1.
Sports card
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There is a wide variation of different types of cards. Modern cards even go as far as to include swatches of game worn memorabilia, autographs, trading cards are traditionally associated with sports, baseball cards are especially well-known. Cards dealing with subjects like Pokémon are often considered a separate category from sports cards. These often feature cartoons, comic characters, television series. In the 1990s, cards designed specifically for playing games became popular enough to develop into a distinct category and these tend to use either fantasy subjects or sports as the basis for game play. Trade cards are the ancestors of trading cards, allen and Ginter in the U. S. in 1886, and British company W. D. & H. O. Wills in 1888, were the first tobacco companies to print advertisements, a couple years later, lithograph pictures on the cards with an encyclopedic variety of topics from nature to war to sports — subjects that appealed to men who smoked - began to surface as well. By 1900, there were thousands of card sets manufactured by 300 different companies. Children would stand outside of stores to ask customers who bought cigarettes for the promotional cards, World War II put an end to cigarette card production due to limited paper resources, and after the war cigarette cards never really made a comeback. After that collectors of prizes from retail products took to collecting tea cards in the UK, the first baseball cards were trade cards printed in the late 1860s by a sporting goods company, around the time baseball became a professional sport. Most of the baseball cards around the beginning of the 20th century came in candy and it was during this era that the most valuable baseball card ever printed was produced - the infamous T206 tobacco card featuring Honus Wagner. The T206 Set, distributed by the American Tobacco Company in 1909, is considered by collectors to be the most popular set of all time. In 1933, Goudey Gum Company of Boston issued baseball cards with players biographies on the backs and was the first to put baseball cards in bubble gum, the 1933 Goudey set remains one of the most popular and affordable vintage sets to this day. Bowman Gum of Philadelphia issued its first baseball cards in 1948, Topps Chewing Gum, Inc. now known as The Topps Company, Inc. Topps produced its first baseball trading card set in 1951, with the design resembling that of playing cards. Topps owner and founder Sy Berger created the first true baseball card set, complete with playing record and statistics. This is one of the most popular sets of all time, Topps purchased their chief competitor, Bowman Gum, in 1956. Topps was the leader in the trading industry from 1956 to 1980, not only in sports cards
2.
Game
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A game is a structured form of play, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which is carried out for remuneration, and from art. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are considered to be work or art. Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, games generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, simulational, attested as early as 2600 BC, games are a universal part of human experience and present in all cultures. The Royal Game of Ur, Senet, and Mancala are some of the oldest known games, ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein argued that the elements of games, such as play, rules, from this, Wittgenstein concluded that people apply the term game to a range of disparate human activities that bear to one another only what one might call family resemblances. A piece of entertainment is an if it is interactive. Movies and books are cited as examples of non-interactive entertainment, if no goals are associated with a plaything, it is a toy. If it has goals, a plaything is a challenge, if a challenge has no active agent against whom you compete, it is a puzzle, if there is one, it is a conflict. Finally, if the player can only outperform the opponent, but not attack them to interfere with their performance, however, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game. Crawfords definition may thus be rendered as, an interactive, goal-oriented activity made for money, with agents to play against. A game is a system in which players engage in a conflict, defined by rules. A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, according to this definition, some games that do not involve choices, such as Chutes and Ladders, Candy Land, and War are not technically games any more than a slot machine is. A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context, a game is a form of play with goals and structure. When you strip away the differences and the technological complexities, all games share four defining traits, a goal, rules, a feedback system. Games can be characterized by what the player does and this is often referred to as gameplay. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the context of game
3.
Combat sport
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A combat sport, or fighting sport, is a competitive contact sport with one-on-one combat. Determining the winner depends on the contests rules. In many fighting sports, a contestant wins by scoring points than the opponent or by disabling the opponent. Mixed Martial Arts, Boxing, wrestling, Muay Thai, Tae Kwon Do, Judo, Brazilian Jiu-jitsu, folk wrestling exists in many forms and in most cultures, and can be considered a cultural universal. The Ancient Olympic Games were largely composed of sports that tested skills related to combat, such as armored foot races, boxing, wrestling, pankration and chariot racing, Combat sports are first recorded during the Olympic games of 648 B. C. with pankration. Pankration allowed competitors to use all striking and grappling techniques, the only rules for this sport in its origin were no biting and no eye gouging. A winner was decided by submission, unconsciousness, or even death of an opponent and it is a common occurrence for matches to last for hours. Pankration grew in popularity during the Hellenic Period, matches were in small square arenas to promote engagement. This tradition of sports was taken even further by the Romans with gladiators who would fight with weapons. Through the Middle ages and Renaissance the tournament became popular, with jousting as a main event, while the tournament was popular amongst aristocrats, combative sports were practiced by all levels of society. The German school of medieval martial arts distinguished sportive combat from serious combat. In the German Renaissance, sportive combat competitions were known as Fechtschulen, out of these Prize Playing events developed the English boxing of the 18th century, which evolved into modern boxing with the introduction of the Marquess of Queensberry rules in 1867. Amateur boxing was part of the modern Olympic Games since their introduction in 1904, professional boxing became popular in the United States in the 1920s and experienced a golden age after World War II. The creation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu is attributed to the Gracie family of Brazil in 1925 after Asian martial arts were introduced to Brazil, vale-tudo, wrestling, muay thai kickboxing and luta livre gained popularity. Modern Muay Thai was developed in the 1920s to 1930s, Sambo was introduced in the Soviet Union. Modern Taekwondo also emerged after the Japanese occupation of Korea and became an Olympic sport in 2000, sanshou as part of modern wush was developed in the Peoples Republic of China since the 1950s. Kickboxing and full contact karate were developed in the 1960s and became popular in Japan, Modern Mixed Martial Arts developed out of the interconnected subcultures of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and shoot wrestling. It was introduced in Japan in the form of Shooto in 1985, unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts were introduced in 2000, and the sport experienced a peak of popularity in the 2000s
4.
Boxing
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Boxing is a combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring. Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds, in the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, the fight is considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, due to the fact that a winner must be declared, in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout. While people have fought in combat since before the dawn of history. The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete, in Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport and enjoyed consistent popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad,688 B. C, the boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue, weight categories were not used, which meant heavyweights had a tendency to dominate. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists, eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex, Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events, however, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor and this is where the term ring came from. In AD393, during the Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality and it was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London. Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again, however, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or Fist Fighting, as the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury
5.
Professional wrestling
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Professional wrestling is a dramatized athletic performance that portrays a combat sport. Various forms of weaponry are sometimes used, the content – including match outcomes – is scripted and choreographed, and the combative actions and reactions are performed to appear violent without injuring the wrestlers. Before the 1980s, these facts were considered trade secrets, in the mid-90s, the presentation of scripted events as legitimate is known as kayfabe. Although the combative content is staged and communicated between the wrestlers, there are physical hazards involved - including permanent injury and death. While it has declined in Europe, in North America it has experienced several different periods of prominent cultural popularity during its century. The advent of television gave professional wrestling a new outlet, unlike in Europe, show wrestling has become especially prominent in Japan and in North America. In Brazil, there was a popular wrestling television program from the 1960s to the early 1980s called Telecatch. High-profile figures in the sport have become celebrities or cultural icons in their native or adopted home countries, although professional wrestling started out as petty acts in sideshows, traveling circuses and carnivals, today it is a billion-dollar industry. Revenue is drawn from live event ticket sales, network television broadcasts, pay-per-view broadcasts, personal appearances by performers, branded merchandise, pro wrestling was also instrumental in making pay-per-view a viable method of content delivery. Annual shows such as WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Royal Rumble, and formerly Bash at the Beach, Halloween Havoc, home video sales dominate the Billboard charts Recreational Sports DVD sales, with wrestling holding anywhere from 3 to 9 of the top 10 spots every week. Due to its persistent cultural presence and to its novelty within the performing arts, there have also been many fictional depictions of wrestling, the 2008 film The Wrestler received several Oscar nominations and began a career revival for star Mickey Rourke. Because actual events are often co-opted by writers for incorporation into storylines for the performers, special care must be taken when talking about people who perform under their own name. The actions of the character should be considered fictional events, wholly separate from the life of the performer and this is similar to other entertainers who perform with a persona that shares their own name. Some wrestlers will incorporate elements of their real-life personalities into their characters, even if they and those who participated felt that it was necessary that spectators should be kept in a constant and complete illusion of a real competition to keep audience interest. For decades, up until the mid-1980s, wrestlers lived their lives as though they were their characters. Wrestlers, bookers and promoters all rigorously enforced the illusion and very few were allowed into the society of professional wrestling to maintain suspension of disbelief. The practice of keeping the illusion, and the methods used to do so, came to be known as kayfabe within wrestling circles. An entire lexicon of slang jargon and euphemism developed to allow performers to communicate without outsiders knowledge of what was being said, occasionally a performer will deviate from the intended sequence of events
6.
Traffic congestion
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Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. The most common example is the use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the stream, this results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road, extreme traffic congestion sets in, when vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage. Mathematically, congestion is usually looked at as the number of vehicles that pass through a point in a window of time, Congestion flow lends itself to principles of fluid dynamics. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for greater than the available street capacity. About half of U. S. traffic congestion is recurring, Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a traffic jam may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents may cause ripple effects which then spread out and create a traffic jam when, otherwise. Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden freezing of supercooled fluid. However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerners three-phase traffic theory, because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models. These models are typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the links in the network. That discovery enabled the team to solve traffic-jam equations that were first theorized in the 1950s, congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Privatization of highways and road pricing have both proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day. In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing or by queueing and they determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level
7.
Porsche Supercup
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The Porsche Mobil 1 Supercup is the international motor racing series supporting the FIA Formula One World Championship organized by Porsche AG. Porsche Supercup drivers compete in identical Porsche 911 GT3 Cup cars, on average,24 race cars take part in each race. Most circuits visited by the series are European, although circuits in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, in the Porsche Supercup the 911 GT3 Cup type 991 is used - a car based on the Porsche 911 GT3. All vehicles are identical,460 hp, sequential six-speed paddle-shift gearbox, aero pack. Two sets of slick tires may be used per car and weekend, the number of wet tires is unlimited. The tires are identical for all competitors and are not permitted to be pre-warmed or chemically treated, to receive points a driver must compete in multiple races per season. Since 2008, there have been two points awarded for the driver who secures pole position in qualifying. The points of the two best drivers of each team are added up, at the end of the season Porsche rewards the three best placed teams with prize money. In 2006 and 2007, Porsche AG pays around 820,000 euros to drivers, per race the winner receives 9,000 euros, the runner-up 7,500 euros and the third placed driver 6,500 euros. For a 15th place 1,400 euros are paid, additionally, the 2006 or 2007 champion receives a Porsche road car. The driver with the fastest laps will be given a watch from Porsche Design. In 2015, Porsche says it pays more than 730,000 Euros in prize money to drivers, in addition, the overall winner receives a special prize. The winner of the rookie classification receives a prize of 30,000 Euros providing he/she reregisters for the following year’s Porsche Mobil 1 Supercup. Dutch driver Patrick Huisman is the most successful driver in the series, fellow Dutch racer Jeroen Bleekemolen and British Richard Westbrook have won two titles each. The reigning champion is the New Zealand driver Earl Bamber, who won the championship in 2014, at the Grand Prix circuits during 2006 an average of 125,000 spectators witnessed the action from the grandstands at each round. According to Porsche AG races attracted 22 million TV viewers worldwide, Porsche also runs regional and national one-make series called the Porsche Carrera Cup
8.
GP2 Series
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The GP2 Series was a form of open wheel motor racing introduced in 2005 following the discontinuation of the long-term Formula One feeder series, Formula 3000. The GP2 format was conceived by Bernie Ecclestone and Flavio Briatore, in 2010 the GP3 Series class was launched, as a feeder class for the GP2 series. In the 2017 the series was rebranded as the FIA Formula 2 Championship, many drivers have used GP2 as a stepping stone into Formula One. 2009 GP2 champion Nico Hülkenberg moved up to a Williams F1 race driver in the 2010 Formula 1 season, in addition, Heikki Kovalainen, Nelson Piquet Jr. and Lucas di Grassi —all runners up— became Renault test drivers the following year. All three earned F1 seats, but have since been replaced, karun Chandhok, Bruno Senna and Vitaly Petrov were also granted an F1 seat in 2010. For 2011 Pastor Maldonado was granted the hot seat at Williams and this meant that Nico Hülkenberg was deposed by Williams. Sergio Pérez was given the drive alongside Kamui Kobayashi, another former GP2 driver and GP2 Asia Series winner, jérôme dAmbrosio got his Virgin Racing drive for the 2011 season. However, some drivers have reached Formula One without competing in GP2, for example Paul di Resta, Daniel Ricciardo, Jean-Éric Vergne, Valtteri Bottas, and Kevin Magnussen. During 2011, it was announced that in 2012 the GP2 and GP2 Asia Series would combine to make a single, current Formula One drivers that have come from GP2 racing include Lewis Hamilton, Romain Grosjean, Stoffel Vandoorne, Jolyon Palmer and several more. At the end of the 2016 season, nine of the champions were able to secure a seat in Formula 1. On Friday, drivers had a 45-minute free practice session and a 30-minute qualifying session, the qualifying session decides the grid order for Saturdays race which has a length of 180 kilometres. During Saturdays race, each driver has to make a pit stop in which at least two tyres have to be changed, on Sunday there is a sprint race of 120 kilometres. The grid was decided by the Saturday result with top 8 being reversed, so the driver who finished 8th on Saturday have started from pole position, 2005–2011 Pole for Saturday races,2 points Fastest lap,1 point in each race. Driver recording fastest lap has to drive 90% of race laps, the driver must now also start the race from his allocated grid position and as of 2008 must finish in the top ten of the race to be eligible for the fastest lap point. With this points system, the most number of points anyone can score in one round is 20 by claiming pole position, 2012-2016 From the 2012 season the GP2 series changed its scoring system. Therefore, the number of points a driver can score at any round will be 48. Overall weight is 688 kg including driver, the 2011 specification GP2 Series car has been designed by Dallara Automobili. The 2006 GP2 car featured a rear wing, with the triplane rear wing used in previous seasons only to be used at the Monaco race
