1.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
2.
Aerodrome
–
An aerodrome or airdrome is a location from which aircraft flight operations take place, regardless of whether they involve air cargo, passengers, or neither. Aerodromes include small general aviation airfields, large airports. The term airport may imply a certain stature that an aerodrome may not have achieved and that is to say, all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports. Usage of the term aerodrome remains more common in the UK and Commonwealth nations, a water aerodrome is an area of open water used regularly by seaplanes or amphibious aircraft for landing and taking off. The word aerodrome derives from Ancient Greek ἀήρ, air, and δρόμος, road or course, an ancient linguistic parallel is hippodrome, derived from ἵππος, horse, and δρόμος, course. In Canada and Australia, aerodrome is a term of art for any area of land or water used for aircraft operation. International Civil Aviation Organization documents use the aerodrome, for example, in the Annex to the ICAO Convention about aerodromes, their physical characteristics. However, the airfield or airport mostly superseded use of aerodrome after World War II. The city of the first aerodrome in the world is a French commune named Viry-Chatillon, the unimproved airfield remains a phenomenon in military aspects. The DHC-4 Caribou served in the U. S. military in Vietnam, landing on rough, earlier, the Ju-52 and Fieseler Storch could do the same, one example of the latter taking off from the Führerbunker whilst completely surrounded by Russian troops. An airport is an aerodrome certificated for commercial flights, an air base is an aerodrome with significant facilities to support aircraft and crew. The term is reserved for military bases, but also applies to civil seaplane bases. An airstrip is an aerodrome that consists only of a runway with perhaps fueling equipment. They are generally in remote locations, many airstrips were built on the hundreds of islands in the Pacific Ocean during World War II. A few airstrips grew to become full-fledged airbases as strategic or economic importance of a region increased over time. An Advanced Landing Ground was an airstrip used by the Allies in the run-up to and during the invasion of Normandy. A water aerodrome is an area of water used regularly by seaplanes or amphibious aircraft for landing and taking off. It may have a building on land and/or a place where the plane can come to shore
3.
Nav Canada
–
Nav Canada is a privately run, not-for-profit corporation that owns and operates Canadas civil air navigation system. It was established in accordance with the Civil Air Navigation Services Commercialization Act, the company employs approximately 1,900 air traffic controllers,650 flight service specialists and 700 technologists. As part of the transfer, or privatization, Nav Canada paid the government CA$1.5 billion, Nav Canada, which operates independently of any government funding, is headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario. It is only allowed to be funded by publicly traded debt, Nav Canadas operations consist of various sites across the country. The company is governed by a 15-member board of representing the four stakeholder groups that founded Nav Canada. The four stakeholders elect 10 members as follows, These 10 directors then elect four independent directors and those 14 directors then appoint the president and chief executive officer who becomes the 15th board member. This structure ensures that the interests of individual stakeholders do not predominate, to further ensure that the interests of Nav Canada are served, these board members cannot be active employees or members of airlines, unions, or government. The company was formed on November 1,1996 when the government sold the air navigation services from Transport Canada to the new not-for-profit private entity for CAD$1.5 billion. The company was formed in response to a number of issues with Transport Canadas operation of air traffic control, while TCs safety record and operational staff were rated highly, its infrastructure was old and in need of serious updating at a time of government restraint. This resulted in delays for airlines and costs that were exceeding the airline ticket tax. The climate of government wage freezes resulted in shortages of air traffic controllers that were hard to address within a government department. Having TC as the provider, the regulator and inspector was a conflict of interest. Pressure from the airlines on the government mounted for a solution to the problem that was hurting the air industrys bottom line, the companys revenue is predominately from service fees charged to aircraft operators which amount to about CAD$1. 2B annually. Nav Canada also raises revenues from developing and selling technology and related services to air navigation service providers around the world. It also has some sources of income, such as conducting maintenance work for other ANS providers and rentals from the Nav Centre in Cornwall. In the summer of 2007 the company held $368 million in ABCP which had become illiquid, on 12 January 2009 final Ontario Superior Court of Justice approval was granted to restructure the third party ABCP notes. The company expects that the non-credit related fair value variances from face value on restructured and non-restructured ABCP will be recovered by the time the notes mature in fiscal year 2017. By fiscal year end 2013, the company’s revenues reached $1,231 million, during the period 2005-15 the company held service charge rates steady
4.
International Civil Aviation Organization
–
The International Civil Aviation Organization, is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of air transport to ensure safe. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. The Air Navigation Commission is the body within ICAO. The Commission is composed of 19 Commissioners, nominated by the ICAOs contracting states, Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do not serve as state or political representatives. The development of Aviation Standards and Recommended Practices is done under the direction of the ANC through the process of ICAO Panels. Once approved by the Commission, standards are sent to the Council, the forerunner to ICAO was the International Commission for Air Navigation. It held its first convention in 1903 in Berlin, Germany, at the second convention in 1906, also held in Berlin,27 countries attended. The third convention, held in London in 1912 allocated the first radio callsigns for use by aircraft, ICAN continued to operate until 1945. Fifty-two countries signed the Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, in Chicago, Illinois, on 7 December 1944. Under its terms, a Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization was to be established, accordingly, PICAO began operating on 6 June 1945, replacing ICAN. The 26th country ratified the Convention on 5 March 1947 and, consequently PICAO was disestablished on 4 April 1947 and replaced by ICAO, in October 1947, ICAO became an agency of the United Nations linked to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. In April 2013 Qatar offered to serve as the new permanent seat of the Organization, according to the Globe and Mail, Qatars move was at least partly motivated by the pro-Israel foreign policy of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper. Approximately one month later, Qatar withdrew its bid after a proposal to the ICAOs governing council to move the ICAO triennial conference to Doha was defeated by a vote of 22–14. The 9th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from 1948 up to year 2006, ICAO refers to its current edition of the Convention as the Statute, and designates it as ICAO Document 7300/9. The Convention has 19 Annexes that are listed by title in the article Convention on International Civil Aviation, as of March 2016, there are 191 ICAO members, consisting of 190 of the 193 UN members, plus the Cook Islands. Liechtenstein has delegated Switzerland to implement the treaty to make it applicable in the territory of Liechtenstein, Taiwan attended the 38th Session of the ICAO Assembly in 2013, but in 2016 was denied such an invitation, despite expressions of support from the United States for Taiwan to participate. However, the Republic of China under the name of Chinese Taipei is a member of International Air Transport Association, the Council of ICAO is elected by the Assembly every 3 years and consists of 36 members elected in 3 categories
5.
Natural Resources Canada
–
It was created in 1995 by amalgamating the now-defunct Departments of Energy, Mines and Resources and Forestry. Natural Resources Canada works to ensure the development of Canadas natural resources, including energy, forests. NRCan also uses its expertise in earth sciences to build and maintain a knowledge base of our landmass. To promote internal collaboration, NRCan has implemented a departmental wide wiki based on MediaWiki, under the Canadian constitution, responsibility for natural resources belongs to the provinces, not the federal government. However, the government has jurisdiction over off-shore resources, trade and commerce in natural resources, statistics, international relations. The current Minister of Natural Resources is Jim Carr as of November 4,2015, the department is governed by the Resources and Technical Surveys Act, R. S. C. C. R-7 and the Department of Natural Resources Act, S. C, structured along business lines according to types of natural resources and areas of interest
6.
Transport Canada
–
Transport Canada is the department within the government of Canada which is responsible for developing regulations, policies and services of transportation in Canada. It is part of the Transportation, Infrastructure and Communities portfolio, the current Minister of Transport is Marc Garneau. Transport Canada has its offices in Ottawa, Ontario, the Department of Transport was created in 1935 by the government of William Lyon Mackenzie King in recognition of the changing transportation environment in Canada at the time. He created a National Harbours Board and Trans-Canada Air Lines, the Department of Transport Act came into force November 2,1936. Transport Canada emerged from this process as a department focused on policy, in 2004, Transport Canada introduced non-passenger screening to enhance both airport and civil aviation security. Transport Canadas headquarters are located in Ottawa, at Place de Ville, each inspector with delegated power from the Minister of Transport receives official credentials to exercise their power, as shown on the right. These inspectors are public officers identified within the Criminal Code of Canada, the Motor Vehicle Safety Act was established in 1971 in order to create safety standards for cars in Canada. The department also acts as the governments funding partner with provincial transport ministries on jointly-funded provincial transportation infrastructure projects for new highways. On June 26,2013, the Fair Rail Freight Service Act became law which was a response to the Rail Freight Service Review’s Final Report, Transport Canada is responsible for the waterways inside and surrounding Canada. As was certain regulatory aspects of Emergency Response Transport Canadas role in aviation seems to be the most detailed, until 1996, Transport Canada was responsible for both regulation of aviation and the operation of air traffic services, as well as the operation of most major airports. This change was controversial because NAV CANADA began charging for services that were funded through general tax revenue. In 2005, the United States was discussing a similar delegation of the FAAs air traffic services to a government corporation. During the 1990s, Transport Canada also began privatizing the operation of large airports, in 2003, Transport Canada launched its Electronic Collection of Air Transportation Statistics program to collect passenger and cargo data in real-time from air carriers flying in Canada. ECATS will expand into the field of aviation during 2008. Transport Canada also collects data on all accidents and incidents, no matter how minor, Transport Canada continues to be responsible for licensing pilots and other aviation specialists as well as registering and inspecting aircraft. It is also responsible for the safety certification and continuous safety oversight of most forms of commercial operations, the Canadian Aviation Regulations are also under Transport Canada control. Transport Canadas Civil Aviation Directorate or is Canadas civil aviation authority and it existed since 1936 when civil aviation was transferred from the Civil Aviation Branch of the Department of National Defence. de Havilland Canada Dash 7-150IR. In September 2009, the CBCs Fifth Estate produced a report Riding on Risk, the story was sparked by a lost memory stick which was found by a journalism student
7.
Department of National Defence (Canada)
–
The Department of National Defence, commonly abbreviated as DND, is a Canadian government department responsible for defending Canadas interests and values at home and abroad. National Defence is the largest department of the Government of Canada in terms of budget as well as staff and it also is the department with the largest number of buildings. The Department is headed by the Deputy Minister of National Defence, who is the Department’s senior civil servant, the Department of National Defence exists to aid the minister in carrying out his responsibilities within the Defence Portfolio, and provides a civilian support system for the Canadian Armed Forces. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces is a separate and distinct organization from, and is not part of. The Department of National Defence is currently headed by Deputy Minister John Forster, the Department of National Defence was established by the National Defence Act, which merged the Department of Militia and Defence, the Department of Naval Services, and the Air Board. The National Defence Act was passed by the Parliament of Canada on June 28,1922, the Minister of National Defence, as the member of cabinet responsible to Parliament for National Defence, heads the Defence Team. The Department of National Defence is headed by the Deputy Minister of National Defence, under the Deputy Minister are a variety of associate deputy and assistant deputy ministers who are responsible for various aspects of the department. The Deputy Minister is appointed by the Governor General on behalf of the Queen of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister, there are also a variety of offices and support organizations which report to both the Chief of Defence Staff and the Deputy Minister. The Department is not responsible for all of these organizations itself, the Canadian Forces are a distinct and separate entity from the Department of National Defence
8.
Runway
–
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
9.
Air traffic control
–
The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots. In some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role, to prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space around it at all times. Many aircraft also have collision avoidance systems, which provide additional safety by warning pilots when other aircraft get too close, in many countries, ATC provides services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization, ATC operations are conducted either in the English language or the used by the station on the ground. In practice, the language for a region is normally used, however. In 1921, Croydon Airport, London was the first airport in the world to air traffic control. In the United States, air traffic control developed three divisions, the first of air mail radio stations was created in 1922 after World War I when the U. S. Post Office began using techniques developed by the Army to direct, over time, the AMRS morphed into flight service stations. Todays flight service stations do not issue instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first airport traffic control tower, regulating arrivals, departures and surface movement of aircraft at a specific airport, approach/departure control facilities were created after adoption of radar in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first air traffic control center, which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination was opened in Newark, NJ in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago. The primary method of controlling the airport environment is visual observation from the airport control tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds, surveillance displays are also available to controllers at larger airports to assist with controlling air traffic. Controllers may use a system called secondary surveillance radar for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, altitude. In adverse weather conditions the tower controllers may also use surface movement radar, surface movement guidance, remote and virtual tower is a system based on air traffic controllers being located somewhere other than at the local airport tower and still able to provide air traffic control services
10.
Aviation fuel
–
Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. Most aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines with spark plugs, or fuel for jet turbine engines, Avgas is used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines in aircraft. Its formulation is distinct from mogas used in cars and many military vehicles such Deuce, Avgas is formulated for stability, safety, and predictable performance under a wide range of environments, and is typically used in aircraft that use reciprocating or Wankel engines. Jet fuel is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an unleaded kerosene and it is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either compression ignition engines or turbine engines. Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of pure kerosene, kerosene-based fuel has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly higher temperature to ignite. It is a high-quality fuel, if it fails the purity and other quality tests for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to other ground-based users with less demanding requirements, like railroad engines. Alternative to conventional fossil-based aviation fuels, new fuels made via the Biomass to liquid method, fuels such as sustainable aviation fuel have the advantage that few or no modifications are necessary on the aircraft itself and that they have far lower GHG emissions. The reason why they arent being used heavily though is because they face political, technological. Compressed natural gas and liquified natural gas are other fuel feedstocks that aircraft could switch to other than conventional fossil-oil, turbofans for instance can be operated on a number of different fuels and some have been made optimized for use with natural gas. Some aircraft, such as the Tupolev Tu-155, and the SUGAR Freeze aircraft under NASAs N+4 Advanced Concept Development program were designed to run on LNG, the production of aviation fuel falls into two categories, fuel suitable for turbine engines and fuel suitable for internal combustion engines. There are international specifications for each, Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption. Avgas is sold in lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators, whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines. The net energy content for aviation fuels depends on their composition, some typical values are, BP Avgas 80,44.65 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 690 kg/m3. Kerosene type BP Jet A-1,43.15 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 804 kg/m3, kerosene type BP Jet TS-1,43.2 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 787 kg/m3. Aviation fuels consist of blends of over one thousand chemicals, primarily hydrocarbons, additives such as antioxidants and metal deactivators, principal components include n-heptane and isooctane. Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their octane rating, alcohol, alcohol mixtures, and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally, but alcohol is not permitted in any certified aviation fuel specification. In Brazil, the Embraer Ipanema EMB-202A is a version of the Ipanema agricultural aircraft with a modified Lycoming IO-540-K1J5 engine so as to be able to run on ethanol. Other aircraft engines that were modified to run on 100% ethanol were several types of Lycoming engines
11.
Hangar
–
A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other such as wood. The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart, of Germanic origin, from Frankish *haimgard, from *haim, hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft carriers and ships. The Wright brothers stored and repaired their aircraft in a wooden hangar constructed in 1902 at Kill Devil Hills in North Carolina for their glider, after completing design and construction of the Wright Flyer in Ohio, the brothers returned to Kill Devil Hill only to find their hangar damaged. They repaired the structure and constructed a new workshop while they waited for the Flyer to be shipped, bleriot was in a race to be the first man to cross the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft and set up his headquarters in the unused shed. In Britain, the earliest aircraft hangars were known as aeroplane sheds and these were built in 1910 for the Bristol School of Flying and are now Grade II* Listed buildings. Examples of the latter survive at Farnborough, Filton and Montrose airfields, during World War I, other standard designs included the RFC General Service Flight Shed and the Admiralty F-Type of 1916, the General Service Shed and the Handley Page aeroplane shed. Airship hangars or airship sheds are generally larger than conventional aircraft hangars, most early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars had to provide protection from stray sparks to keep the gas from exploding. Hangars that held several airships were at risk from chain-reaction explosions, for this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were built to house only one or two such craft. During the Golden Age of airship travel from 1900, mooring masts and sheds were constructed to build, steel rigid airship hangars are some of the largest in the world. Hangar 1, Lakehurst, is located at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst, the structure was completed in 1921 and is typical of airship hangar designs of World War I. The site is best known for the Hindenburg disaster, when on May 6,1937, Hangar No.1 at Lakehurst was used to build and store the American USS Shenandoah. The hangar also provided service and storage for the airships USS Los Angeles, Akron, Macon, as well as the Graf Zeppelin and the Hindenburg. The largest hangars ever built include the Goodyear Airdock measuring 1, 175x325x211 feet, the Goodyear Airdock, is in Akron, Ohio and the structure was completed on November 25,1929. The Airdock was used for the construction of the USS Akron and her sister ship, Hangar One at Moffett Federal Field, is located in Mountain View, California. The structure was completed in 1931, the US Navy established more airship operations during WWII. As part of this ten lighter-than-air bases across the United States were built as part of the defense plan. Hangars at these bases are some of the worlds largest freestanding timber structures, an alternative to the fixed hangar is a portable shelter that can be used for aircraft storage and maintenance
12.
Instrument flight rules
–
Instrument flight rules is one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations, the other is visual flight rules. The U. S. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck and it is also a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR flight plan. To put instrument flight rules into context, an overview of visual flight rules is necessary. This is known as operating the aircraft under VFR, and is the most common mode of operation for small craft, thus, cloud ceiling and flight visibility are the most important variables for safe operations during all phases of flight. However, typical daytime VFR minimums for most airspace is 3 statute miles of visibility and a distance from clouds of 500 below,1,000 above. Flight conditions reported as equal to or greater than these VFR minimums are referred to as visual meteorological conditions, any aircraft operating under VFR must have the required equipment on board, as described in FAR Part 91.205. Visual flight rules are simpler than instrument flight rules, and require significantly less training. VFR provides a degree of freedom, allowing pilots to go where they want, when they want. Pilots are not required to file a plan, do not have to communicate with ATC. When operation of an aircraft under VFR is not safe, because the visual cues outside the aircraft are obscured by weather or darkness, instrument flight rules must be used instead. IFR permits an aircraft to operate in instrument meteorological conditions, which is any weather condition less than VMC. Use of instrument flight rules are required when flying in Class A airspace regardless of weather conditions. Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet above sea level to flight level 600 above the contiguous 48 United States. Flight in Class A airspace requires pilots and aircraft to be instrument equipped and rated, Instrument pilots must meticulously evaluate weather, create a very detailed flight plan based around specific instrument departure, en route, and arrival procedures, and dispatch the flight. The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed separation, the most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of weather conditions. In controlled airspace, air traffic control separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other aircraft using a flight clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, ATC monitors IFR flights on radar, or through aircraft position reports in areas where radar coverage is not available. Aircraft position reports are sent as voice radio transmissions, in the United States, a flight operating under IFR is required to provide position reports unless ATC advises a pilot that the plane is in radar contact. The pilot must resume position reports after ATC advises that radar contact has been lost, IFR flights in controlled airspace require an ATC clearance for each part of the flight
13.
Canadian Owners and Pilots Association
–
The Canadian Owners and Pilots Association is a federally registered not-for-profit association that provides information and advocacy services for Canadian pilots who fly for non-commercial purposes. COPA has about 17,000 members which ranks it as the largest aviation association of any kind in Canada and its mission is to Advance, promote and preserve the Canadian freedom to fly. COPA was formed in 1952 by Ottawa aviators Margaret Carson and John Bogie and they saw the need for an organization to represent the interests of private pilots to the government of Canada. Their model was the US-based Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association which had been formed 13 years earlier in 1939, after meeting with AOPA principals and receiving encouragement from them, COPA was set up with its headquarters in Carsons garage. As the association grew they hired their first paid employees and moved into more permanent offices, Bogie became the associations first president and today continues to serve as an honorary director. COPA was a member of the International Council of Aircraft Owner. COPA is run by a 15-member board of directors who are elected by the members of the association on a regional basis and they serve four-year terms, with elections held in even-numbered years. Board meetings are held three times a year, COPA has a staff of six who work from the associations offices in Ottawa. Until May 2016, COPA published a monthly tabloid-format newspaper, since June 2016, it is full colour magazine still named COPA Flight. The first edition featured Chris Hadfield as the new voice and spokesperson for COPA and it also runs a unique aircraft group insurance program. The insurance program, administered by Marsh Canada Limited until August 2011 is now run by the Magnes Group, the association also has a large website, with some sections available to members only. The website includes its COPA Guides and these fifteen books provide information to members on such subjects as buying an aircraft, creating your own aerodrome and dealing with government regulatory enforcement action. There are also guides on each category of aircraft in Canada from ultralights to certified aircraft, the association has an on-line user-editable public airport directory called Places to Fly. COPA also provides assistance to its members on aviation questions. COPA is a lobbying organization and conducts advocacy work on behalf of aircraft owners with Transport Canada, Nav Canada. The association is a member of each of the Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory Councils nine technical committees, COPA has a large Special Action Fund renamed the Freedom to Fly Fund collected from its members over the years, which is often used to fund court cases. The association has a network of 200 local chapters across the country and these COPA Flights annually run many local aviation events, including many of Canadas summertime fly-ins. COPA holds a general meeting and convention, which changes location each year
14.
Visual flight rules
–
Visual flight rules are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. Specifically, the weather must be better than basic VFR weather minima, i. e. in visual meteorological conditions, the pilot must be able to operate the aircraft with visual reference to the ground, and by visually avoiding obstructions and other aircraft. If the weather is below VMC, pilots are required to use instrument flight rules, in a control zone, a VFR flight may obtain a clearance from air traffic control to operate as Special VFR. VFR require a pilot to be able to see outside the cockpit, to control the altitude, navigate. In some countries VFR flight is permitted at night, and is known as Night VFR, the VFR pilot is required to see and avoid obstacles and other aircraft. Pilots flying under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all aircraft and are generally not assigned routes or altitudes by air traffic control. Meteorological conditions that meet the requirements for VFR flight are termed visual meteorological conditions. If they are not met, the conditions are considered instrument meteorological conditions, IFR operations have specific training requirements and certification required of the pilot, and increased equipment requirements for the aircraft. Additionally, an IFR flight plan must usually be filed in advance, for efficiency of operations, some ATC operations will routinely provide pop-up IFR clearances for aircraft operating VFR, but that are arriving at an airport that does not meet VMC requirements. For instance, a small cloud forming over the airport at less than 1000 feet technically requires the airport to allow only IFR flights using instrument approaches/departures. To avoid these scenarios, VFR flights intending to land at or take off from an airport experiencing localized conditions marginally below VMC minima may request Special VFR clearance from the tower. SVFR flight is only allowed while within the portion of an airports controlled airspace extends to the surface. Visibility on the ground must still be greater than one statute mile, the pilot is required to maintain VFR separation distances from other aircraft and, by requesting SVFR, asserts that they can do so despite the marginal conditions. For departing flights, the pilot must be flying in VMC by the time they leave the surface footprint of the controlled airspace. In the United States, class A airspace is measured using flight levels, and begins at FL180 up to FL600, in the United States, Canada and Australia, a pilot operating VFR outside Class B, C, D airspace can request Flight Following from ATC. This service is provided by ATC if workload permits it, but is an advisory service only, the responsibility for maintaining separation with other aircraft and proper navigation still remains with the pilot. In the United Kingdom, this is known as a Traffic Service, in other countries it is known as Flight Information Service. In the United States and Canada, any certified pilot who meets specific recency of experience criteria may operate an aircraft under VFR
15.
Radio navigation
–
Radio navigation or radionavigation is the application of radio frequencies to determine a position of an object on the Earth. Like radiolocation, it is a type of radiodetermination and these systems used some form of directional radio antenna to determine the location of a broadcast station on the ground. Conventional navigation techniques are used to take a radio fix. These were introduced prior to World War I, and remain in use today, the first system of radio navigation was the Radio Direction Finder, or RDF. By tuning in a station and then using a directional antenna. A second measurement using another station was then taken, using triangulation, the two directions can be plotted on a map where their intersection reveals the location of the navigator. Early RDF systems normally used an antenna, a small loop of metal wire that is mounted so it can be rotated around a vertical axis. By rotating the loop and looking for the angle of the null, loop antennas can be seen on most pre-1950s aircraft and ships. The main problem with RDF is that it required a special antenna on the vehicle, a smaller problem is that the accuracy of the system is based to a degree on the size of the antenna, but larger antennas would likewise make the installation more difficult. During the era between World War I and World War II, a number of systems were introduced that placed the antenna on the ground. Then they waited for the signal to either peak or disappear as the antenna pointed in their direction. By timing the delay between the signal and the peak/null, then dividing by the known rotational rate of the station. The first such system was the German Telefunken Kompass Sender, which operations in 1907 and was used operationally by the Zeppelin fleet until 1918. An improved version was introduced by the UK as the Orfordness Beacon in 1929, a number of improved versions followed, replacing the mechanical motion of the antennas with phasing techniques that produced the same output pattern with no moving parts. One of the longest lasting examples was Sonne, which went into operation just before World War II, the modern VOR system is based on the same principles. A great advance in the RDF technique was introduced in the form of phase comparisons of a signal as measured on two or more antennas, or a single highly directional solenoid. These receivers were dramatically smaller, more accurate, and simpler to operate and this also led to a revival in the operation of simple radio beacons for use with these RDF systems, now referred to as non-directional beacons. As the LF/MF signals used by NDBs can follow the curvature of earth, NDB can be categorized as long range or short range depending on their power
16.
Airport/Facility Directory
–
The directory is published in seven volumes that cover the continental United States, Puerto Rico, and the U. S. Virgin Islands. Each volume is updated every 56 days by the United States Department of Transportation with information from the Federal Aviation Administration, information is provided on public-use and joint-use airports, heliports, and seaplane bases. The directory includes data that cannot be depicted in graphic form. In addition, each A/FD contains information such as parachute jumping areas, volumes are side-bound at 5⅜ x 8¼ inches, and colored a distinctive green. As technology has improved, several vendors have started to offer some or all of the information from these guides in electronic form, the seven volumes the A/FD is published in are, Northeast U. S. East Central U. S. North Central U. S, the facility descriptions in each book are ordered by state, and then by city within the state. Separate A/FDs are contained in the Alaska Supplement and the Pacific Chart Supplement and this sample page shows the entry for a small airport, Forrest City Municipal, in Arkansas. The airports FAA location identifier is FCY and it is 4 nautical miles south of the city, its time zone is UTC-6, and the geographical coordinates of its Airport Reference Point are 34°56. 52′N 90°46. 50′W. It can be found on the Memphis VFR Sectional chart, and it has at least one Instrument Approach Procedure, which is described elsewhere. The airport’s elevation is 249 feet, it has a beacon at night. There is one runway, 18-36, it is hard-surfaced using asphalt,3,014 feet long and 50 feet wide, there is medium intensity runway lighting. Runway 36 has trees obstructing its approach, there is no control tower, the common communications frequency is 122.8 MHz. The associated Flight Service Station is Jonesboro, with the telephone number, radar-assisted approach and departure control are provided by Memphis Center on 135.3 MHz. This beacon is not monitored by the FAA for continuous operation during the hours shown, finally a sketch map provides a visual orientation of the airport’s layout and nearby obstructions, primarily trees. This article contains text taken from public-domain from the National Aeronautical Charting Office and FAA-H-8083-25, canada Flight Supplement - Canadas version of the same document. FAA National Charting Office, A/FD description and order form Digital Airport/Facility Directory Chart Supplement The Digital Pilot - Free PDF downloads of Airport/Facility Directory
