linoleic acid belongs to one of the two families of essential fatty acids, which means that the body cannot synthesize it from other food components. The word linoleic derived from the Greek word linon, oleic means of, relating to, or derived from oil of olive or of or relating to oleic acid because saturating the omega-6 double bond produces oleic acid. LA is a fatty acid used in the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid and thus some prostaglandins, leukotrienes. It is found in the lipids of cell membranes and it is abundant in many nuts, fatty seeds and their derived vegetable oils, comprising over half of poppy seed, safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oils. LA is converted by various lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, the CYP epoxygenases, metabolize LA to epoxide products viz. its 12, 13-epoxide, Vernolic acid and its 9, 10-epoxide, Coronaric acid. All of these LA products have bioactivity and are implicated in human physiology and pathology as indicated in the cited linkages, linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid that must be consumed for proper health. A diet only deficient in linoleate causes mild skin scaling, hair loss, along with oleic acid, linoleic acid is released by cockroaches upon death which has the effect of preventing other roaches from entering the area. This is similar to the found in ants and bees. The first step in the metabolism of LA is performed by Δ6desaturase, there is evidence suggesting that infants lack Δ6desaturase of their own, and must acquire it through breast milk. Studies show that breast-milk fed babies have higher concentrations of GLA than formula-fed babies, GLA is converted to dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, which in turn is converted to arachidonic acid. The three types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, eicosanoids produced from AA tend to promote inflammation and promote growth during and after physical activity in healthy humans. For example, both AA-derived thrombaxane and leukotrieneB4 are proaggregatory and vasoconstrictive eicosanoids during inflammation, there are some suggested negative health effects related to this inflammation promoting function of linoleic acid as an omega-6 fatty acid. Linoleic acid is used in making quick-drying oils, which are useful in oil paints and these applications exploit the easy reaction of the linoleic acid with oxygen in air, which leads to crosslinking and formation of a stable film called linoxyn. Reduction of linoleic acid yields linoleyl alcohol, linoleic acid is a surfactant with a critical micelle concentration of 1.5 x 10−4 M @ pH7.5
10.
Oleic acid
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Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish, in chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, abbreviated with a lipid number of 18,1 cis-9. The term oleic means related to, or derived from, olive oil which is composed of oleic acid. The corresponding stereoisomer trans-9-Octadecenoic acid is called Elaidic acid and these isomers have distinct physical properties and biochemical properties. Elaidic acid, the most abundant trans fatty acid in diet, fatty acids do not often occur as such in biological systems. Instead fatty acids oleic acid occur as their esters, commonly triglycerides. Fatty acids can be obtained via the process of saponification, triglycerides of oleic acid compose the majority of olive oil, although there may be less than 2. 0% as free acid in virgin olive oil, with higher concentrations making the olive oil inedible. It is abundantly present in animal fats, constituting 37 to 56% of chicken. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in adipose tissue. Oleic acid is emitted by the corpses of a number of insects, including bees and Pogonomyrmex ants. If a live bee or ant is daubed with oleic acid, the oleic acid smell also may indicate danger to living insects, prompting them to avoid others who have succumbed to disease or places where predators lurk. The biosynthesis of oleic acid involves the action of the enzyme stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase acting on stearoyl-CoA, in effect, stearic acid is dehydrogenated to give the monounsaturated derivative oleic acid. Oleic acid undergoes the reactions of acids and alkenes. It is soluble in aqueous base to give soaps called oleates, iodine adds across the double bond. Hydrogenation of the double bond yields the saturated derivative stearic acid, oxidation at the double bond occurs slowly in air, and is known as rancidification in foodstuffs or drying in coatings. Reduction of the acid group yields oleyl alcohol. Ozonolysis of oleic acid is an important route to azelaic acid, the coproduct is nonanoic acid, H17C8CH=CHC7H14CO2H + 4O → H17C8CO2H + HO2CC7H14CO2H Esters of azelaic acid find applications in lubrication and plasticizers. The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid, a naturally occurring isomer of oleic acid is petroselinic acid
11.
Food and Drug Administration
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The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
12.
Code of Federal Regulations
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The CFR is divided into 50 titles that represent broad areas subject to federal regulation. The CFR annual edition is the codification of the general and permanent rules published by the Office of the Federal Register, in addition to this annual edition, the CFR is published in an unofficial format online on the Electronic CFR website, which is updated daily. Under the nondelegation doctrine, federal agencies are authorized by enabling legislation to promulgate regulations, the rules and regulations are first promulgated or published in the Federal Register. The CFR is structured into 50 subject matter titles, agencies are assigned chapters within these titles. The titles are broken down into chapters, parts, sections, for example,42 CFR260.11 would be read as title 42, part 260, section 11, paragraph. The Parallel Table of Authorities and Rules lists rulemaking authority for regulations codified in the CFR, the first edition of the CFR was published in 1938. Beginning in 1963 for some titles and for all titles in 1967, the Office of the Federal Register began publishing yearly revisions, the House voted on July 14,2014 to pass the bill 386–0. A Research Guide to the Federal Register and the Code of Federal Regulations, law Librarians Society of Washington, D. C. Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations, the Federal Register Tutorial / The Federal Register, What It Is and How to Use It
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Fatty acid
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In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
15.
Mountain Dew
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Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney, a revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, William H. Bill Jones of the Tip corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. Between the 1940s and 1980s, there was just one variety of Mountain Dew, Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and subsequently discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a flavor called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued, with expansion into specialty, limited production, region-specific. Production was first extended to the UK in 1996, but was phased out in 1998, a similarly named but very different-tasting product has been sold in the UK under the name Mountain Dew Energy since 2010 and in Ireland since Spring 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply just Mountain Dew, as of 2009, Mountain Dew represented a 6.7 percent share of the overall carbonated soft drinks market in the U. S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Companys Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Groups Sun Drop, Tennessee bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman developed Mountain Dew as a mixer in the 1940s. Soft drinks were regional in the 1930s, and the Hartmans had difficulty in Knoxville obtaining their preferred soda to mix with liquor, preferably whiskey, originally a nineteenth-century generic term for whiskey, especially Highland Scotch whiskey, the name was trademarked for the soft drink in 1948. Charles Gordon, who had partnered with William Swartz to bottle and promote Dr. Enuf, was introduced to Mountain Dew when he met the Hartman brothers on a train and they offered him a sample. Gordon and the Hartman brothers subsequently made a deal to bottle Mountain Dew by the Tri-Cities Beverage Corporation in Johnson City, the Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda, the Coca-Cola Company refused their offer. The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor, in 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew, Mountain Dew was originally Southern and/or Scots/Irish slang for moonshine. Using it as the name for the soda was originally suggested by Carl E. Retzke at an Owens-Illinois Inc. meeting in Toledo, Ohio, early bottles and signage carried the reference forward by showing a cartoon-stylized hillbilly. PepsiCo acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the sought to shift its focus to a younger. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s, later updates to the logo were made in 1998 and then again in 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to Mtn Dew within the U. S. market, the returning flavors Pitch Black, Supernova, Typhoon, and Game Fuel were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release
16.
PepsiCo
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PepsiCo, Inc. is an American multinational food, snack and beverage corporation headquartered in Purchase, New York. PepsiCo has interests in the manufacturing, marketing and distribution of grain-based snack foods, beverages, PepsiCo was formed in 1965 with the merger of the Pepsi-Cola Company and Frito-Lay, Inc.3 billion. Based on net revenue, PepsiCo is the second largest food, within North America, PepsiCo is the largest food and beverage business by net revenue. Indra Krishnamurthy Nooyi has been the executive of PepsiCo since 2006. The companys beverage distribution and bottling is conducted by PepsiCo as well as by licensed bottlers in certain regions, approximately 274,000 employees generated $66.415 billion in revenue as of 2013. The recipe for the soft drink Pepsi was first developed in the 1880s by Caleb Bradham and he coined the name Pepsi-Cola in 1898. As the cola developed in popularity, he created the Pepsi-Cola Company in 1902, the Pepsi-Cola Company was first incorporated in the state of Delaware in 1919. The company went bankrupt in 1931 and on June 8 of that year, Guth was also the president of Loft, Incorporated, a leading candy manufacturer, and he used the companys labs and chemists to reformulate the syrup. In 1935, the shareholders of Loft sued Guth for his 91% stake of Pepsi-Cola Company in the landmark case Guth v. Loft Inc. Loft won the suit and on May 29,1941 formally absorbed Pepsi into Loft, Loft restaurants and candy stores were spun off at this time. In the early 1960s, Pepsi-Colas product lines expanded with the creation of Diet Pepsi, in 1965, the Pepsi-Cola Company merged with Frito-Lay, Inc. to become PepsiCo, Inc. At the time of its foundation, PepsiCo was incorporated in the state of Delaware and headquartered in Manhattan, the companys headquarters were relocated to their present location of Purchase, New York in 1970, and in 1986 PepsiCo was reincorporated in the state of North Carolina. In August 2009, PepsiCo made a $7 billion offer to acquire the two largest bottlers of its products in North America, Pepsi Bottling Group and PepsiAmericas. In 2010 this acquisition was completed, resulting in the formation of a new wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo, when it acquired the remaining 23% stake of Wimm-Bill-Dann Foods in October 2011, PepsiCo became the largest food and beverage company in Russia. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a joint venture with the Theo Muller Group which was named Muller Quaker Dairy and this marked PepsiCos first entry into the dairy space in the U. S. The joint venture was dissolved in December 2015, in 2009, The Coca-Cola Company held a higher market share in carbonated soft drink sales within the U. S. In the same year, PepsiCo maintained a share of the U. S. refreshment beverage market, however. As a result of mergers, acquisitions and partnerships pursued by PepsiCo in the 1990s and 2000s, its business has shifted to include a broader base, including foods, snacks
17.
Fanta
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Fanta is a global brand of fruit-flavored carbonated soft drinks created by The Coca-Cola Company. There are more than 100 flavors worldwide, the drink originated in Nazi Germany under a trade embargo for Coca-Cola ingredients in 1940. Fanta originated as a result of difficulties importing Coca-Cola syrup into Nazi Germany during World War II due to a trade embargo. The name was the result of a brainstorming session, which started with Keiths exhorting his team to use their imagination, to which one of his salesmen, Joe Knipp. The plant was cut off from Coca-Cola headquarters during the war. After the war, the Coca-Cola corporation regained control of the plant, formula, Fanta was discontinued when the parent company was reunited with the German branch. Following the launch of several drinks by the Pepsi corporation in the 1950s, the drink was heavily marketed in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America. Fanta is known for its advertising, in the United States, it showcases The Fantanas. For the re-introduction of Fanta in the United States, Coca-Cola worked with the ad agency Ogilvy in 2001, the campaign lasted from summer 2001, in the form of a successful trial run, to October 1,2006. Three years later, in June 2009, Fanta re-launched the campaign and they also held a talent search to find the pineapple Fantana, and in September selected Shakira Barrera to become the fourth Fantana. After Barrera won the search, she spent a year at her post, Fanta was quickly spreading through Africa in the beginning for the 1980s with the popularization of drink with particular African flavors such as acerola and ackee fruits. Guava flavoured drinks also contributed significantly to the success of the company in some countries, ethiopia had a major impact in the manufacturing of the drink, since the first African facility was based in Addis Ababa. By the end of the 1990s, Fanta was a drink in most parts of the continent. After the huge success of the brand in those regions, Fantas popularity peaked, there are more than 90 flavors worldwide. The other variants available in Canada are Grape and Cream Soda, primary competitors to Fanta have included Tango, Mirinda, Sunkist, Slice, Sumol, Crush, Tropicana Twister and Orangina. Fanta was the drink to be produced by Coca-Cola, after the original Coca-Cola. In Japan the market often issues seasonal rare flavours like yuzu, in Greece there is a non-carbonated version of the original Orange Fanta, called Fanta Blue. In New Zealand, unlike the rest of Australasia, Fanta is visually branded with the logo used since 2008
18.
Fresca
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Fresca is a diet lime and grapefruit citrus soft drink made by The Coca-Cola Company. Borrowing the word Fresca from Spanish, it was first introduced in the United States in 1966, since introduction in 1966, Fresca has been marketed in the United States as a calorie-free, lime and grapefruit-flavored soft drink. Fresca has undergone several major ingredient changes since its introduction and it was originally sweetened with cyclamates, which were banned by the FDA in 1969, and replaced with saccharin. That was replaced by NutraSweet-brand aspartame, around the time of the 2005 redesign, acesulfame potassium was added as a secondary sweetener. Johnson, who loved the beverage, had a fountain containing Fresca installed in the Oval Office. In Latin America, Coca-Cola markets a sugar sweetened version of Fresca, in 1997, The Coca-Cola Company responded to requests for this product from immigrant communities by launching it throughout the U. S. as Citra. This was a success but is sold as the Citrus flavor in Coca-Colas Fanta line in areas with large Hispanic populations. In Colombia and Argentina sweetened Fresca is called Quatro and marketed using Frescas colors, Fresca was made available in South Africa during the early 1990s with a series of colorful ads featuring Hakeem Kae-Kazim with the slogan, Nothing tastes like Fresca. The soft drink developed a following but sales were discontinued. Fresca packaging has been redesigned several times, although advertising continues to emphasize sophistication, in 2005, Coca-Cola gave Fresca a more contemporary look, Frescas first makeover since 1995. During this redesign, two new flavors were introduced and the grapefruit flavor was renamed Sparkling Citrus. Later, Sparkling was dropped and the flavor was renamed Original Citrus. Several additional flavors have been added to the line-up since 2005
19.
Coca-Cola
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Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca-Cola Company. The drinks name refers to two of its ingredients, which were kola nuts and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a secret, although a variety of reported recipes. The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water. A typical 12-US-fluid-ounce can contains 38 grams of sugar, the bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants, the Coca-Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. Based on Interbrands best global brand study of 2015, Coca-Cola was the third most valuable brand. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at Pembertons Eagle Drug and Chemical House and he may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called Kola Coca was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, the patent for this Spanish drink was bought by Coca-Cola in 1953. In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic, in 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacobs Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market, a co-partnership had been formed on January 14,1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen, J. C. Mayfield, A. O. Not codified by any signed document, a statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pembertons company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name Coca-Cola belonged to his son, Charley, Charleys exclusive control over the Coca Cola name became a continual thorn in Asa Candlers side. Candlers oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University, in this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states
20.
Squirt (soft drink)
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Squirt is a caffeine-free, citrus-flavored, carbonated soft drink, created in 1938 in Phoenix, Arizona. Squirt was created by Herb Bishop in 1938, after experimenting in college, the result required less fruit juice and less sugar, which Bishop declared had the freshest, most exciting taste in the marketplace. In 1941, a mascot named Lil Squirt was created in an effort to broaden public awareness, Squirt became a popular soft drink in many parts of the country, especially the West and Southwest. In the 1950s, it accepted as a mixer used in cocktails. The Squirt brand has changed several times and is currently the property of Dr Pepper Snapple Group. Squirt is naturally flavored but contains less than 1% grapefruit juice, like many other soft drinks, the packaging of Squirt has varied over the years. In 1983, Diet Squirt, the first soft drink in the United States to be sweetened with aspartame, was introduced, in the mid 1980s, a vitamin-C-enriched Diet Squirt Plus was briefly marketed. In the early 1990s, Squirt Sorbet, a treat, was offered in Detroit area supermarkets. Ruby Red Squirt and Diet Ruby Red Squirt have also been introduced, unlike normal Squirt, Ruby Red Squirt contains caffeine. In 2008, a new offering called Squirt Citrus Power was introduced, unlike regular Squirt, Squirt Citrus Power is caffeinated, lacks concentrated grapefruit juice, and contains taurine and other ingredients similar to an energy drink
21.
Sun Drop
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Sun Drop, also marketed as Sundrop, is a citrus-flavored soda produced by Dr Pepper Snapple Group. It has a yellowish-green color imparted by Yellow 5, among soft drinks, it is known for its high caffeine content. Orange juice is an ingredient in the drink, and remaining pulp matter from the orange juice provides some of the soft drinks taste, Sun Drop was developed in Missouri, by Charles Lazier, a salesman of beverage concentrates. While riding around town in the car, Lazier quickly scribbled a recipe for a new soft drink on a small piece of paper which he handed to his son. The younger Lazier worked as a lab technician at his father’s plant, two years later, Sun Drop Cola debuted at the American Bottlers of Carbonated Beverages Conference in Washington, D. C. The Sun Drop formula was patented on April 15,1930, the drink was marketed in several Southern states under names such as Sundrop Golden Cola or Golden Girl Cola. The brand was acquired and standardized by Crush International in 1970, Crush International was purchased by Procter & Gamble in 1980, which sold its soft drinks holdings to Cadbury Schweppes plc in 1989. Cadbury Schweppes plc demerged in 2008, with its beverages unit becoming Dr Pepper Snapple Group, prior to the sale to Cadbury Schweppes, Procter & Gamble introduced several new Sun Drop flavors in 1985, including a reformulated Diet Sun Drop brand using aspartame instead of saccharin. A third brand, Cherry-Lemon Sun Drop, was introduced that same year, a diet variant of Cherry Lemon Sun Drop was introduced 2014. Sun Drop has maintained popularity in parts of the southern United States, especially in Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina and parts of the Midwest, including Wisconsin. Similar to other drinks with a cult following, fans outside bottling areas have been known to pay large amounts to have the drink shipped to them. Families have sent it to U. S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan, Sun Drop is sometimes used as a mixer for drinks with hard liquor. Sun Drop is the drink of the nationally recognized Fancy Farm Picnic in Fancy Farm. In the 1980s and early 1990s, the drink was promoted in the American South by NASCAR Winston Cup driver Dale Earnhardt, Carolina Beverage Corp. bought Sun Drop Bottling Co. of Concord effective December 1,2016. The Concord, North Carolina plant closed, Dr Pepper Snapple Group distributed Sun Drop nationwide beginning in 2011, with a new campaign that features an updated web site, a Facebook page, and a promotional deal with MTV. Sun Drops expansion occurred several months after Coca-Cola brought its high-caffeine citrus drink Mello Yello nationwide, Dr Pepper Snapple entered into an agreement with MTVs marketing agency, Scratch. Scratch will develop new Sun Drop advertising and branding, including a new design for the can, MTV will also feature Sun Drop in programming, including on its reality series The Real World. The soft drink was a sponsor for racecar driver Ryan Hunter-Reay in the IndyCar Series for Andretti Autosport from 2011 to 2013
22.
Sunkist (soft drink)
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Sunkist is a brand of primarily orange flavored soft drinks launched in 1979. Sunkist was first licensed by Sunkist Growers to the General Cinema Corporation, the soft drink was the idea of Mark Stevens, who foresaw the potential based on market research which indicated that, worldwide, orange was the third best selling soft drink flavor. It went national soon thereafter by being franchised mainly to leading Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola bottlers, the advertising slogan was fun, sun and the beach using TV and radio commercials with the Beach Boys hit song Good Vibrations as the brands theme. In 1980, Sunkist Orange Soda became the #1 orange soda in the USA, unlike many other competing orange sodas, Sunkist contains caffeine. In late 1984, Sunkist Soft Drinks was sold to Del Monte, from late 1986 until 2008, it was produced by Cadbury Schweppes under license through its Cadbury Schweppes Americas Beverages subsidiary. Following the demerger of Cadbury Schweppes Americas Beverages from Cadbury Schweppes, Sunkist is still the most popular orange soda in the United States. Sunkist is sold in the UK by Vimto Soft Drinks under license from Sunkist Growers and it is also sold in Australia by Schweppes Australia, but the Australian formulation is caffeine free. In Canada, a version of the orange drink is marketed as CPlus. The package indicates that there is an amount of Sunkist Juice. As of 2013, it is now sold by Asia Brewery, Dr Pepper Snapple Group also makes a diet version of Sunkist. “The Making of Harcourt General” Harvard Business School Press, pp. 106–107,153,173, note – the individual mentioned as Mark Sobell is also known as Mark Stevens. 1984 Sunkist Ad featuring the Good Vibrations theme song, YouTube video Retrieved on March 27,2008, 1984-85 Sunkist Ad featuring the Good Vibrations theme song, YouTube video Retrieved on May 12,2008. Cadbury Schweppes purchases Canada Dry and Sunkist soft drinks from RJR,1989 UK Sunkist Ad, YouTube video Retrieved on May 28,2008. Sunkist Soda - History Sunkist Soda - Products Sunkist Soda Montage — In-the-Beginning, YouTube video Retrieved on August 12,2011
23.
Dr Pepper Snapple Group
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Dr Pepper Snapple Group Inc. is an American soft drink company, based in Plano, Texas. Formerly called Cadbury Schweppes Americas Beverages, on May 5,2008, it was spun off from Britains Cadbury Schweppes, Cadbury Schweppes plc went on to become Cadbury plc on May 5,2008. Beverage America and Select Beverages bottlers were purchased from the Carlyle Group in February 1998, Snapple, Mistic and Stewarts were sold by Triarc Companies, Inc. to Cadbury Schweppes in 2000 for $1.45 billion. In October of that year, Cadbury Schweppes purchased Royal Crown from Triarc. In 2006 and 2007, Cadbury Schweppes purchased the Dr Pepper/Seven Up Bottling Group, some of the Dr Pepper/Seven Up brands are still licensed to Pepsi, Coke and independent bottlers in various regions of the United States and Canada. In November 2007, Cadbury Schweppes announced it would take the beverages unit public, in May 2008, Cadbury Schweppes demerged its beverage holdings forming the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. Dr Pepper Snapple Group holds naming rights to Dr Pepper Ballpark and the Dallas Stars practice facility and it also retains non-alcoholic beverage rights to each facilitys concessions as a result of the deals as well as sponsorships with the NHL franchise. In 2008, Dr Pepper Snapple Group purchased minority interest in Big Red, Inc, makers of Big Red, NuGrape, Nesbitts, in 2014, the company announced that it accomplished its goal of reducing use of polyethylene terephthalate in its plastic bottles. Dr Pepper Snapple lowered the amount of PET in its bottles by over 60 million pounds between 2007 and 2014, on November 22,2016 it was announced that Dr Pepper/Seven Up Bottling Group had made a cash purchase of Bai Brands for the price of $1.7 billion. It had previously purchased a minority stake in the company for $15 million in 2015, see List of Dr Pepper Snapple brands The following products are available, Dr Pepper Snapple Group Grupo Peñafiel Canada Dry Motts US Product Facts Canadian Product Facts Lets Play
24.
Generic citrus sodas
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In addition to Pepsis Mountain Dew, Coca-Colas Mello Yello or Dr Peppers Sun Drop, there are a variety of smaller or regional brands for citrus soda. In deference to Mountain Dews leading position in the market segment, big K Citrus Drop is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Kroger stores. Its name plays another citrus drink, Sun Drop, which claims that its introduction in 1928 makes it the first soft drink marketed in this category, the brands slogan is Pop the Drop which is analogous to Mountain Dews former Do the Dew slogan. The Xtreme version tastes the same, but contains more caffeine than the original Citrus Drop, according to Krogers customer service, Diet Citrus Drop Xtreme has 70.9 MG of caffeine per 12 oz can. The slogan is Citrus With Attitude and this is the Stewarts Shops equivalent to Mountain Dew available in upstate New York and Vermont. This was the Sodastream version of Mountain Dew, sold as a syrup for their home carbonation device and this flavor was sold in standard and diet varieties, both of which use Splenda as part or all of the sweetening agent, instead of aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup. Fountain Mist was discontinued as part of their brand overhaul in mid-2015, heee Haw is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Hy-Vee stores, also available in diet. Name derived by adding an e in the middle of the words Hee Haw. Heee Haw does not contain any orange juice like its name brand equivalent, HEB Citrus Rush is distributed by Texas grocery chain H-E-B. H-E-B has compared the soda to Mountain Dew as a part of its “Texas Showdown” campaign, hillbilly Holler is a generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Fareway stores under the Fastco brand name. Hillbilly and Holler are words referring to Appalachian Mountain life, the taste falls somewhere between Mello Yello and Mountain Dew. Kountry Mist is the version of Mountain Dew sold at Winn-Dixie stores. Moon Mist is the Mountain Dew clone sold by Faygo, and is distributed in the Midwest, Mid-Atlantic, Mountain Breeze is the Safeway SELECT generic answer to Mountain Dew. The taste of the soda is much the same as Mountain Dew, Mountain Dew is a bit tangier than its Safeway SELECT counterpart, which focuses more on sweetness. The design of a Mountain Breeze soda can also bears a resemblance to an older Mountain Dew can. Safeway Select has replaced the name with Refreshe Mountain Charge is the Mountain dew inspired citrus soda available at ShopRite stores. Super Chill Mt. Chill is manufactured by SuperValu and can be found at Festival Foods, Sentry Foods, Cub Foods, County Market, Albertsons, contains 48g of sugar,180 calories. The punk band Crucial Dudes has titled a song Mt. Chill, the Our Family version of Mountain Dew
25.
Dollar General
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Dollar General Corporation is an American chain of variety stores headquartered in Goodlettsville, Tennessee. As of January 2016, Dollar General operated over 12,400 stores in all U. S. states except, Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Washington, the company acquired the 280 stores of the P. N. Hirsh Division of Interco, Inc. in 1983, and in 1985 added 206 stores, in recent years, the chain has started constructing more stand-alone stores, typically in areas not served by another general-merchandise retailer. In some cases, stores are within a few city blocks of each other, Dollar General offers both name brand and generic merchandise — including off-brand goods and closeouts of name-brand items — in the same store, often on the same shelf. Although it has the word dollar in the name, Dollar General is not a store by the strict definition of that term as most of its products are priced at more than $1.00. However, goods are sold at set price points in the range of.50 to 60 dollars. Exceptions include name-brand beverages and articles such as cards and loadable store gift cards. Most stores include a section or aisle of items priced at exactly $1.00 and it competes in the dollar store format with national chains Family Dollar and Dollar Tree, regional chains such as Freds in the Southeast, and numerous independently owned stores. Since 2000, Dollar General has experimented with stores that carry a selection of grocery items. These stores operate under the name Dollar General Market, the stores were founded in 1939 by Cal Turner Sr. and his father J. L. Turner in Scottsville, Kentucky as J. L. Turner & Son, Inc. Their descendant Cal Turner Jr. later worked as CEO of the firm for 25 years, in 1968, the business changed its name to Dollar General Corporation. In 2007, the company was acquired by the equity firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts. The first Dollar General store opened in Scottsville, Kentucky, on June 1,1955, the idea became a success, and other stores owned by J. L. Turner and his son Cal Turner were quickly converted. By 1957, annual sales of Dollar Generals 29 stores were $5 million, the Turners did not reach this level of success without obstacles. James Luther Turners father died in an accident in 1902 when J. L. was only 11, J. L. had to quit school so he could work the family farm and help provide for his mother and siblings. J. L. knew his limited education demanded that he become a study of the world around him. After two unsuccessful attempts at retailing, J. L. became a dry goods salesman for a Nashville wholesale grocer. J. L. left the job after 10 years and settled his family in Scottsville
26.
The Coca-Cola Company
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The company is best known for its flagship product Coca-Cola, invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton in Columbus, Georgia. The Coca-Cola formula and brand were bought in 1889 by Asa Griggs Candler, the Coca-Cola Company owns its anchor bottler in North America, Coca-Cola Refreshments. The companys stock is listed on the NYSE and is part of DJIA, the S&P500 index, the Russell 1000 Index, as of 2015, its chairman and its CEO is Muhtar Kent. In December 2016, it was announced that James Quincey, the operating officer would replace Kent as CEO. The company has a history of acquisitions. Coca-Cola acquired Minute Maid in 1960, the Indian cola brand Thums Up in 1993, in 2001, it acquired the Odwalla brand of fruit juices, smoothies, and bars for $181 million. In 2007, it acquired Fuze Beverage from founder Lance Collins, the companys 2009 bid to buy a Chinese juice maker ended when China rejected its $2.4 billion bid for the Huiyuan Juice Group, on the grounds the resulting company would be a virtual monopoly. Nationalism was also thought to be a reason for aborting the deal, in 1982, Coca-Cola purchased Columbia Pictures for $692 million. It sold the studio to Sony, for $3 billion. In 2013, Coca-Cola finalized its purchase of ZICO, a water company. In 2011, the Coca-Cola company bought the rest of the tea company Honest Tea. In 2015, the took a minority stake ownership in the cold pressed juice manufacturer. According to The Coca-Cola Companys 2005 Annual Report, the firm at that time sold beverage products in more than 200 countries and this is more countries than are generally agreed to exist, according to the World Atlas.5 billion. Of these, beverages bearing the trademark Coca-Cola or Coke accounted for approximately 78% of the companys total gallon sales, the figure in 2010 showed that they sold 1.6 billion drinks every day. In 2010, it was announced that Coca-Cola had become the first brand to top £1 billion in annual UK grocery sales, since the 1920s, Coca-Cola has been a publicly traded company. One share of stock purchased in 1919 for $40, with all dividends reinvested, would be worth $9.8 million in 2012, Coca-Cola has paid a dividend, increasing each year for 49 years. Stock is available from a direct purchase program, through Computershare Trust Company, the bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise the resulting Coca-Cola product to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors. Outside the United States, the bottlers also control the fountain business, since the early 1980s, the company has actively encouraged the consolidation of bottlers, with the company often owning a share of these anchor bottlers
27.
Acrylonitrile
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Acrylonitrile is an organic compound with the formula CH2CHCN. It is a volatile liquid, although commercial samples can be yellow due to impurities. In terms of its structure, it consists of a vinyl group linked to a nitrile. It is an important monomer for the manufacture of plastics such as polyacrylonitrile. It is reactive and toxic at low doses, Acrylonitrile was first synthesized by the French chemist Charles Moureu in 1893. Acrylonitrile is produced by ammoxidation of propylene, also known as the SOHIO process. In 2002, world production capacity was estimated at 5 million tonnes per year, acetonitrile and hydrogen cyanide are significant byproducts that are recovered for sale. In fact, the 2008–2009 acetonitrile shortage was caused by a decrease in demand for acrylonitrile. 2CH3-CH=CH2 + 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2CH2=CH-C≡N + 6H2O In the SOHIO process, propylene, ammonia, the reactants pass through the reactor only once, before being quenched in aqueous sulfuric acid. Excess propylene, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and dinitrogen that do not dissolve are vented directly to the atmosphere, the aqueous solution consists of acrylonitrile, acetonitrile, hydrocyanic acid, and ammonium sulfate. A recovery column removes bulk water, and acrylonitrile and acetonitrile are separated by distillation, historically, one of the first successful catalysts was bismuth phosphomolybdate supported on silica as a heterogeneous catalyst. Further improvements have since been made, various green chemistry routes are being developed for the synthesis of acrylonitrile from renewable feedstocks, such as lignocellulosic biomass, glycerol, or glutamic acid. The lignocellulosic route involves fermentation of the biomass to propionic acid, the glycerol route begins with pyrolysis to acrolein, which undergoes ammoxidation to give acrylonitrile. The glutamic route employs oxidative decarboxylation to 3-cyanopropanoic, followed by a decarbonylation-elimination to acrylonitrile, of these the glycerol route is broadly considered to be the most viable, although current methods are still unable to compete with the SOHIO process in terms of cost. Dimerization of acrylonitrile affords adiponitrile, used in the synthesis of certain polyamides, small amounts are also used as a fumigant. Acrylonitrile and derivatives, such as 2-chloro-acrylonitrile, are dienophiles in Diels-Alder reactions, Acrylonitrile is also a precursor in the industrial manufacture of acrylamide and acrylic acid. Acrylonitrile is highly flammable and toxic at low doses, the burning material releases fumes of hydrogen cyanide and oxides of nitrogen. It evaporates quickly at room temperature to reach dangerous concentrations, skin irritation, respiratory irritation, Acrylonitrile increases cancer in high dose tests in male and female rats and mice
28.
Copolymer
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When two or more different monomers unite together to polymerize, their result is called a copolymer and its process is called copolymerization. Commercially relevant copolymers include acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, styrene/butadiene co-polymer, nitrile rubber, styrene-acrylonitrile, styrene-isoprene-styrene, since a copolymer consists of at least two types of constituent units, copolymers can be classified based on how these units are arranged along the chain. Block copolymers comprise two or more homopolymer subunits linked by covalent bonds, the union of the homopolymer subunits may require an intermediate non-repeating subunit, known as a junction block. Block copolymers with two or three blocks are called diblock copolymers and triblock copolymers, respectively. Copolymers may also be described in terms of the existence of or arrangement of branches in the polymer structure, linear copolymers consist of a single main chain whereas branched copolymers consist of a single main chain with one or more polymeric side chains. Other special types of branched copolymers include star copolymers, brush copolymers, in gradient copolymers the monomer composition changes gradually along the chain. A terpolymer is a copolymer consisting of three distinct monomers, the term is derived from ter, meaning thrice, and polymer. Stereoblock copolymers A special structure can be formed from one monomer where now the distinguishing feature is the tacticity of each block, statistical copolymers are dictated by the reaction kinetics of the two chemically distinct monomer reactants, and are commonly referred to interchangeably as “random” in the polymer literature. As with other types of copolymers, random copolymers can have interesting, examples of commercially relevant random copolymers include rubbers made from styrene-butadiene copolymers and resins from styrene-acrylic or methacrylic acid derivatives. A number of parameters are relevant in the composition of the product, namely. Reactivity ratios describe whether the monomer reacts preferentially with a segment of the type or of the other type. For example, a reactivity ratio that is less one for component 1 indicates that this component reacts with the other type of monomer more readily. When both reactivity ratios are less than one, there is a point in the Mayo-Lewis plot. At this point, the fraction of monomer equals the composition of the component in the polymer. There are several ways to synthesize random copolymers, free radical polymerization is less expensive than other methods, and produces high-molecular weight polymer quickly. Several methods offer better control over dispersity, additionally, anionic polymerization is expensive and requires very clean reaction conditions, and is therefore difficult to implement on a large scale. These methods are favored over anionic polymerization because they can be performed in similar to free radical polymerization. The reactions require longer periods than free radical polymerization
29.
Mannitol
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Mannitol, also known as mannite or manna sugar, is a white, crystalline solid that looks and tastes sweet like sucrose, though technically it is a sugar alcohol. It is often used as a sweetener in food, as it is poorly absorbed from the intestines. It is also used as a medication to decrease high pressure in the such as is seen in glaucoma. Medically, it is given by injection, effects typically begin within 15 minutes and last up to 8 hours. It also has industrial uses. In plants, it alleviates osmotic stress, common side effects from medical use include electrolyte problems and dehydration. Other serious side effects may include worsening heart failure and kidney problems and it is unclear if use is safe in pregnancy. Mannitol is in the osmotic diuretic family of medications and works by pulling fluid from the brain, the discovery of mannitol is attributed to Joseph Louis Proust in 1806. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$1.12 to 5.80 a dose. In the United States, a course of treatment costs $25 to 50 and it was originally made from the flowering ash and called manna after its supposed resemblance to the Biblical food. Mannitol is used to reduce acutely raised intracranial pressure until more definitive treatment can be applied, e. g. after head trauma. It may also be used for cases of kidney failure with low urine output, decreasing pressure in the eye, to increase the elimination of certain toxins. Mannitol acts as a laxative in oral doses larger than 20 g. The use of mannitol, when inhaled, as a bronchial irritant as a method of diagnosis of exercise-induced asthma has been proposed. A2013 systematic review concluded evidence to support its use for this purpose at this time is insufficient, mannitol is commonly used in the circuit prime of a heart lung machine during cardiopulmonary bypass. The presence of mannitol preserves renal function during the times of low flow and pressure. The solution prevents the swelling of cells in the kidney. Mannitol can also be used to encapsulate a sharp object while it is passed through the venous system
30.
Saccharin
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With effectively no food energy that is about 300–400 times as sweet as sucrose but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. It is used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, cookies, medicines, Saccharin derives its name from the word saccharine, meaning sugary. The word saccharine is used figuratively, often in a derogative sense, both words are derived from the Greek word σάκχαρον meaning gravel. It does not react chemically with other ingredients, as such. Blends of saccharin with other sweeteners are used to compensate for each sweeteners weaknesses. A10,1 cyclamate, saccharin blend is common in countries where both these sweeteners are legal, in this blend, each sweetener masks the others off taste. Saccharin is often used with aspartame in diet carbonated soft drinks, in its acid form, saccharin is not water-soluble. The form used as a sweetener is usually its sodium salt. The calcium salt is sometimes used, especially by people restricting their dietary sodium intake. Both salts are highly water-soluble,0.67 g/ml water at room temperature, in the 1970s, studies performed on laboratory rats found an association between consumption of high doses of saccharin and the development of bladder cancer. However, further study determined that this effect was due to a mechanism that is not relevant to humans, epidemiological studies have shown no evidence that saccharin is associated with bladder cancer in humans. The International Agency for Research on Cancer originally classified saccharin in Group 2B based on the rat studies, Saccharin has no food energy and no nutritional value. It is safe to consume for individuals with diabetes, Saccharin was produced first in 1879, by Constantin Fahlberg, a chemist working on coal tar derivatives in Ira Remsens laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University. Fahlberg noticed a sweet taste on his hand one evening, Fahlberg and Remsen published articles on benzoic sulfimide in 1879 and 1880. In 1884, then working on his own in New York City, Fahlberg applied for patents in several countries, two years later, he began production of the substance in a factory in a suburb of Magdeburg, Germany. Fahlberg would soon grow wealthy, while Remsen merely grew irritated, on the matter, Remsen commented, Fahlberg is a scoundrel. It nauseates me to hear my name mentioned in the breath with him. Although saccharin was commercialized not long after its discovery, until sugar shortages during World War I and its popularity further increased during the 1960s and 1970s among dieters, since saccharin is a calorie-free sweetener
31.
Change.org
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The company is headquartered in San Francisco, California. The website serves to facilitate petitions by the general public, corporations including Virgin America, and organizations such as Amnesty International and the Humane Society, pay the site to host and promote their petitions. Change. orgs stated mission is to people everywhere to create the change they want to see. Popular topics of Change. org petitions are economic and criminal justice, human rights, education, environmental protection, animals rights, health, and sustainable food. Change. org was launched on February 7,2007, by current chief executive Ben Rattray, with the support of founding chief technology officer Mark Dimas, Darren Haas, as of February 2012, the site had 100 employees with offices on four continents. By the end of 2012, Rattray stated he plans to have offices in 20 countries and to operate in more languages, including Arabic. In May 2013, the company announced a $15 million round of investment led by Omidyar Network, in 2011, there was a proposal to merge the Spanish-speaking counterpart website Actuable into Change. org. It took place in 2012 when they approved the union of Actuable users into the Change. org platform. In 2012, Arizona State University decided to access to Change. org in response to a petition created by student Eric Haywood protesting rising tuition costs at the school. It was reported on April 5,2012, that Change. org hit 10 million members, at that time, they were receiving 500 new petitions per day. In January 2013, Jennifer Dulski joined the company as president and they will also be able to create their own Decision Maker page, which will show all petitions against them, the number of signatures gathered, and their statuses. On March 8,2012, a petition entitled Prosecute the killer of our son, the petition received over 2.2 million signatures – at that time the largest number of signatures for any campaign in Change. orgs history. The petition called for the prosecution of George Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch volunteer, who, on February 26,2012, shot and killed Trayvon Martin in Sanford, Florida, Zimmerman said he was acting in self-defense, and was set free without being charged. On April 11,2012, Zimmerman was arrested and charged with second-degree murder and he stood trial in the months of June and July and was acquitted of all charges on July 13,2013. Less than one month later,300,000 signatures were collected, the petition was widely cited as a contributing cause for the bank formally announcing to drop the new banking fee. U. S. President Barack Obama signed the petition, U. S, senator Dick Durbin, the Democratic senator from Illinois, responded to Bank of America and the petition on Twitter. It may have contributed to the U. S. Congress deciding to look at legislation for out-of-control banking fees, the website and trailer lacked the important message from the book, to help the environment. The petition collected over 57,000 signatures, and on January 26,2012 and that afternoon the company changed its forbearance fee policy
32.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
33.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
34.
Serum chloride
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Chloride is an anion in the human body needed for metabolism. It also helps keep the bodys acid-base balance, the amount of serum chloride is carefully controlled by the kidneys. Chloride ions have important physiological roles, for instance, in the central nervous system, the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of GABA relies on the entry of Cl− into specific neurons. The normal blood reference range of chloride for adults in most labs is 96 to 106 milliequivalents per liter, the normal range may vary slightly from lab to lab. Normal ranges are shown next to results in the lab report. A diagnostic test may use a chloridometer to determine the serum chloride level, the North American Dietary Reference Intake recommends a daily intake of between 2300 and 3600 mg/day for 25-year-old males
35.
Hemodialysis
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Hemodialysis, also spelled haemodialysis, commonly called kidney dialysis or simply dialysis, is a process of purifying the blood of a person whose kidneys are not working normally. This type of dialysis achieves the extracorporeal removal of waste such as creatinine and urea. Hemodialysis is one of three renal replacement therapies, an alternative method for extracorporeal separation of blood components such as plasma or cells is apheresis. Hemodialysis can be an outpatient or inpatient therapy, routine hemodialysis is conducted in a dialysis outpatient facility, either a purpose built room in a hospital or a dedicated, stand-alone clinic. Less frequently hemodialysis is done at home, Hemodialysis is the choice of renal replacement therapy for patient who need dialysis acutely, and for many patients as maintenance therapy. It provides excellent, rapid clearance of solutes, a nephrologist decides when hemodialysis is needed and the various parameters for a dialysis treatment. These include frequency, length of treatment, and the blood and dialysis solution flow rates. The composition of the solution is also sometimes adjusted in terms of its sodium and potassium. In general, the larger the size of an individual. In North America and the UK, 3-4 hour treatments given 3 times a week are typical, twice-a-week sessions are limited to patients who have a substantial residual kidney function. Four sessions per week are often prescribed for patients, as well as patients who have trouble with fluid overload. Finally, there is growing interest in short daily home hemodialysis, there is also interest in nocturnal dialysis, which involves dialyzing a patient, usually at home, for 8–10 hours per night, 3-6 nights per week. Nocturnal in-center dialysis, 3-4 times per week, is offered at a handful of dialysis units in the United States. Side effects caused by removing too much fluid and/or removing fluid too rapidly include low blood pressure, fatigue, chest pains, leg-cramps, nausea and headaches. These symptoms can occur during the treatment and can persist post treatment, the severity of these symptoms is usually proportionate to the amount and speed of fluid removal. However, the impact of an amount or rate of fluid removal can vary greatly from person to person. The risk of infection varies depending on the type of access used, bleeding may also occur, again the risk varies depending on the type of access used. Infections can be minimized by strictly adhering to infection control best practices, heparin is the most commonly used anticoagulant in hemodialysis, as it is generally well tolerated and can be quickly reversed with protamine sulfate
36.
Federal Register
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The Federal Register, abbreviated FR or sometimes Fed. Reg. is the journal of the federal government of the United States that contains government agency rules, proposed rules. It is published daily, except on federal holidays, the Federal Register is compiled by the Office of the Federal Register and is printed by the Government Publishing Office. There are no restrictions on the Federal Register, as a work of the U. S. government. In essence, the Federal Register is a way for the government to announce changes to government requirements, policies, the notice and comment process, as outlined in the Administrative Procedure Act, gives the people a chance to participate in agency rulemaking. Publication of documents in the Federal Register also constitutes constructive notice, the Federal Register is the main source for the U. S. Both proposed and final rules are published in the Federal Register, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking typically requests public comment on a proposed rule, and provides notice of any public meetings where a proposed rule will be discussed. The public comments are considered by the government agency. The United States Government Manual is published as an edition of the Federal Register. Its focus is on programs and activities, to purchase current or back print copies of the Federal Register, one may contact the U. S. Government Publishing Office. In each issue of the Federal Register, there is a subscription page, currently, a years subscription rate within the U. S. is US$929. Each individual issue may be priced from $11 to $33 depending on its pages, virtually every law library associated with an American Bar Association–accredited law school will also have a set, as will federal depository libraries. The Federal Register has been online since 1994. Federal depository libraries within the U. S. also receive copies of the text, outside the U. S. some major libraries may also carry the Federal Register. To help federal agencies manage their dockets, the Federal Docket Management System was launched in 2005 and is the side of regulations. gov. In April 2009, Citation Technologies created a free, searchable website for Federal Register articles dating from 1996 to the present. GovPulse. us, a finalist in the Sunlight Foundations Apps for America 2, provides a web 2.0 interface to the Federal Register, including sparklines of agency activity, on July 25,2010, the Federal Register 2.0 website went live. The new website is a collaboration between the developers who created GovPulse. us, the Government Publishing Office and the National Archives, on August 1,2011, the Federal Register announced a new application programming interface to facilitate programmatic access to the Federal Register content
37.
Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations
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Requirements for new drugs 328 et seq. The 500 series are regulations for animal feeds and animal medications,510 et seq, new animal drugs 556 Tolerances for residues of drugs in food animals The 600 series covers biological products,601 Licensing under section 351 of the Public Health Service Act 606 et seq. Quality system regulations 860 et seq, listing of specific approved devices and how they are classified The 900 series covers mammography quality requirements enforced by CDRH. The 1000 series covers radiation-emitting device, requirements enforced by the Center for Devices and it also talks about the FDA citizen petition. The items affected include E-cigarettes, Hookah tobacco, and pipe tobacco, interstate shipment of African rodents that may carry monkeypox. Sanitation on interstate conveyances 1271 Requirements for human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based products
38.
Associated Press
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The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
