1.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
Languages of Canada
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A multitude of languages are used in Canada. According to the 2011 census, English and French are the mother tongues of 56. 9% and 21. 3% of Canadians respectively,85. 6% of Canadians have working knowledge of English while 30. 1% have a working knowledge of French. New Brunswick is the only Canadian province that has both English and French as its official languages to the extent, with constitutional entrenchment. Similar constitutional protections are in place in Manitoba, many Canadians believe that the relationship between the English and French languages is the central or defining aspect of the Canadian experience. Canada’s linguistic diversity extends beyond the two official languages, in all,20. 0% of Canadas population reported speaking a language other than English or French at home. Finally, the number of people reporting sign languages as the languages spoken at home was nearly 25,000 people, Canada is also home to many indigenous languages. Taken together, these are spoken by less than one percent of the population, about. 6% Canadians report an Aboriginal language as their mother tongue. The following table details the population of each province and territory, with summary national totals, source, Statistics Canada,2011 Census Population by language spoken most often and regularly at home, age groups, for Canada, provinces and territories. The percentage of the population speaking English, French or both languages most often at home has declined since 1986, the decline has been greatest for French, the proportion of the population who speak neither English nor French in the home has increased. The table below shows the percentage of the total Canadian population who speak Canadas official languages most often at home from 1971–2006. In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec and Nunavut, and most Canadians can speak English. While English is not the language in Quebec,36. 1% of Québécois can speak English. Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44%, only 3. 2% of Canadas English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal. More Canadians know how to speak English than speak it at home, of these, about 6.1 million or 85% resided in Quebec. Outside Quebec, the largest French-speaking populations are found in New Brunswick, overall, 22% of people in Canada declare French to be their mother language, while one in three Canadians speak French and 70% are unilingual Anglophones. Smaller indigenous French-speaking communities exist in other provinces. For example, a community exists on Newfoundlands Port au Port Peninsula. The percentage of the population who speak French both by mother tongue and home language has decreased over the past three decades
4.
Goidelic languages
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The Goidelic /ɡɔɪˈdɛlɪk/ or Gaelic languages form one of the two groups of Insular Celtic languages, the other being the Brittonic languages. Goidelic languages historically formed a dialect continuum stretching from Ireland through the Isle of Man to Scotland, there are three modern Goidelic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the last of which died out in the 20th century but has since been revived to some degree. The word Gaelic by itself is used to refer to Scottish Gaelic and is thus ambiguous. The names used in the languages themselves are derived from Old Irish Goídelc, the medieval mythology of the Lebor Gabála Érenn places its origin in an eponymous ancestor of the Gaels, and inventor of the language, Goídel Glas. Medieval Gaelic literature tells us that the kingdom of Dál Riata emerged in western Scotland during the 6th century, the traditional view was that Dál Riata was founded by Irish migrants, but this is no longer universally accepted. Dál Riata grew in size and influence, and Gaelic language, the oldest written Goidelic language is Primitive Irish, which is attested in Ogham inscriptions from about the 4th century. The forms of speech are very close, and often identical, to the forms of Gaulish recorded before. Classical Gaelic, otherwise known as Early Modern Irish, covers the period from the 13th to the 18th century and this is often called Classical Irish, while Ethnologue gives the name Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic to this standardised written language. As long as written language was the norm, Ireland was considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati. Later orthographic divergence has resulted in standardised pluricentristic orthographies, Manx orthography, which was introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, was based on English and Welsh practice and so never formed part of this literary standard. Irish is one of the Republic of Irelands two official languages along with English, historically the predominant language of the island, it is now mostly spoken in parts of the south, west, and northwest of Ireland. At present, the Gaeltachtaí are primarily found in Counties Cork, Donegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry, in the Republic of Ireland 1,774,437 regard themselves as able to speak Irish. Of these,77,185 speak Irish on a daily basis outside school, the 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 people had some knowledge of Irish. Combined, this means that one in three people on the island of Ireland can understand Irish to some extent, although a large percentage of these do not speak it fluently. The Irish language has been recognised as an official and working language of the European Union, Irelands national language was the twenty-third to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language. Some people in the north and west of mainland Scotland and most people in the Hebrides still speak Scottish Gaelic, but the language has been in decline. There are now believed to be approximately 60,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Scotland and its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the language of most of the rest of the Scottish Highlands until little more than a century ago
5.
Indigenous languages of the Americas
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Indigenous languages of the Americas are spoken by indigenous peoples from Alaska and Greenland to the southern tip of South America, encompassing the land masses that constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of language families, as well as many language isolates. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made and this scheme is rejected by nearly all specialists. According to UNESCO, most of the indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered, the most widely spoken indigenous language is Southern Quechua, with about 6 to 7 million speakers, primarily in South America. Thousands of languages were spoken by various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans and these encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century and the end of the 15th century. Several indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems, after pre-Columbian times, several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas, based on European, indigenous and African languages. The European colonizers and their states had widely varying attitudes towards Native American languages. In Brazil, friars learned and promoted the Tupi language, as a result, indigenous American languages suffered from cultural suppression and loss of speakers. Many indigenous languages have become endangered, but others are vigorous. Several indigenous languages have been official status in the countries where they occur. In other cases official status is limited to regions where the languages are most spoken. Although sometimes enshrined in constitutions as official, the languages may be used infrequently in de facto official use, examples are Quechua in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia, where in practice, Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts. In North America and the Arctic region, Greenland in 2009 adopted Kalaallisut as its official language. In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language, the US Marine Corps recruited Navajo men, who were established as code talkers during World War II, to transmit secret US military messages. Neither the Germans nor Japanese ever deciphered the Navajo code, which was a using the Navajo language. Today, governments, universities, and indigenous peoples are continuing to work for the preservation and revitalization of indigenous American languages, in American Indian Languages, The Historical Linguistics of Native America, Lyle Campbell lists several hypotheses for the historical origins of Amerindian languages. These proliferated in the New World, notes, Extinct languages or families are indicated by, †. The number of members is indicated in parentheses
6.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
7.
Robert Hayman
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Robert Hayman was a poet, colonist and Proprietary Governor of Bristols Hope colony in Newfoundland. Hayman was born in Wolborough near Newton Abbot, Devon, the eldest of nine children and his mother was Alice Gaverocke and his father, Nicholas Hayman, a prosperous citizen and later mayor and MP of both Totnes and Dartmouth. By 1579 the family was living in Totnes, where in the high street Hayman as a small boy met Sir Francis Drake, according to the 17th-century historian Anthony Wood Hayman was educated at Exeter College and the college register shows him matriculating on 15 October 1590. He then, according to Wood, retired to Lincolns-inn, without the honour of a degree and these encouraged his literary efforts with the result, according to Wood, that Hayman had the general vogue of a poet. Perhaps because of these distractions Hayman seems not to have achieved any significant public office in England, although Edward Sharpham dedicated a play to him in 1607 there is nothing further known about his activities for twenty years until he emerges as a venturer and colonist to the new world. Several of the later published in the book Quodlibets however are dedicated to other members of the Spicer family. Hayman was appointed the Newfoundland colonys first and only governor in 1618 when Bristols Society of Merchant Venturers received a charter from King James I of England to establish the settlement, Haymans brother-in-law John Barker was the societys master. Hayman lived in the colony for fifteen months before returning to England, much of his work was in England raising money for the settlement, publicizing it and encouraging more colonisation efforts. As Newfoundlands first poet in English, Hayman is remembered for his writings extolling the island, its climate, in his leisure hours as Governor in Harbour Grace he composed a work later published in England as Quodlibets. Quodlibets was the first book in the English language written in what would become Canada, some of it consisted of original short poems by Hayman, and some of translations, both of Latin poems by John Owen and of French prose by Rabelais. It was published in London in 1628, presumably as part of Haymans attempts to raise interest in the colony, although Hayman apparently remained committed to Newfoundland he was also interested in other colonial ventures, including one to Guyana under the direction of Robert Harcourt. Having arranged his affairs he made his will late in the fall of 1628. By February 1629 he was in Guiana looking into using the river Wiapoco as a trading route. It was while travelling up the Oyapock by canoe that Hayman died of a fever and was hastily buried by his companions near the banks of the river. His will, signed and sealed on 17 November 1628 but not proved until 1633, leaves his estate to my loving Cosin and his will also mentions two policies of insurance taken out with the diocesan Chancellor of London, Arthur Duck. Of the value of each, one related to the safe arrival of Haymans ship in Guiana
8.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history
9.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
10.
The Deserted Village
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The Deserted Village is a poem by Oliver Goldsmith published in 1770. It is a work of social commentary, and condemns rural depopulation, the location of the poems deserted village is unknown, but the description may have been influenced by Goldsmiths memory of his childhood in rural Ireland, and his travels around England. The poem is written in couplets, and describes the decline of a village. In the poem, Goldsmith criticises rural depopulation, the moral corruption found in towns, consumerism, enclosure, landscape gardening, avarice, and the pursuit of wealth from international trade. The poem employs, in the words of one critic, deliberately precise obscurity, the poem was very popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but also provoked critical responses, including from other poets such as George Crabbe. References to the poem, and particularly its ominous Ill fares the land warning, have appeared in a number of other contexts, Goldsmith grew up in the hamlet of Lissoy in Ireland. In the 1760s, Goldsmith travelled extensively around England, visiting many small settlements, in this period, the enclosure movement was at its height. The poem is dedicated to the artist Sir Joshua Reynolds, Reynolds and Goldsmith were close friends, and were both founding members, along with Samuel Johnson, of a dining society called The Club. Reynolds had helped to promote Goldsmiths play The Good-Naturd Man to the actor and theatre manager David Garrick, the Deserted Village condemns rural depopulation and the indulgence of the rich. This was a subject that Goldsmith had tackled in his earlier poem The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society, Goldsmith also set out his ideas about rural depopulation in an essay entitled The Revolution in Low Life, published in Lloyds Evening Post in 1762. There is no single place which has identified as the village of the poems title. While personal references in the give the impression of referring to the village in which Goldsmith grew up. In The Revolution in Low Life, Goldsmith had condemned the destruction of a village within 50 miles of London in order to construct a landscape garden. Goldsmith reported that he had witnessed this scene in 1761. In the same year, Nuneham Courtenay was removed to make way for Nuneham Park and its owner—Simon Harcourt, 1st Earl Harcourt—moved the village 1.5 miles away. There are a number of other concordances between Nuneham Courtenays destruction and the contents of the The Deserted Village, the position of both villages, on a hill near a river, was similar, and both had parsons who enjoyed gardening. The poem opens with a description of a village named Auburn, loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheered the labouring swain, Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, And parting summers lingering blooms delayed. The poem then moves on to describe the village in its current state, Goldsmith then states that the residents of Auburn have not moved to the city, but have emigrated overseas
11.
Oliver Goldsmith
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He is thought to have written the classic childrens tale The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes. Goldsmiths birth date and year are not known with certainty, according to the Library of Congress authority file, he told a biographer that he was born on 10 November 1728. The location of his birthplace is also uncertain, when Goldsmith was two years old, his father was appointed the rector of the parish of Kilkenny West in County Westmeath. The family moved to the parsonage at Lissoy, between Athlone and Ballymahon, and continued to live there until his fathers death in 1747, in 1744 Goldsmith went up to Trinity College, Dublin. Neglecting his studies in theology and law, he fell to the bottom of his class, in 1747, along with four other undergraduates, he was expelled for a riot in which they attempted to storm the Marshalsea Prison. He settled in London in 1756, where he held various jobs, including an apothecarys assistant. There, through fellow Club member Edmund Burke, he made the acquaintance of Sir George Savile, the combination of his literary work and his dissolute lifestyle led Horace Walpole to give him the epithet inspired idiot. During this period he used the pseudonym James Willington to publish his 1758 translation of the autobiography of the Huguenot Jean Marteilhe. Goldsmith was described by contemporaries as prone to envy, a congenial but impetuous and disorganised personality who once planned to emigrate to America, mitchell sorely missed good company, which Goldsmith naturally provided in spades. Thomas De Quincey wrote of him All the motion of Goldsmiths nature moved in the direction of the true, the natural, the sweet and his premature death in 1774 may have been partly due to his own misdiagnosis of his kidney infection. Goldsmith was buried in Temple Church in London, the inscription reads, HERE LIES/OLIVER GOLDSMITH. There is a monument to him in the centre of Ballymahon, see The Vicar of Wakefield, The Good-Naturd Man, The Traveller, and She Stoops to Conquer. In 1760 Goldsmith began to publish a series of letters in the Public Ledger under the title The Citizen of the World and it was inspired by the earlier essay series Persian Letters by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. Goldsmith wrote this romantic ballad of precisely 160 lines in 1765, the hero and heroine are Edwin, a youth without wealth or power, and Angelina, the daughter of a lord beside the Tyne. Angelina spurns many wooers, but refuses to make plain her love for young Edwin, quite dejected with my scorn, Edwin disappears and becomes a hermit. One day, Angelina turns up at his cell in boys clothes and, not recognising him, Edwin then reveals his true identity, and the lovers never part again. The poem is notable for its portrayal of a hermit. In keeping with tradition, however, Edwin the Hermit claims to spurn the sex
12.
Joseph Howe
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Joseph Howe, PC was a Nova Scotian journalist, politician, public servant, and poet. Howe is often ranked as one of Nova Scotias most admired politicians and his skills as a journalist. He was born the son of John Howe and Mary Edes at Halifax and inherited from his loyalist father a love for Great Britain. At age 23, the self-taught but widely read Howe purchased the Novascotian, soon making it into a popular and he reported extensively on debates in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly and travelled to every part of the province writing about its geography and people. In 1835, Howe was charged with libel, a serious criminal offence, after the Novascotian published a letter attacking Halifax politicians. Howe addressed the jury for more than six hours, citing example after example of civic corruption, the judge called for Howes conviction, but swayed by his passionate address, jurors acquitted him in what is considered a landmark case in the struggle for a free press in Canada. The next year, Howe was elected to the assembly as a reformer, beginning a long. He was instrumental in helping Nova Scotia become the first British colony to win government in 1848. He served as premier of Nova Scotia from 1860 to 1863, having failed to persuade the British to repeal Confederation, Howe joined the federal cabinet of John A. Macdonald in 1869 and played a major role in bringing Manitoba into the union. Howe became the third Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia in 1873, the Howe family was of Puritan stock from Massachusetts. Howe arrived at Halifax in 1779 and set up a printing shop, in 1801, Howe was rewarded for his loyalty by appointment as the Kings Printer and in 1803 he became deputy postmaster for Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. In 1798, he had married Mary Edes, their son Joseph was born at Halifax on December 13,1804. Like many lads of that time, Joseph Howe attended the Royal Acadian School before beginning an apprenticeship and he married Catherine Ann Susan McNab on February 2,1828. That same year he went into the business himself with the purchase of the Nova Scotian. Howe acted as its editor until 1841, turning the paper into the most influential in the province and his name ranks as perhaps the greatest in Canadian journalism. On January 1,1835, Howes Novascotian published a letter accusing Halifax politicians. The outraged civic politicians had Howe charged with libel, a serious criminal offence. Howes case seemed hopeless since truth was not a defence, the prosecution had only to prove that Howe had published the letter
13.
Charles Sangster
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He was the first poet who made appreciative use of Canadian subjects in his poetical work. The Dictionary of Canadian Biography calls him the best of the pre-confederation poets, Sangster was born at the Navy Yard on Point Frederick, near Kingston, Ontario, the son of Ann Ross and James Sangster. A twin sister died in infancy and his father, a joiner or shipbuilder who worked for the British Navy around the Great Lakes, died at Penetanguishene just before Charles turned 2. His mother raised Charles and his 4 siblings on her own, Sangster was an indifferent student, finding the school curriculum irrelevant and his masters stern and uninspiring. At 15 years old, he left school to provide for the family. He took a job in the naval lab making cartridges at Fort Henry, about this time Sangster wrote his first serious poem, a 700-line narrative in rhyming couplets called The Rebel. The poem contains an extensive vocabulary and rich and imaginative historical and geographical allusions, beyond what might be expected of a boy. Who had so little formal education, the content and form suggest considerable previous writing. During the 12 years he worked at the Ordinance office Sangster began doing work for a Kingston newspaper. He also continued writing poetry and submitting it, anonymously or pseudonymously, in 1849 Sangster quit his job at Fort Henry and moved to Amherstburg, Ontario, where he became editor of the Amherstburg Courier. When James Reeves, owner of the Courier, died the year, Sangster returned to Kingston. Sangster first gained attention as a poet in 1850, when his poetry began appearing in Canadas Literary Garland magazine. Soon his work appeared in magazines, such as Anglo-American Magazine. Sangster published his first book of poetry, The St Lawrence and the Saguenay, the book was widely praised by reviewers and readers. Susanna Moodie wrote to Sangster, If a native of Canada, may well be proud of her Bard, the National Magazine of London echoed the same sentiment, Well may the Canadians be proud of such contributions to their infant literature. In some sort, and according to his degree, Mr. Sangster may be regarded as the Wordsworth of Canada. Charles Sangster married 21-year-old Mary Kilborn of Kingston on Sept.16,1856, Mary was to die of pneumonia just 16 months later. In 1859, Sangster wrote the poem Brock, commissioned for the inauguration of the monument to General Isaac Brock at Queenston Heights, Sangsters second book of poetry, Hesperus and Other Poems and Lyrics, appeared in 1860, published in Kingston and Montreal
14.
Thomas D'Arcy McGee
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Thomas DArcy Etienne Hughes McGee, was an Irish-Canadian politician, Catholic spokesman, journalist, poet, and a Father of Canadian Confederation. The young McGee was a Catholic Irishman who hated the British rule of Ireland and he escaped arrest and fled to the United States in 1848, where he reversed his political beliefs. He became disgusted with American republicanism and democracy, and became intensely conservative in his politics and his fervor for Confederation garnered him the title, Canadas first nationalist. He fought the Fenians in Canada, who were Irish Catholics who hated the British, McGee succeeded in helping create the Canadian Confederation in 1867, but was assassinated by Fenian Elements in 1868. Widely known as DArcy McGee, he was born on 13 April 1825 in Carlingford, Ireland, from his mother, the daughter of a Dublin bookseller, he learned the history of Ireland, which later influenced his writing and political activity. When he was eight years old, his family moved to Wexford, where his father, James McGee, was employed by the coast guard. In 1842 at age 17, McGee left Ireland with his sister due to a relationship with their stepmother, Margaret Dea. In 1842 he sailed from Wexford harbour aboard the brig Leo, on the Leo he wrote many of his early poems, mostly about Ireland. He soon found work as assistant editor of Patrick Donahoes Boston Pilot and he specialized in articles expounding the movement for Irish self-determination led by Daniel O’Connell. He became the editor in 1844, While writing widely as well on Irish literature. He advocated the union of Canada into the United States, saying, Either by purchase, conquest, or stipulation, in 1845 he returned to Ireland where he became politically active and edited the The Nation, the voice of the Young Ireland movement. In 1847 he married Mary Theresa Caffrey, they had six children and his involvement in the Irish Confederation and Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 resulted in a warrant for his arrest. McGee escaped disguised as a priest and returned to the United States, in the United States, he achieved prominence in Irish American circles and founded and edited the New York Nation and the American Celt. He wrote a number of history books and he grew disillusioned with democracy, republicanism and the United States. Historian David Gerber traces a dramatic transformation from the Young Ireland revolutionary who sought a peasant insurrection to expel the British from Ireland, Gerber writes, After 1851, however, he veered increasingly toward the opposite pole, espousing an ultramontane conservatism. Catholic dogma and triumphalism, anti-Protestantism, cultural nationalism, and social conservatism were the framework of McGees thought during the 1850s, McGee emigrated to Montreal in 1857, believing Canada was far more hospitable to the Catholic Irish than was the United States. He downplayed the importance of the Orange Order in Canada and he remained a persistent critic of American institutions, and of the American way of life. He accused the Americans of hostile and expansionist motives toward Canada, McGee worked energetically for continued Canadian devotion to the British Empire seeing in imperialism the protection Canada needed from all American ills
15.
Jingoism
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Jingoism is nationalism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. Jingoism also refers to an advocacy for the use of threats or actual force, as opposed to peaceful relations. Colloquially, it refers to excessive bias in judging ones own country as superior to others—an extreme type of nationalism, the term originated in the United Kingdom, expressing a pugnacious attitude toward Russia in the 1870s, and appeared in the American press by 1893. The chorus of a song by G. H. MacDermott and G. W. Hunt commonly sung in British pubs, the lyrics had the chorus, The phrase by Jingo was a long-established minced oath, used to avoid saying by Jesus. Referring to the song, the term jingoism was coined as a political label by the prominent British radical George Holyoake in a letter to the Daily News on 13 March 1878. Minister in Hawaii, overthrew the Hawaiian constitutional monarchy and declared a Republic, republican president Benjamin Harrison and Republicans in the Senate were frequently accused of jingoism in the Democratic press for supporting annexation. The term was used in connection with the foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt. In a 23 October 1895 New York Times article, Roosevelt stated, if by jingoism they mean a policy in pursuance of which Americans will with resolution and common sense insist upon our rights being respected by foreign powers, then we are jingoes. The policy of appeasement towards Hitler led to references to the loss of jingoistic attitudes in Britain. An E. H. Shepard cartoon titled The Old-Fashioned Customer appeared in the 28 March 1938 issue of Punch. Set in a shop, John Bull asks the record seller, I wonder if youve got a song I remember about not wanting to fight. On the wall is a portrait of the Victorian Prime Minister Lord Salisbury
16.
Francis Bond Head
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Sir Francis Bond Head, 1st Baronet KCH PC, known as Galloping Head, was Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada during the rebellion of 1837. Bond Head was an officer in the corps of Royal Engineers of the British Army from 1811 to 1825, afterwards he attempted to set up a mining company in Argentina. He married Julia Valenza Somerville in 1816, and they eventually had four children, Bond Head was born to parents James Roper Mendes Head and Frances Anne Burgess. He was descended from Spanish Jew Fernando Mendes, who accompanied as her personal physician Catherine of Braganza in 1662 when she came to England to marry Charles II and his grandfather Moses Mendes married Anna Gabriella Head and took on the Head name following the death of his wifes father. He appointed reformer Robert Baldwin to the Executive Council, though this appointment was opposed by the more radical Mackenzie, in the subsequent election campaign, he appealed to the United Empire Loyalists of the colony, proclaiming that the reformers were advocating American republicanism. The Conservative party, led by the wealthy landowners known as the Family Compact, in December 1837, Mackenzie led a brief and bungled rebellion in Toronto. Sir Francis Bond Head later boasted that despite the evidence that poured in from every district in the Province he allowed Mackenzie to prepare a revolt and he further claimed that he encouraged the outbreak by sending all the troops from the province, laying a trap for Mackenzie. Despite there being no troops the York Militia had been preparing for an attack, Bond Head sent the colonial militia to put down the rebellion, which they did within four days. In response to the rebellion, Britain replaced Bond Head as Lieutenant-Governor with Sir George Arthur then Lord Durham, Bond Head returned to England and settled down to write books and essays. In later life Bond Head lived at Duppas Hall, overlooking Duppas Hill in Croydon and he was appointed to the Privy Council in 1867. Three streets in the town of Oakville, Ontario named Francis, Bond, two streets in the city of St. Catharines, Ontario named Bond and Head. Though both streets are short, they intersect, the community of Frankford, on the Trent River, was named after Bond Head after he crossed the river there while travelling. Life of Bruce, a biography of Scottish traveler James Bruce Bruce, James, Travels, rough Notes Taken during some Rapid Journeys across the Pampas and among the Andes. Murray The Defenceless State of Great Britain by Sir Francis B, the Royal Engineer, by Francis Bond Head. Published by John Murray,1869. org Works by Francis Bond Head at LibriVox
17.
Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
18.
Florence Nightingale
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Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. She came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War and she gave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of The Lady with the Lamp making rounds of wounded soldiers at night. Some recent commentators have asserted Nightingales achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her school at St Thomas Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of Kings College London, Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills and she also helped popularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Much of her writing, including her work on religion. Florence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a rich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia, in Florence, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florences older sister Frances Parthenope had similarly named after her place of birth, Parthenope. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the homes at Embley, Hampshire and Lea Hurst. Her parents were William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore, williams mother Mary née Evans was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fannys father was the abolitionist and Unitarian William Smith, in 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where he was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess Mary Clarke, with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that Clarkey was a hostess who did not care for her appearance. Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had no respect for upper-class British women and she said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals, however, Clarkey made an exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not obtained from her mother, in her youth she was respectful of her familys opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844
19.
William Wordsworth
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William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworths magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, before which it was known as the poem to Coleridge. Wordsworth was Britains Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850 and his sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. Wordsworths father was a representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit to memory large portions of verse, including works by Milton, Shakespeare, William was also allowed to use his fathers library. William also spent time at his mothers house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide, Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, after the death of his mother, in 1778, Wordsworths father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine and that same year he began attending St Johns College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791 and he returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland. In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement and he fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britains tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his wish to marry Annette. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette, the purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson
20.
Charles Heavysege
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Charles Heavysege was a Canadian poet and dramatist. He was one of the first serious poets to emerge in Canada, born in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, England, Heavysege emigrated to Montreal in 1853 where he worked as a wood carver. In 1860 he became a reporter for the Montreal Transcript, and later for the Montreal Daily Witness, as a poet, Heavysege was mainly influenced by Milton, Shakespeare, and the Bible. During his lifetime, Saul was Heavyseges best-known work, nathaniel Hawthorne passed on a copy to the North British Review, where it was given a laudatory review by Coventry Patmore, who called it indubitably the best poem ever written out of Great Britain. That was followed by further favorable reviews in the Atlantic Monthly, Galaxy, Saul was published in two further editions, in 1859 and 1869. Other admirers of Saul were Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, W. D. Lighthall, who included Heavyseges work in his 1889 anthology Songs of the Great Dominion, wrote of him, His work is in no sense distinctively Canadian. W. E. Today his crude but vigorous poetry is underrated by Canadian criticism, Saul was produced as a radio drama by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1974. Heaysege published nine works of poetry and prose in his lifetime, london, UK, Simpkin, Marshall & Co,1850. Sonnets Saul, a drama Montreal, H. Rose,1857, count Filippo, or, the unequal marriage. The Owl The Dark Huntsman Montreal, Witness Steam Print House,1864, ISBN 0-665-35998-5 Ottawa, Golden Dog,1973. London, S. Low, Son, and Marston,1865, ISBN 0-665-35958-6 Jezebel, New Dominion Monthly,1867. Saul and Selected Poems Toronto, Buffalo, U of Toronto P,1977
21.
Charles Mair
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Charles Mair was a Canadian poet and journalist. He was a fervent Canadian nationalist noted for his participation in the Canada First movement, Mair was born at Lanark, Upper Canada, to Margaret Holmes and James Mair. He attended Queens University but did not graduate, on leaving college, he became a journalist. In Ottawa in 1868, Mair was introduced by civil servant and writer Henry Morgan to young lawyers George Denison, William Foster, together they organized the overtly nationalistic Canada First movement, which began as a small social group. Mair represented the Montreal Gazette during the first Riel Rebellion, and was imprisoned, Mair was a Freemason Mair was an Officer of the Governor-Generals Body Guard during the second Riel rebellion in 1885, and was later employed in the Canadian civil service in the West. He died in Victoria, British Columbia, Mair published the first book of poetry in post-Confederation Canada, 1868s Dreamland and Other Poems. Negligible as verse, says The Canadian Encyclopedia, the volume gained interest when Mair escaped after being captured by Louis Riel during the Red River disturbances of 1869-70, the Dictionary of Canadian Biography states that Dreamland demonstrates a conventional colonial approach to poetry. But too often he wrote not of the timberlands he knew, however, the book was praised by the established poet Charles Sangster, who referred to Canadas sophisticated literary tradition as one that was habitually overlooked in the popular press. And there are evidences in Mairs work that he influenced these poets to a great extent. Mair published Tecumseh, a historical drama mainly in blank verse dealing with the War of 1812, the dying Tecumseh legitimizes the proto- Canadians as the natural guardians of the land, and Canadian manhood finds mature expression in a race of armed poets. The DCB calls Tecumseh a major contribution to our 19th-century literary heritage, among the many literary treatments of this war, including works by Sangster, John Richardson, and Sarah Anne Curzon. Tecumseh stands as the most accomplished, the Canadian Encyclopedia says that the poems blank verse is pedestrian and untheatrical, but it also tells us that Tecumseh was important in the development of Canadian drama. It presents a vision of Canada as an enterprise in contrast with the self-seeking individualism of the United States. Mair was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1889, in 1937 he was designated a Person of National Historic Significance. Canadian folksinger Gordon Lightfoot adapted a line from Tecumseh, There was a time on this continent, for the first line in his 1967 historical ballad. Toronto, Hunter, Rose & Co.1886, through the Mackenzie Basin, A Narrative of the Athabasca and Peace River Treaty Expedition of 1899. London, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co.1903, Works by Charles Mair at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Charles Mair at Internet Archive Charles Mair fonds at Queens University Archives
22.
Confederation Poets
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Confederation Poets is the name given to a group of Canadian poets born in the decade of Canadas Confederation who rose to prominence in Canada in the late 1880s and 1890s. The term was coined by Canadian professor and literary critic Malcolm Ross, the Confederation Poets were the first Canadian writers to become widely known after Confederation in 1867. Charles G. D. Roberts led the group, which had two branches, One, in Ottawa, consisted of the poets Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott. The other were Maritime poets, including Roberts and his cousin, none of the above poets ever used the term Confederation Poets, or any other term, for themselves as a distinct group. Nothing indicates that any of them considered themselves a group, in fact, they were in no way a cohesive group. Despite the fact there never was such a historically, there may be good reasons to treat the Confederation Poets as a distinct group in hindsight. First of all, Roberts, Lampman, Carman, and Scott were among the first really good writing in the recently formed Dominion of Canada. For that matter, they were writing the first exceptional poetry ever written in the new country, as Confederation Poet Archibald Lampman said about encountering Confederation Poet Charles G. D. Robertss work, One May evening somebody lent me Orion and Other Poems, then recently published. I sat up all night reading and rereading Orion in a state of the wildest excitement, in addition, There are several good reasons, both biographical and literary, for grouping them together. All were close contemporaries born in the early 1860s, Roberts and Carman were cousins, Roberts briefly edited Goldwin Smiths Toronto literary magazine The Week, in which Carman published his first poem. Lampman also published in the Week, and he and Roberts became friends by mail, in the early 1890s, when Carman worked on the editorial staffs of The Independent and The Chapbook, and other American magazines, he published poems by the other three. Lampman and Scott were close friends, with Wilfred Campbell they began the column At the Mermaid Inn in the Toronto Globe, the original idea was to raise some money for Campbell, who was in financial trouble. As Lampman wrote to a friend, Campbell is deplorably poor and they agreed to it, and Campbell, Scott and I have been carrying on the thing for several weeks now. Came up with the title for it, Lampman and Scott found it difficult to keep a rein on Campbell’s frank expression of his heterodox opinions. The column ran only until July 1893, in that year Campbell was given a permanent position in the Department of Militia and Defence, and his financial crisis eased. So as there was no longer the need for it, the column came to an end, the Confederation writers poetry, although striving for a certain Canadian quality, was very much the offspring of English Victorian verse. As is clear from the Lampman quote, what Roberts was striving for, and what Lampman was responding to, was not the idea of a distinctly Canadian poetry, rather, it was that of a Canadian, one of our own, writing great poetry. Irrespective of their statements about nationalism, in terms of their aesthetics the Confederation Poets were not Canadian nationalists
23.
Charles G. D. Roberts
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Sir Charles George Douglas Roberts, KCMG FRSC was a Canadian poet and prose writer who is known as the Father of Canadian Poetry. He was almost the first Canadian author to obtain worldwide reputation and influence and he published numerous works on Canadian exploration and natural history, verse, travel books, and fiction. At his death he was regarded as Canadas leading man of letters, besides his own body of work, Roberts is also called the Father of Canadian Poetry because he served as an inspiration and a source of assistance for other Canadian poets of his time. Roberts, his cousin Bliss Carman, Archibald Lampman and Duncan Campbell Scott are known as the Confederation Poets, Roberts was born in Douglas, New Brunswick in 1860, the eldest child of Emma Wetmore Bliss and Rev. George Goodridge Roberts. Rev. Roberts was rector of Fredericton and canon of Christ Church Cathedral, charless brother Theodore Goodridge Roberts and sister, Jane Elizabeth Gostwycke Roberts, would also become authors. Between the ages of 8 months and 14 years, Roberts was raised in the parish of Westcock, New Brunswick, near Sackville and he was homeschooled, mostly by his father, who was proficient in Greek, Latin and French. He published his first writing, three articles in The Colonial Farmer, at 12 years of age. After the family moved to Fredericton in 1873, Roberts attended Fredericton Collegiate School from 1874 to 1876, Roberts was principal of Chatham High School in Chatham, New Brunswick, from 1879 to 1881, and of York Street School in Fredericton from 1881 to 1883. In Chatham he met and befriended Edmund Collins, editor of the Chatham Star, Roberts first published poetry in the Canadian Illustrated News of March 30,1878, and by 1879 he had placed two poems in the prestigious American magazine, Scribners. In 1880, Roberts published his first book of poetry, Orion, thanks in part to his industry in sending out complimentary review copies, there were many positive reviews. Rose-Belford’s Canadian Monthly proclaimed, Here is a writer whose power, the Montreal Gazette predicted that Roberts would confer merited fame on himself and lasting honour on his country. As well, several American periodicals reviewed it favourably, including the New York Independent, on December 29,1880, Roberts married Mary Fenety, who would bear him five children. The biography by Robertss friend Edmund Collins, The Life and Times of Sir John A. Macdonald, was published in 1883, the book was a huge success, going through eight printings. It contained a chapter on “Thought and Literature in Canada, ” which devoted 15 pages to Roberts. Beyond any comparison, Collins declared, our greatest Canadian poet is Mr. Charles G. D. Roberts, Edmund Collins is probably responsible for the early acceptance of Charles G. D. Roberts as Canada’s foremost poet. From 1883 to 1884, Roberts was in Toronto, Ontario, working as the editor of Goldwin Smiths short-lived literary magazine, Roberts lasted only five months at The Week before resigning in frustration from overwork and clashes with Smith. In 1885, Roberts became a professor at the University of Kings College in Windsor, in 1886, his second book, In Divers Tones, was published by a Boston publisher. During the same period, he published almost an equal number of stories, primarily for juvenile readers, in periodicals like The Youths Companion
24.
Archibald Lampman
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Archibald Lampman FRSC was a Canadian poet. He has been described as the Canadian Keats, and he is perhaps the most outstanding exponent of the Canadian school of nature poets, the Canadian Encyclopedia says that he is generally considered the finest of Canadas late 19th-century poets in English. Lampman is classed as one of Canadas Confederation Poets, a group also includes Charles G. D. Roberts, Bliss Carman. Archibald Lampman was born at Morpeth, Ontario, a village near Chatham, the son of Archibald Lampman, the Morpeth that Lampman knew was a small town set in the rolling farm country of what is now western Ontario, not far from the shores of Lake Erie. The little red church just east of the town, on the Talbot Road, was his father’s charge, in 1867 the family moved to Gores Landing on Rice Lake, Ontario, where young Archie Lampman attended at the Barrons School. In 1868 he contracted fever, which left him lame for some years. Lampman attended Cobourg Collegiate, followed by Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario, while at university, he published early poems in Acta Victoriana, the literary journal of Victoria College. Lampman was slight of form and of middle height and he was quiet and undemonstrative in manner, but had a fascinating personality. Sincerity and high ideals characterized his life and work,3,1887, Lampman married 20-year-old Maude Emma Playter. They had a daughter, Natalie Charlotte, born in 1892, arnold Gesner, born May 1894, was the first boy, but he died in August. A third child, Archibald Otto, was born in 1898, in Ottawa, Lampman became a close friend of Indian Affairs bureaucrat Duncan Campbell Scott, Scott introduced him to camping, and he introduced Scott to writing poetry. One of their early camping trips inspired Lampmans classic Morning on the Lièvre, Lampman also met and befriended poet William Wilfred Campbell. Lampman, Campbell, and Scott together wrote a column, At the Mermaid Inn. As Lampman wrote to a friend, Campbell is deplorably poor and they agreed to it, and Campbell, Scott and I have been carrying on the thing for several weeks now. In the last years of his life there is evidence of a spiritual malaise which was compounded by the death of an infant son. Lampman died in Ottawa at the age of 37 due to a weak heart and he is buried, fittingly, at Beechwood Cemetery, in Ottawa, a site he wrote about in the poem In Beechwood Cemetery. His grave is marked by a stone on which is carved only the one word. A plaque on the site carries a few lines from his poem In November, The hills grow wintry white, I alone Am neither sad, nor shelterless, nor gray Wrapped round with thought, content to watch and dream
25.
Bliss Carman
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Bliss Carman FRSC was a Canadian poet who lived most of his life in the United States, where he achieved international fame. He was acclaimed as Canadas poet laureate during his later years, in Canada, Carman is classed as one of the Confederation Poets, a group which also included Charles G. D. Roberts, Archibald Lampman, and Duncan Campbell Scott. Of the group, Carman had the surest lyric touch and achieved the widest international recognition, but unlike others, he never attempted to secure his income by novel writing, popular journalism, or non-literary employment. He remained a poet, supplementing his art with critical commentaries on literary ideas, philosophy and he was born William Bliss Carman in Fredericton, in the Maritime province of New Brunswick. Bliss was his mothers maiden name and he was the great grandson of United Empire Loyalists who fled to Nova Scotia after the American Revolution, settling in New Brunswick. His literary roots run deep with an ancestry that includes a mother who was a descendant of Daniel Bliss of Concord, Massachusetts and his sister, Jean, married the botanist and historian William Francis Ganong. And on his mothers side he was a first cousin to Charles G. D. Roberts, Carman was educated at the Fredericton Collegiate School and the University of New Brunswick, from which he received a B. A. in 1881. His first published poem was in the UNB Monthly in 1879 and he then spent a year at Oxford and the University of Edinburgh, but returned home to receive his M. A. from UNB in 1884. After the death of his father in January 1885 and his mother in February 1886, at Harvard he moved in a literary circle that included American poet Richard Hovey, who would become his close friend and his collaborator on the successful Vagabondia poetry series. Carman and Hovey were members of the Visionists circle along with Herbert Copeland and F. Holland Day, after Harvard Carman briefly returned to Canada, but was back in Boston by February 1890. Boston is one of the few places where my critical education and tastes could be of any use to me in earning money, New York and London are about the only other places. Unable to find employment in Boston, he moved to New York City, there he could help his Canadian friends get published, in the process introducing Canadian poets to its readers. However, Carman was never a good fit at the semi-religious weekly, at this low point, Songs of Vagabondia, the first Hovey-Carman collaboration, was published by Copeland & Day in 1894. No one could have been surprised at the tremendous popularity of these care-free celebrations than the young authors, Richard Hovey. Songs of Vagabondia would ultimately go through sixteen printings over the thirty years. The three Vagabondia volumes that followed fell slightly short of that record, but each went through numerous printings. The success of Songs of Vagabondia prompted another Boston firm, Stone & Kimball, to reissue Low Tide. and to hire Carman as the editor of its literary journal, The Chapbook. The next year, though, the job went West to Chicago
26.
Duncan Campbell Scott
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Duncan Campbell Scott was a Canadian bureaucrat, poet and prose writer. With Charles G. D. Roberts, Bliss Carman, and Archibald Lampman, Scott was born in Ottawa, Ontario, the son of Rev. William Scott and Janet MacCallum. He was educated at Stanstead Wesleyan College, early in life, he became an accomplished pianist. Scott wanted to be a doctor, but family finances were precarious, as the story goes, William Scott might not have money he had connections in high places. Among his acquaintances was the minister, Sir John A. Macdonald. Making a quick decision while the serious young applicant waited in front of him, Macdonald wrote across the request and he remained in this post until his retirement in 1932. Scotts father also found work in Indian Affairs, and the entire family moved into a newly built house on 108 Lisgar St. where Duncan Campbell Scott would live for the rest of his life. In 1883 Scott met fellow civil servant, Archibald Lampman and it was the beginning of an instant friendship that would continue unbroken until Lampmans death sixteen years later. It was Scott who initiated wilderness camping trips, a recreation that became Lampmans favourite escape from daily drudgery, in turn, Lampmans dedication to the art of poetry would inspire Scotts first experiments in verse. By the late 1880s Scott was publishing poetry in the prestigious American magazine, in 1889 his poems At the Cedars and Ottawa were included in the pioneering anthology, Songs of the Great Dominion. Scott and Lampman shared a love of poetry and the Canadian wilderness, during the 1890s the two made a number of canoe trips together in the area north of Ottawa. In 1892 and 1893, Scott, Lampman, and William Wilfred Campbell wrote a column, At the Mermaid Inn. Came up with the title for it, in 1893 Scott published his first book of poetry, The Magic House and Other Poems. In 1894, Scott married Belle Botsford, a concert violinist and they had one child, Elizabeth, who died at 12. Before she was born, Scott asked his mother and sisters to leave his home, in 1896 Scott published his first collection of stories, In the Village of Viger, a collection of delicate sketches of French Canadian life. Two later collections, The Witching of Elspie and The Circle of Affection, Scott also wrote a novel, although it was not published until after his death. After Lampman died in 1899, Scott helped publish a number of editions of Lampmans poetry, Scott was a prime mover in the establishment of the Ottawa Little Theatre and the Dominion Drama Festival. In 1923 the Little Theatre performed his play, Pierre
27.
William Wilfred Campbell
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William Wilfred Campbell was a Canadian poet. By the end of the 19th century, he was considered the poet laureate of Canada. Inspired by these writers, Campbell expressed his own religious idealism in traditional forms, William Wilfred Campbell was born around 1 June circa 1860 in Berlin, Ontario, now present-day Kitchener. His father, Rev. Thomas Swainston Campbell, was an Anglican clergyman who had assigned the task of setting up several frontier parishes in Canada West. The Campbell family settled in Wiarton, Ontario in 1871, where Wilfred grew up, Campbell married Mary DeBelle in 1884. They had four children, Margery, Faith, Basil, in 1885 Campbell was ordained to the Episcopal priesthood, and was soon appointed to a New England parish. In 1888 he returned to Canada and became rector of St. Stephen, in 1891, after suffering a crisis of faith, Campbell resigned from the ministry and took a civil service position in Ottawa. He received a permanent position in the Department of Militia and Defence two years later, living in Ottawa, Campbell became acquainted with Archibald Lampman—his next door neighbor at one time—and through him with Duncan Campbell Scott. In February 1892, Campbell, Lampman, and Scott began writing a column of literary essays, as Lampman wrote to a friend, Campbell is deplorably poor. They agreed to it, and Campbell, Scott and I have been carrying on the thing for several weeks now, the column ran only until July 1893. Lampman and Scott found it difficult to keep a rein on Campbells frank expression of his heterodox opinions, readers of the Toronto Globe reacted negatively when Campbell presented the history of the cross as a mythic symbol. His apology for overestimating their intellectual capacities did little to resolve the controversy and it was the principles of Imperialist that guided his work in Poems of loyalty by British and Canadian authors and for The Oxford Book of Canadian Verse. As editor of The Oxford book of Canadian Verse, Campbell devoted more pages to his own poetry than to others, but by choosing mostly from his longer work—including an excerpt from Mordred —he did not choose his best work. In contrast, the poems he selected from his fellow Confederation Poets reflected some of their best work, Campbell was transferred to the Dominion Archives in 1909. In 1915 he moved his family to an old farmhouse on the outskirts of Ottawa. He died of pneumonia on New Years morning,1918 and he was buried in Ottawas Beechwood Cemetery. Seems to have printed at a newspaper office sometime around 1879 or 1880. He placed poetry in the University of Toronto Varsity in 1881, as a theology student in Massachusetts, Campbell met Oliver Wendell Holmes, who recommended his poetry to Atlantic Monthly editor Thomas Bailey Aldrich
28.
Isabella Valancy Crawford
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Isabella Valancy Crawford was an Irish-born Canadian writer and poet. She was one of the first Canadians to make a living as a freelance writer, Crawford is increasingly being viewed as Canadas first major poet. She is the author of Malcolms Katie, a poem that has achieved a place in the canon of nineteenth-century Canadian poetry. Isabella Valancy Crawford was the last surviving daughter of Dr. Stephen Crawford and she was born in Dublin, Ireland on Christmas Day,1846. The family emigrated to Canada when she was ten years of age, much of Isabella Crawfords early life is unknown. The family was in Canada by 1857, in year, Dr. Crawford applied for a license to practice medicine in Paisley. In a few years, disease had taken nine of the children. By chance Dr. Crawford met Richard Strickland of Lakefield, Strickland invited the Crawfords to live at his home, out of charity, and because Lakefield did not have a doctor. There the family became acquainted with Stricklands sisters, writers Susanna Moodie, Isabella Crawford reportedly began writing at that time. She was also thought to be a companion of Mrs. Traills daughter. In 1869 the family moved to Peterborough, and Crawford began to write and publish poems and her first published poem, A Vesper Star, appeared in The Toronto Mail on Christmas Eve,1873. When Dr. Crawford died, on 3 July 1875, the three women – Isabella, her mother, and her sister Emma, all who were left in the household – became dependent on Isabellas literary earnings. After Emma died of tuberculosis, Isabella and her mother moved in 1876 to Toronto, during this productive period she contributed numerous serialized novels and novellas to New York and Toronto publications, including the Mail, the Globe, the National, and the Evening Telegram. She also contributed a quantity of verse to the Toronto papers. And articles for the Fireside Monthly, in 1886 she became the first local writer to have a novel, A little Bacchante, serialized in the Evening Globe. In her lifetime Crawford published only one book, Old Spookses Pass, Malcolms Katie and it was privately printed and sold poorly. Crawford was understandably disappointed and felt she had been neglected by the High Priests of Canadian Periodical Literature, Crawford died on 12 February 1887 in Toronto. She was buried in Peterboroughs Little Lake Cemetery near the Otonabee River and she had died in poverty and for years her body lay in an unmarked grave
29.
Frederick George Scott
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Frederick George Scott was a Canadian poet and author, known as the Poet of the Laurentians. He is sometimes associated with Canadas Confederation Poets, a group that included Charles G. D. Roberts, Bliss Carman, Archibald Lampman, Scott published 13 books of Christian and patriotic poetry. Scott was a British imperialist who wrote many hymns to the British Empire—eulogizing his countrys roles in the Boer Wars, many of his poems use the natural world symbolically to convey deeper spiritual meaning. Frederick George Scott was the father of poet F. R. Scott, Scott was born 7 April 1861 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. He received a B. A. from Bishops College, Lennoxville, Quebec, in 1881, and he studied theology at Kings College, London in 1882, but was refused ordination in the Anglican Church of Canada for his Anglo-Catholic beliefs. In 1884 he became a deacon, in 1886 he was ordained an Anglican priest at Coggeshall, Essex. He served first at Drummondville, Quebec, and then in Quebec City, in April 1887, Scott married Amy Brooks, who would bear him six surviving children. In 1914, well over the age of 50, Scott enlisted to fight in World War I and he held the rank of Major and served as the Senior Chaplain to the 1st Canadian Division. His son Captain Henry Hutton Scott, 87th Battalion, Canadian Infantry was killed on 21/10/1916, age 24 and he is buried in Bapaume Post Military Cemetery. After the war he became chaplain of the army and navy veterans, during the Quebec Conference of 1943, Scott was invited by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt to a private meeting where he read some of his poetry. Frederick George Scott died on 19 January 1944 in Quebec City, leaving a daughter, in 1885, Scott printed his first chapbook, Justin and Other Poems, later included in The Souls Quest and Other Poems. Several of Scotts early narrative poems, and his didactic novel Elton Hazelwood, describe typically Victorian crises of faith. His poems uplift the spirit and enrich the heart, the Unnamed Lake has been called his best-known poem. Garvin included a quotation from M. O, hammond writing in the Toronto Globe, Frederick George Scotts poetry has followed three or four well-defined lines of thought. He has reflected in turn the subjects of a library, the majesty of nature, the tender love of his fellowmen. His work in any one field would attract attention, taken in mass it marks him as a sturdy, developing interpreter of his country and of his times. Whether he writes of Samson and Thor, of the Little River, or whether he expands his soul in a Hymn of Empire, his lines are marked by imagination, melody, sympathy and often wistfulness. Living on the edge of the shadow-flecked Laurentians, he draws inspiration from them
30.
E. Pauline Johnson
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Emily Pauline Johnson, commonly known as E. Pauline Johnson or just Pauline Johnson, was a Canadian writer and performer popular in the late 19th century. Johnson was notable for her poems and performances that celebrated her Aboriginal heritage and she also drew from English influences, as her mother was an English immigrant. One such poem is the frequently anthologized The Song My Paddle Sings, Johnsons poetry was published in Canada, the United States and Great Britain. Johnson was one of a generation of widely read writers who began to define a Canadian literature, while her literary reputation declined after her death, since the later 20th century, there has been renewed interest in her life and works. A complete collection of her poetry was published in 2002. E. Pauline Johnson was born at Chiefswood, the home built by her father in 1856 on his 225-acre estate at the Six Nations reserve outside Brantford. She was the youngest of four children of Emily Susanna Howells Johnson, a native of England, and George Henry Martin Johnson and his mother was of partial Dutch descent and born into the Wolf clan. Her mother was a Dutch girl who became assimilated as Mohawk after being taken captive, Howells had immigrated to the United States in 1832 as a young child with her father, stepmother and siblings. The Johnsons enjoyed a standard of living, and their family. Emily and George Johnson encouraged their four children to respect and learn both the Mohawk and the English aspects of their heritage. Because the children were born to a Native father, by British law they were legally considered Mohawk and wards of the British Crown. But under the Mohawk kinship system, because their mother was not Mohawk they were not born into a tribal clan and their paternal grandfather John Smoke Johnson, who had been elected an honorary Pine Tree Chief, was an authority in the lives of his grandchildren. He told them many stories in the Mohawk language, which they comprehended, Pauline Johnson said that she inherited her talent for elocution from her grandfather. Late in life, she expressed regret for not learning more of his Mohawk heritage, a sickly child, Johnson did not attend Brantfords Mohawk Institute. It was established in 1834 as one of Canadas first residential schools for Native children and she became familiar with literary works by Byron, Tennyson, Keats, Browning, and Milton. She enjoyed reading tales about Native peoples, such as Longfellows epic poem The Song of Hiawatha, at the age of 14, Johnson went to Brantford Central Collegiate with her brother Allen. A schoolmate was Sara Jeannette Duncan, who developed her own journalistic, during the 1880s, E. Pauline Johnson wrote and performed in amateur theatre productions. She enjoyed the Canadian outdoors, where she traveled by canoe, in 1883 she published her first full-length poem, My Little Jean, in the New York Gems of Poetry
31.
William Henry Drummond
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His first book of poetry, The Habitant, was extremely successful, establishing for him a reputation as a writer of dialect verse that has faded since his death. He was born near Mohill, County Leitrim, Ireland in 1854, as William Henry Drumm, the family emigrated to Canada in 1864, settling in Montreal. George Drumm died in 1866, leaving the family facing poverty, mrs. Drumm opened a store, and the boys all delivered newspapers. When he was 14, William was apprenticed as a telegraph operator, in 1875, he changed the family name to Drummond. In 1876, Drummond went back to high school and he then studied medicine at McGill College and at Bishops College. After interning in 1885, he practised medicine first in the Eastern Townships, Knowlton and he became professor of hygiene at Bishops in 1893, and of medical jurisprudence in 1894. In 1894, Drummond married Miss May Harvey, of Savanna-la-Mar and their first child was born in 1895, but died just hours after birth. According to his wifes unpublished biography, Drummond wrote The Wreck of the Julie Plante in 1879 and he had begun it years earlier as a telegraph operator at LAbord-à-Plouffe. An elderly friend, Gédéon Plouffe, had entreated him to stay off the lake because of a storm, repeating. The poem Right Minds was among his most popular works, featuring one of Drummonds most quoted lines, Right minds feel not love, and what reasonable man truly loves. The poem was an instant success and it circulated widely in manuscript and typescript and became a popular piece for recitation. A version appeared in the Winnipeg Siftings in September 1886, another was in the 1896 McGill University Song Book. By the 1890s its setting had been adapted to other lakes and rivers in North America and it has been Drummonds most anthologized poem. Drummond composed other occasional poems for private circulation, but not all his poems were about habitants and country doctors, and not all of them were comic. Drummond wrote Le Vieux Temps during his wifes convalescence following the death of their first child, although he had preferred to compose his verse for private readings, Drummond was encouraged by his wife and brother to share his work. By the early 1890s he had begun publishing in Canadian periodicals, in the middle of the decade he began planning a volume. Publishers were courting him by 1896, the Habitant and Other Poems appeared in 1897, with a New York City publisher, illustrations by Canadian landscape artist F. S. Coburn, and an introduction by prominent poet Louis Fréchette
32.
Mohawk people
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The Mohawk people are the most easterly tribe of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an Iroquoian-speaking indigenous people of North America, the Mohawk were historically based in the Mohawk Valley in present-day upstate New York west of the Hudson River, their territory ranged north to the St. As one of the five members of the Iroquois League. For hundreds of years, they guarded the Iroquois Confederation against invasion from that direction by tribes from the New England and their current major settlements include areas around Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River in Canada and New York. In the Mohawk language, the say that they are from Kanienkehá. The Mohawk became wealthy traders as other nations in their confederacy needed their flint for tool making and their Algonquian-speaking neighbors, the people of Muh-heck Haeek Ing, a name transliterated by the Dutch as Mohican or Mahican, referred to the People of Ka-nee-en Ka as Maw Unk Lin. The Dutch heard and wrote this term as Mohawk, and also referred to the Mohawk as Egil or Maqua, the French colonists adapted these latter terms as Aignier and Maqui, respectively. They also referred to the people by the generic Iroquois, a French derivation of the Algonquian term for the Five Nations, the Algonquians and Iroquois were traditional competitors and enemies. The Mohawk had extended their own influence into the St. Lawrence River Valley and they are believed to have defeated the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in the 16th century, and kept control of their territory. In addition to hunting and fishing, for centuries the Mohawk cultivated productive maize fields on the floodplains along the Mohawk River. The Dutch were primarily merchants and the French also conducted fur trading and their Jesuit missionaries were active among First Nations and Native Americans, seeking converts to Catholicism. In 1614, the Dutch opened a trading post at Fort Nassau, the Dutch initially traded for furs with the local Mahican, who occupied the territory along the Hudson River. European contact resulted in a smallpox epidemic among the Mohawk in 1635. For instance, Johannes Megapolensis, a Dutch minister, recorded the spelling of the three villages as Asserué, Banagiro, and Thenondiogo. While the Dutch later established settlements in present-day Schenectady and Schoharie, further west in the Mohawk Valley, Schenectady was established essentially as a farming settlement, where Dutch took over some of the former Mohawk maize fields in the floodplain along the river. Through trading, the Mohawk and Dutch became allies of a kind, during their alliance, the Mohawks allowed Dutch Protestant missionary Johannes Megapolensis to come into their tribe and teach the Christian message. He operated from the Fort Nassau area about six years, writing a record in 1644 of his observations of the Mohawk, their language, and their culture. While he noted their ritual of torture of captives, he recognized that their society had few other killings, especially compared to the Netherlands of that period
33.
Robert W. Service
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Robert William Service was a British-Canadian poet and writer who has often been called the Bard of the Yukon. He is best known for his poems The Shooting of Dan McGrew and The Cremation of Sam McGee, from his first book, Songs of a Sourdough. His vivid descriptions of the Yukon and its made it seem that he was a veteran of the Klondike gold rush. Although his work remains popular, Services poems were received as being crudely comical works. Service was born in Preston, Lancashire, England, the third of ten children and his father, also Robert Service, was a banker from Kilwinning, Scotland, who had been transferred to England. When he was five, Service was sent to live in Kilwinning with his three aunts and his paternal grandfather, the towns postmaster. There he is said to have composed his first verse, a grace, on his birthday, At nine. He attended Glasgows Hillhead High School, after leaving school, Service joined the Commercial Bank of Scotland which would later become the Royal Bank of Scotland. He was writing at this time and reportedly already selling his verses and he was also reading poetry, Browning, Keats, Tennyson, and Thackeray. When he was 21, Service travelled to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, with his Buffalo Bill outfit and this sometimes required him to leech off his parents Scottish neighbours and friends who had previously emigrated to Canada. In 1899, Service was a clerk in Cowichan Bay. The Colonist also published Services Music in the Bush on September 18,1901, in her 2006 biography, Under the Spell of the Yukon, Enid Mallory revealed that Service had fallen in love during this period. He was working as a labourer and store clerk when he first met Constance MacLean at a dance in Duncan B. C. where she was visiting her uncle. MacLean lived in Vancouver, on the mainland, so he courted her by mail, though he was smitten, MacLean was looking for a man of education and means to support her so was not that interested. To please her, he took courses at McGill Universitys Victoria College, in 1903, down on his luck, Service was hired by a Canadian Bank of Commerce branch in Victoria, British Columbia, using his Commercial Bank letter of reference. The bank watched him, gave him a raise, and sent him to Kamloops in the middle of British Columbia, in Victoria he lived over the bank with a hired piano, and dressed for dinner. In Kamloops, horse country, he played polo, in the fall of 1904, the bank sent him to their Whitehorse branch in Yukon. With the expense money he himself a raccoon coat
34.
Rudyard Kipling
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Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. Kiplings works of fiction include The Jungle Book, Kim, and many short stories and his poems include Mandalay, Gunga Din, The Gods of the Copybook Headings, The White Mans Burden, and If—. Kipling was one of the most popular writers in the United Kingdom, Henry James said, Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius, as distinct from fine intelligence, that I have ever known. In 1907, at the age of 42, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize and its youngest recipient to date. He was also sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on occasions for a knighthood. Kiplings subsequent reputation has changed according to the political and social climate of the age, George Orwell called him a prophet of British imperialism. Literary critic Douglas Kerr wrote, is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary, but as the age of the European empires recedes, he is recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced. That, and a recognition of his extraordinary narrative gifts. Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865, in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling, Alice was a vivacious woman about whom Lord Dufferin would say, Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room. Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal, John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England. They married and moved to India in 1865 and they had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that when their first child was born they referenced it when naming him. Alices sister Georgiana was married to painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes was married to painter Edward Poynter, Kiplings most famous relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times in the 1920s and 1930s. Kiplings birth home on the campus of the J J School of Art in Bombay for many years was used as the Deans residence. Although the cottage bears a plaque stating that this is the site where Kipling was born, the original cottage may have torn down decades ago. Some historians and conservationists are also of the view that the bungalow merely marks a site close to the home of his birth, as the bungalow was built in 1882, Kipling seems to have also said so to the dean when he visited J J School in the 1930s. Kipling was to write of Bombay, According to Bernice M. Murphy, Kipling’s parents considered themselves Anglo-Indians and so too would their son, complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent features in his fiction. So one spoke English, haltingly translated out of the idiom that one thought. Kiplings days of light and darkness in Bombay ended when he was five years old
35.
John McCrae
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Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, MD was a Canadian poet, physician, author, artist and soldier during World War I, and a surgeon during the Second Battle of Ypres, in Belgium. He is best known for writing the war memorial poem In Flanders Fields. McCrae died of pneumonia near the end of the war, McCrae was born in McCrae House in Guelph, Ontario to Lieutenant-Colonel David McCrae and Janet Simpson Eckford, he was the grandson of Scottish immigrants. His brother, Dr. Thomas McCrae, became professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore and his sister, Geills married a lawyer, Kilgour, and moved to Winnipeg. He attended the Guelph Collegiate Vocational Institute and he took a year off his studies at the university due to recurring problems with asthma. Quite a nobby place it is, in fact and my windows look right out across the bay, and are just near the water’s edge, there is a good deal of shipping at present in the port, and the river looks very pretty. He was a resident master in English and Mathematics in 1894 at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph and he returned to the University of Toronto and completed his B. A. McCrae returned again to study medicine on a scholarship. While attending the university he joined the Zeta Psi Fraternity and published his first poems, while in medical school, he tutored other students to help pay his tuition. Two of his students were among the first female doctors in Ontario and he graduated in 1898, and was first a resident house-officer at Toronto General Hospital, and then in 1899, at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. In 1902, he was appointed resident pathologist at Montreal General Hospital, in 1900 John McCrae arrived in South Africa were he served as a Lieutenant in the Canadian Field Artillery during the Boer War. In 1904, he was appointed an associate in medicine at the Royal Victoria Hospital, later that year, he went to England where he studied for several months and became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1905, he set up his own although he continued to work. The same year, he was appointed pathologist to the Montreal Foundling, in 1908, he was appointed physician to the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Infectious Diseases. In 1910, he accompanied Lord Grey, the Governor General of Canada, McCrae was the co-author, with J. G. Adami, of a medical textbook, A Text-Book of Pathology for Students of Medicine. When Britain declared war on Germany at the start of World War I, Canada, McCrae was appointed as Medical Officer and Major of the 1st Brigade CFA. He treated wounded during the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915, from June 1,1915, McCrae was ordered away from the artillery to set up No.3 Canadian General Hospital at Dannes-Camiers near Boulogne-sur-Mer, northern France. Allinson reported that McCrae most unmilitarily told what he thought of being transferred to the medicals and his last words to me were, Allinson, all the goddamn doctors in the world will not win this bloody war, what we need is more and more fighting men. In Flanders Fields appeared anonymously in Punch on December 8,1915, the verses swiftly became one of the most popular poems of the war, used in countless fund-raising campaigns and frequently translated
36.
In Flanders Fields
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In Flanders Fields is a war poem in the form of a rondeau, written during the First World War by Canadian physician Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae. He was inspired to write it on May 3,1915, after presiding over the funeral of friend and fellow soldier Lieutenant Alexis Helmer, according to legend, fellow soldiers retrieved the poem after McCrae, initially dissatisfied with his work, discarded it. In Flanders Fields was first published on December 8 of that year in the London-based magazine Punch and it is one of the most popular and most quoted poems from the war. As a result of its popularity, parts of the poem were used in propaganda efforts and appeals to recruit soldiers. The poem and poppy are prominent Remembrance Day symbols throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, particularly in Canada, the poem also has wide exposure in the United States, where it is associated with Memorial Day. John McCrae was a poet and physician from Guelph, Ontario and he developed an interest in poetry at a young age and wrote throughout his life. His earliest works were published in the mid-1890s in Canadian magazines, McCraes poetry often focused on death and the peace that followed. At the age of 41, McCrae enrolled with the Canadian Expeditionary Force following the outbreak of the First World War. He had the option of joining the corps because of his training and age. It was his tour of duty in the Canadian military. He had previously fought with a force in the Second Boer War. He considered himself a soldier first, his father was a leader in Guelph and McCrae grew up believing in the duty of fighting for his country. McCrae fought in the battle of Ypres in the Flanders region of Belgium where the German army launched one of the first chemical attacks in the history of war. They attacked the Canadian position with chlorine gas on April 22,1915, but were unable to break through the Canadian line, which held for over two weeks. In a letter written to his mother, McCrae described the battle as a nightmare, For seventeen days and seventeen nights none of us have had our clothes off, nor our boots even, except occasionally. In all that time while I was awake, gunfire and rifle fire never ceased for sixty seconds, and behind it all was the constant background of the sights of the dead, the wounded, the maimed, and a terrible anxiety lest the line should give way. Alexis Helmer, a friend, was killed during the battle on May 2. McCrae performed the service himself, at which time he noted how poppies quickly grew around the graves of those who died at Ypres
37.
E. J. Pratt
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Edwin John Dove Pratt, FRSC CMG, who published as E. J. Pratt, was the leading Canadian poet of his time. He was a Canadian poet originally from Newfoundland who lived most of his life in Toronto, a three-time winner of the countrys Governor Generals Award for poetry, he has been called the foremost Canadian poet of the first half of the century. EJ Pratt was born Edwin John Dove Pratt in Western Bay, Newfoundland and he was brought up in a variety of Newfoundland communities as his father John Pratt was posted around the colony as a Methodist minister. John Pratt was originally a miner from Old Gang mines in Gunnerside - a village in North Yorkshire. In 1850’s he became a Methodist pastor and immigrated to Newfoundland and settled down with Fanny Knight, EJ Pratt and his seven siblings were under strict control of their father, who had high expectations of all of them. Pratts brother, Calvert Pratt, became a Canadian Senator, Pratt graduated from St. Johns, Newfoundlands Methodist College in 1901. Like his father he became a candidate for the Methodist ministry, in 1904 and he studied psychology and theology, receiving his BA in 1911 and his Bachelor of Divinity in 1913. Pratt married fellow Victoria College student Viola Whitney, herself a writer, in 1918, and they had one daughter, Claire Pratt, Pratt was ordained as a minister, in 1913, and served as an Assistant Minister in Streetsville, Ontario, until 1920. Also in 1913, he joined the University of Toronto as a Lecturer in psychology, as well, he continued to take classes, receiving his PhD in 1917. Pratt was invited by Pelham Edgar in 1920 to switch to the Universitys faculty of English, where he became a professor in 1930 and he taught English literature at Victoria College until his retirement in 1953. He served as Literary Adviser to the literary journal, Acta Victoriana. As a professor, Pratt published a number of articles, reviews, and introductions, Pratts first published poem was A Poem on the May examinations, printed in Acta Victoriana in 1909 when he was a student. In 1917 he privately published a poem, Rachel, A Sea Story of Newfoundland. He then spent two years working on a drama, Clay, which he ended by burning. It was only in 1923 that Pratts first commercial poetry collection and it contains A Fragment of a Story, the only piece of Clay that Pratt ever published, and the conclusion to Rachel. The most genuine feeling is expressed in humorous and sympathetic portraits of Newfoundland characters, the sea, which on the one hand provides ‘the bread of life’ and on the other represents ‘the waters of death’, is a central element as setting, subject, and creator of mood. With illustrations by Group of Seven member Frederick Varley, Newfoundland Verse proved to be Pratts breakthrough collection and he would publish 18 more books of poetry in his lifetime. Pratts poetry frequently reflects his Newfoundland background, though references to it appear in relatively few poems, mostly in Newfoundland Verse
38.
F. R. Scott
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Francis Reginald Scott, CC, commonly known as Frank Scott or F. R. Scott, was a Canadian poet, intellectual and constitutional expert. He helped found the first Canadian social democratic party, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, and its successor and he won Canadas top literary prize, the Governor Generals Award, twice, once for poetry and once for non-fiction. He was married to artist Marian Dale Scott, Scott was born in Quebec City, the sixth of seven children. He witnessed the riots in the City during the Conscription Crisis of 1917, Scott returned to Canada, settled in Montreal and studied law at McGill University, eventually joining the law faculty as a professor. While at McGill, Scott became a member of the Montreal Group of modernist poets, a circle that also included Leon Edel, John Glassco, Scott and Smith became lifelong friends. Scott contributed to the McGill Daily Literary Supplement, which Smith edited, after the Review folded, Scott helped found and briefly co-edited The Canadian Mercury. Scott also anonymously edited the modernist poetry anthology New Provinces, which was published in 1936, the Great Depression greatly disturbed Scott, he and historian Frank Underhill founded the League for Social Reconstruction to advocate socialist solutions in a Canadian context. Through the LSR, Scott became a figure in the Canadian socialist movement. He was a member of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and a contributor to that Partys Regina Manifesto. He also edited a book advocating Social Planning for Canada, in 1943, he co-authored Make This Your Canada, spelling out the CCF national programme, with David Lewis. Scott was elected chairman of the CCF in 1942. In March 1942 Scott co-founded a literary magazine, Preview, with Montreal poet Patrick Anderson, like the earlier Montreal Group publications, Previews orientation was cosmopolitan, its members looked largely towards the English poets of the 1930s for inspiration. In 1950-51 Scott cofounded Recherches sociales, a group concerned with the French/English relationship. In 1952 he was United Nations technical assistance resident representative in Burma, during the 1950s, Scott was an active opponent of the Duplessis regime in Quebec and went to court to fight the Padlock Law. He also represented Frank Roncarrelli, a Jehovahs Witness, in Roncarelli v. Duplessis all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada a battle that Maurice Duplessis lost, Scott began translating French-Canadian poetry, publishing Anne Hébert and Saint-Denys Garneau in 1962. He edited Poems of French Canada, which won the Canada Council prize for translation, Scott served as dean of law at McGill University from 1961 to 1964 and served on the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. In 1970 he was offered a seat in the Canadian Senate by Pierre Trudeau and he did, however, support Trudeaus imposition of the War Measures Act during the October Crisis that same year. Scott opposed Quebecs Bill 22 and Bill 101 which established the province within its jurisdiction as an officially unilingual province within a bilingual country
39.
Modernist poetry in English
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Modernist poetry in English started in the early years of the 20th century with the appearance of the Imagists. In common with other modernists, these poets wrote in reaction to the perceived excesses of Victorian poetry, with its emphasis on traditional formalism. Modernists saw themselves as looking back to the best practices of poets in earlier periods and their models included ancient Greek literature, Chinese and Japanese poetry, the troubadours, Dante and the medieval Italian philosophical poets, and the English Metaphysical poets. Much of early modernist poetry took the form of short, compact lyrics, as it developed, however, longer poems came to the foreground. These represent the modernist movement to the 20th-century English poetic canon, specifically, poetic sonic effects would also, therefore, become an influential poetic device of modernism. The origins of Imagism and cubist poetry are to be found in two poems by T. E. Hulme that were published in 1909 by the Poets Club in London. Hulme was a student of mathematics and philosophy who had established the Poets Club to discuss his theories of poetry. The poet and critic F. S. Flint, who was a champion of free verse and modern French poetry, was critical of the club. From the ensuing debate, Hulme and Flint became close friends, the American poet Ezra Pound was introduced to this group and they found that their ideas resembled his. In 1911, Pound introduced two other poets, H. D. and Richard Aldington, to the Eiffel Tower group, both of these poets were students of the early Greek lyric poetry, especially the works of Sappho. In October 1912, he submitted three poems each by H. D. and Aldington under the rubric Imagiste to Poetry magazine. That month Pounds book Ripostes was published with an appendix called The Complete Poetical Works of T. E. Hulme, aldingtons poems were in the November issue of Poetry and H. D. s in January 1913 and Imagism as a movement was launched. The March issue contained Pounds A Few Donts by an Imagiste, the latter contained this succinct statement of the groups position, Direct treatment of the thing, whether subjective or objective. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation, as regarding rhythm, to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of the metronome. Free verse was encouraged along with other new rhythms, common speech language was used, and the exact word was always to be used, as opposed to the almost exact word. In setting these criteria for poetry, the Imagists saw themselves as looking backward to the best practices of pre-Romantic writing, Imagists poets used sharp language and embrace imagery. Their work, however, was to have a impact on English-language writing for the rest of the 20th century. Chinese grammar offers different expressive possibilities from English grammar, a point that Pound subsequently made much of, with a few exceptions, this represents a roll-call of English-language modernist poets of the time
