1.
Information science
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Information science should not be confused with information theory or library science. Information theory is the study of the types of communications we use, such as verbal, signal transmission, encoding, Information science as an academic discipline is often taught in combination with Library science as Library and Information Science. Library science as such is a related to the dissemination of information through libraries making use of the principles of information science. Information science focuses on understanding problems from the perspective of the involved and then applying information. In other words, it tackles systemic problems first rather than individual pieces of technology within that system and it must therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately permeating all other subsystems of society. Several institutions have formed an I-School Caucus, but numerous others besides these also have comprehensive information foci and it is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information. It has both a pure science component, which inquires into the subject without regard to its application, and an applied science component, some authors use informatics as a synonym for information science. This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I, Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s. The Mikhailov school saw informatics as a related to the study of scientific information. Informatics is difficult to define because of the rapidly evolving. Definitions reliant on the nature of the used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs. Regional differences and international terminology complicate the problem, some people note that much of what is called Informatics today was once called Information Science – at least in fields such as Medical Informatics. Brian Campbell Vickerys Information Systems places information systems within IS, ellis, Allen, & Wilson, on the other hand, provide a bibliometric investigation describing the relation between two different fields, information science and information systems. Philosophy of information studies conceptual issues arising at the intersection of science, information technology. In computer science and information science, an ontology formally represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain, and it can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain. More specifically, an ontology is a model for describing the world consists of a set of types, properties. Exactly what is provided around these varies, but they are the essentials of an ontology, there is also generally an expectation that there be a close resemblance between the real world and the features of the model in an ontology. In theory, an ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation, an ontology renders shared vocabulary and taxonomy which models a domain with the definition of objects and/or concepts and their properties and relations
2.
Information management
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Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organizational information management policies. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use it then gains more value, with the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s, information management took on a new form. In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic, the information in our information systems has to be understood in order to emerge as knowledge. Knowledge allows managers to take effective decisions, effective decisions have to lead to appropriate actions. Appropriate actions are expected to deliver meaningful results, additionally they proposed the notion of satisficing, which entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met - another idea that still has currency. In addition to the factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are other issues that stem from economic. There is the cost of collecting and evaluating the information needed to take a decision, including the time, the transaction cost associated with information processes can be high. In particular, established rules and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision. This is an issue that has presented as a major problem with bureaucratic organizations that lose the economies of strategic change because of entrenched attitudes. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems and these dimensions are the physical, informational, and cognitive. Venkatraman has provided a view of the requisite capabilities of an organisation that wants to manage information well – the DIKAR model. He also worked with others to understand how technology and business strategies could be aligned in order to identify specific capabilities that are needed. This work was paralleled by other writers in the world of consulting, practice, bytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume. Stage 2, Tagging the noise on the wide web, use existing schemes such as post codes and GPS data or more typically by adding “tags”. Shirky provides an overview of two approaches. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model – an ontology and it is necessary to manage the “supply side” and recognise that technology is, increasingly, becoming a commodity. However, there is still the potential for competitive advantage from the implementation of new ideas that deliver to the strategic intentions of organisations
3.
Information retrieval
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Information retrieval is the activity of obtaining information resources relevant to an information need from a collection of information resources. Searches can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing, automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called information overload. Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to access to books, journals. Web search engines are the most visible IR applications, an information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system. Queries are formal statements of information needs, for example search strings in web search engines, in information retrieval a query does not uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy, an object is an entity that is represented by information in a content collection or database. User queries are matched against the database information, however, as opposed to classical SQL queries of a database, in information retrieval the results returned may or may not match the query, so results are typically ranked. This ranking of results is a key difference of information retrieval searching compared to database searching, depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, most IR systems compute a numeric score on how well each object in the database matches the query, and rank the objects according to this value. The top ranking objects are shown to the user. The process may then be iterated if the user wishes to refine the query, the idea of using computers to search for relevant pieces of information was popularized in the article As We May Think by Vannevar Bush in 1945. It would appear that Bush was inspired by patents for a statistical machine - filed by Emanuel Goldberg in the 1920s and 30s - that searched for documents stored on film. The first description of a searching for information was described by Holmstrom in 1948. Automated information retrieval systems were introduced in the 1950s, one featured in the 1957 romantic comedy. In the 1960s, the first large information retrieval research group was formed by Gerard Salton at Cornell, by the 1970s several different retrieval techniques had been shown to perform well on small text corpora such as the Cranfield collection. Large-scale retrieval systems, such as the Lockheed Dialog system, came into use early in the 1970s, in 1992, the US Department of Defense along with the National Institute of Standards and Technology, cosponsored the Text Retrieval Conference as part of the TIPSTER text program. The aim of this was to look into the information retrieval community by supplying the infrastructure that was needed for evaluation of text retrieval methodologies on a large text collection. This catalyzed research on methods that scale to huge corpora, the introduction of web search engines has boosted the need for very large scale retrieval systems even further
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Information seeking
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Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both human and technological contexts. Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval, traditionally, IR tools have been designed for IR professionals to enable them to effectively and efficiently retrieve information from a source. It is assumed that the information exists in the source and that a well-formed query will retrieve it and it has been argued that laypersons information seeking on the internet is very different from information retrieval as performed within the IR discourse. Yet, internet search engines are built on IR principles, since the late 1990s a body of research on how casual users interact with internet search engines has been forming, but the topic is far from fully understood. IR can be said to be technology-oriented, focusing on algorithms and issues such as precision, Information seeking may be understood as a more human-oriented and open-ended process than information retrieval. In information seeking, one does not know whether there exists an answer to ones query, much library and information science research has focused on the information-seeking practices of practitioners within various fields of professional work. Studies have been carried out into the information-seeking behaviors of librarians, academics, medical professionals, much of this research has drawn on the work done by Leckie, Pettigrew and Sylvain, who in 1996 conducted an extensive review of the LIS literature on professionals information seeking. The authors proposed a model of professionals information seeking behaviour, intended to be generalizable across the professions. The model was intended to prompt new insights, and give rise to more refined and applicable theories of information seeking. The model has been adapted by Wilkinson who proposes a model of the seeking of lawyers. A review of the literature on information seeking behavior shows that information seeking has generally accepted as dynamic. People experience the information search process as an interplay of thoughts, feelings, Donald O. Case also wrote a good book that is a review of the literature. Information seeking has been found to be linked to a variety of communication behaviors beyond question-asking. Robinson’s research suggests that when seeking information at work, people rely on other people and information repositories, and spend similar amounts of time consulting each. However, the distribution of time among the constituent information seeking stages differs depending on the source, furthermore, the research found that people spend substantially more time receiving information passively than actively, and this pattern is also reflected when they provide others with information. The concepts of information seeking, information retrieval, and information behaviour are objects of investigation of information science, the research models developed in these studies vary in their level of scope. Wilson therefore developed a model of conceptual areas, which visualizes the interrelation of the here mentioned central concepts. Browse Collaborative information seeking FBI Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list Information foraging Onboarding Social information seeking Case, looking for Information, A Survey of Research on Information Seeking, Needs, and Behavior
5.
Information society
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An information society is a society where the creation, distribution, use, integration and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political, and cultural activity. The People who have the means to partake in this form of society are sometimes called digital citizens and this is one of many dozen labels that have been identified to suggest that humans are entering a new phase of society. The markers of this change may be technological, economic, occupational, spatial, cultural. Information society is seen as the successor to industrial society, closely related concepts are the post-industrial society, post-fordism, post-modern society, knowledge society, telematic society, Information Revolution, liquid modernity, and network society. There is currently no universally accepted concept of what exactly can be termed information society, most theoreticians agree that a transformation can be seen that started somewhere between the 1970s and today and is changing the way societies work fundamentally. Information technology goes beyond the internet, and there are discussions about how big the influence of media or specific modes of production really is. Kasiwulaya and Gomo allude that information societies are those that have intensified their use of IT for economic, in particular, the Tunis Agenda addresses the issues of financing of ICTs for development and Internet governance that could not be resolved in the first phase. Some people, such as Antonio Negri, characterize the information society as one in which people do immaterial labour, by this, they appear to refer to the production of knowledge or cultural artifacts. One problem with this model is that it ignores the material, however it does point to a problem for workers, namely how many creative people does this society need to function. It is now common for publishers to only their best selling authors. Films are becoming more and more judged, in terms of distribution, by their first weekends performance and this is the informational equivalent of 60 CD-ROM per person in 2007 and represents a sustained annual growth rate of some 25%. The world’s combined technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was the equivalent of 174 newspapers per person per day in 2007. One of the first people to develop the concept of the society was the economist Fritz Machlup. In 1933, Fritz Machlup began studying the effect of patents on research and his work culminated in the study The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States in 1962. This book was regarded and was eventually translated into Russian. The Japanese have also studied the information society, the issue of technologies and their role in contemporary society have been discussed in the scientific literature using a range of labels and concepts. This section introduces some of them, Fritz Machlup introduced the concept of the knowledge industry. He distinguished five sectors of the sector, education, research and development, mass media, information technologies
6.
Censorship
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Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which case it is referred to as soft censorship. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, there are no laws against self-censorship. In 399 BC, Greek philosopher, Socrates, defied attempts by the Greek state to censor his philosophical teachings and was sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock. Socrates student, Plato, is said to have advocated censorship in his essay on The Republic, in contrast to Plato, Greek playwright Euripides defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766, Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law, the rationale for censorship is different for various types of information censored, Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, Military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage, which is the process of gleaning military information, political censorship occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion. Religious censorship is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones, alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion. Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc, throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers. Cultural products there reflected the needs of the state. Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years, in the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine on May Day. Under Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania, weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop. Independent journalism did not exist in the Soviet Union until Mikhail Gorbachev became its leader, pravda, the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available if they were published by Communist Parties sympathetic to the Soviet Union. Possession and use of copying machines was tightly controlled in order to hinder production and distribution of samizdat, illegal self-published books, possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book by Andrei Sinyavsky was a serious crime which might involve a visit from the KGB
7.
Computer data storage
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Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media used to retain digital data. It is a function and fundamental component of computers. The central processing unit of a computer is what manipulates data by performing computations, in practice, almost all computers use a storage hierarchy, which puts fast but expensive and small storage options close to the CPU and slower but larger and cheaper options farther away. In the Von Neumann architecture, the CPU consists of two parts, The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit. The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory, while the latter performs arithmetic and logical operations on data, without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior and this is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators, digital signal processors, and other specialized devices. Von Neumann machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating instructions, most modern computers are von Neumann machines. A modern digital computer represents data using the numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits, a piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, the works of Shakespeare, about 1250 pages in print. Data is encoded by assigning a bit pattern to each character, digit, by adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows the computer to both detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. A random bit flip is typically corrected upon detection, the cyclic redundancy check method is typically used in communications and storage for error detection. A detected error is then retried, data compression methods allow in many cases to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string and reconstruct the original string when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage for many types of data at the cost of more computation, analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not. For security reasons certain types of data may be encrypted in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots. Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and this traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. In contemporary usage, memory is usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory, typically DRAM or other forms of fast but temporary storage
8.
Data modeling
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Data modeling in software engineering is the process of creating a data model for an information system by applying certain formal techniques. Data modeling is a used to define and analyze data requirements needed to support the business processes within the scope of corresponding information systems in organizations. Therefore, the process of data modeling involves professional data modelers working closely with business stakeholders, there are three different types of data models produced while progressing from requirements to the actual database to be used for the information system. The conceptual model is translated into a logical data model. Implementation of one conceptual data model may require multiple data models. The last step in data modeling is transforming the data model to a physical data model that organizes the data into tables. Data modeling defines not just data elements, but also their structures, Data modeling techniques and methodologies are used to model data in a standard, consistent, predictable manner in order to manage it as a resource. The use of data modeling standards is strongly recommended for all projects requiring a standard means of defining and analyzing data within an organization, Data models are progressive, there is no such thing as the final data model for a business or application. Instead a data model should be considered a document that will change in response to a changing business. The data models should ideally be stored in a repository so that they can be retrieved, expanded, information engineering is a methodology that embraces this approach. Data modeling during systems analysis, In systems analysis logical data models are created as part of the development of new databases, Data modeling is also used as a technique for detailing business requirements for specific databases. It is sometimes called database modeling because a model is eventually implemented in a database. Data models provide a structure for data used within information systems by providing specific definition, if a data model is used consistently across systems then compatibility of data can be achieved. If the same structures are used to store and access data then different applications can share data seamlessly. The results of this are indicated in the diagram, however, systems and interfaces are often expensive to build, operate, and maintain. They may also constrain the business rather than support it and this may occur when the quality of the data models implemented in systems and interfaces is poor. Business rules, specific to how things are done in a place, are often fixed in the structure of a data model. This means that changes in the way business is conducted lead to large changes in computer systems
9.
Information technology
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Information technology is the application of computers to store, study, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered a subset of information and communications technology, the term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that the new technology not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology, based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development, pre-mechanical, mechanical, electromechanical, electronic. This article focuses on the most recent period, which began in about 1940, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick. Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s, the electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the worlds first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer, although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory, programming was carried out using plugs, the first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, by comparison the first transistorised computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version. Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes. IBM introduced the first hard drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. Most digital data today is stored magnetically on hard disks. Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007 almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally, 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007. Database management systems emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly, one of the earliest such systems was IBMs Information Management System, which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later
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Intellectual property
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Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
11.
Memory
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Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences and related to systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory processor allows information from the world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor, information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material, finally, the function of long-term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems. Explicit and implicit functions of memory are known as declarative and non-declarative systems. These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory, semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory, non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. An example of a process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory. Memory is not a processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted, the amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage. Also, the process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory, normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived, the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than they can actually report, the first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm
12.
Preservation (library and archival science)
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Preservation refers to the set of activities that aims to prolong the life of a record and relevant metadata, or enhance its value, or improve access to it through non-interventive means. This includes actions taken to influence records creators prior to selection and acquisition and it should be distinguished from conservation-restoration of cultural heritage, which refers to the treatment and repair of individual items to slow decay or restore them to a usable state. Conservation is occasionally used interchangeably with preservation, particularly outside the professional literature, Preservation as a formal profession in libraries and archives dates from the twentieth century, but its philosophy and practice has roots in many earlier traditions. In many ancient societies, appeals to heavenly protectors were used to preserve books, scrolls and manuscripts from insects, fire, to the ancient Egyptians, the scarab or dung beetle was a protector of written products. The scarab was used as a holder or medium for personal name seals. A figurine of a scarab would be carved out of stone, and then on the stomach of the scarab. Later, this image was used for the representation of the cartouche. In ancient Babylon, Nabu is the patron of books. Nabu is the Babylonian god of wisdom and writing, and is the patron of the scribes, librarians, nabus symbols are the clay writing tablet with the cuneiform writing stylus. He usually wears a cap, and often stands with his hands clasped together. Nabu engraves the destiny of each person, as the Gods have decided, thus, Nabu has the power to increase or diminish, at will, the length of human life. The image of Nabu is also one of the images on the brass doors designed by Lee Lawrie, entitled, A History of the Written Word, in Hindu beliefs, Ganesh is the elephant-headed god of learning and new enterprises. As the god of wisdom, he knows all, since he has the head of an elephant, he also has the reputed memory of the elephant, and thus does not forget anything. His statue is placed over the doors of and entrances of buildings in India and Sri Lanka. Ganesh is the scribe who wrote the Mahabharata from Vyasas dictation, Ganesh is credited with inventing the Sanskrit alphabet, and he broke off his right tusk to make the first pen. As the inventor of the alphabet, as a scribe, and as a keeper of wisdom and knowledge, Ganesh is credited as a patron of libraries, librarians and book sellers and buyers. In Arabic and other societies, sometimes a traditional method to protect books and scrolls was a metaphysical appeal to Kabi, Kaj. By appealing to the king to protect a manuscript, cockroaches of less nobility would refrain from intruding on documents which could be eaten by the king only
13.
Privacy
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Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves, or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. The boundaries and content of what is considered private differ among cultures and individuals, when something is private to a person, it usually means that something is inherently special or sensitive to them. The domain of privacy partially overlaps security, which can include the concepts of appropriate use, Privacy may also take the form of bodily integrity. The right not to be subjected to unsanctioned invasion of privacy by the government, corporations or individuals is part of many countries privacy laws, almost all countries have laws which in some way limit privacy. An example of this would be law concerning taxation, which require the sharing of information about personal income or earnings. Privacy may be sacrificed, normally in exchange for perceived benefits and very often with specific dangers and losses. Research shows that people are willing to voluntarily sacrifice privacy if the data gatherer is seen to be transparent as to what information is gathered. In the business world, a person may volunteer personal details in order to gamble on winning a prize, a person may also disclose personal information as part of being an executive for a publicly traded company in the USA pursuant to federal securities law. Personal information which is shared but subsequently stolen or misused can lead to identity theft. According to some researchers, this concept sets Anglo-American culture apart even from Western European cultures such as French or Italian, Most cultures, however, recognize the ability of individuals to withhold certain parts of their personal information from wider society—closing the door to ones home, for example. Such languages either use a complex description to translate the term or borrow from English privacy, the difference is sometimes expressed humorously as when I withhold information, it is privacy, when you withhold information, it is secrecy. On December 15,1890, Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis published the article of the law called The right to privacy, a broad multicultural literary tradition going to the beginnings of recorded history discusses the concept of privacy. Warren and Louis Brandeis wrote The Right to Privacy, an article in which argued for the right to be let alone. Limited access refers to an ability to participate in society without having other individuals. Various theorists have imagined privacy as a system for limiting access to personal information. Charles Fried said that Privacy is not simply an absence of information about us in the minds of others, control over personal information is one of the more popular theories of the meaning of privacy. Alan Westin defined four states—or experiences—of privacy, solitude, intimacy, anonymity, solitude is a physical separation from others. Intimacy is a close, relaxed, and frank relationship between two or more individuals that results from the seclusion of a pair or small group of individuals, anonymity is the desire of individuals for times of public privacy
14.
Object (philosophy)
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An object is a technical term in modern philosophy often used in contrast to the term subject. A subject is an observer and an object is a thing observed, metaphysical frameworks also differ in whether they consider objects exist independently of their properties and, if so, in what way. The pragmatist Charles S. Peirce defines the notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about. In a general sense it is any entity, the pyramids, Alpha Centauri, the number seven, in a strict sense it refers to any definite being. Objecthood is the state of being an object, one approach to defining it is in terms of objects properties and relations. Descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their properties, the philosophical question of the nature of objecthood concerns how objects are related to their properties and relations. For example, it seems that the way to describe an apple is by describing its properties. Its properties may include its redness, its size and its composition, while its relations may include on the table, in the room, the notion of an object must address two problems, the change problems and the problems of substancess. Two leading theories about objecthood are substance theory, wherein substances are distinct from their properties, an attribute of an object is called a property if it can be experienced. Objects manifest themselves through their properties and these manifestations seem to change in a regular and unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that thing is. According to substance theory, the answer is a substance, that which stands under the change, because substances are only experienced through their properties a substance itself is never directly experienced. The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance that cannot be seen or scientifically verified, according to bundle theory, the answer is, none, thus an object is merely its properties. Some philosophies include theories of bodies and minds. So the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms, by uncovering this paradox he then provides a solution that lies at the very root of Buddhist praxis. He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of context, the validity of objects can only be established within those conventions that assert them. In English the word object is derived from the Latin objectus with the meaning to throw, or put before or against, from ob- and jacere, as such it is a root for several important words used to derive meaning, such as objectify, objective, and objectivism. Bertrand Russell updated the terminology with one more term, the fact
15.
Computer programming
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Computer programming is a process that leads from an original formulation of a computing problem to executable computer programs. Source code is written in one or more programming languages, the purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate performing a specific task or solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the domain, specialized algorithms. Related tasks include testing, debugging, and maintaining the code, implementation of the build system. Software engineering combines engineering techniques with software development practices, within software engineering, programming is regarded as one phase in a software development process. There is a debate on the extent to which the writing of programs is an art form. In general, good programming is considered to be the application of all three, with the goal of producing an efficient and evolvable software solution. Because the discipline covers many areas, which may or may not include critical applications, in most cases, the discipline is self-governed by the entities which require the programming, and sometimes very strict environments are defined. Another ongoing debate is the extent to which the language used in writing computer programs affects the form that the final program takes. Different language patterns yield different patterns of thought and this idea challenges the possibility of representing the world perfectly with language because it acknowledges that the mechanisms of any language condition the thoughts of its speaker community. In the 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the concept of storing data in machine-readable form, however, with the concept of the stored-program computers introduced in 1949, both programs and data were stored and manipulated in the same way in computer memory. Machine code was the language of early programs, written in the set of the particular machine. Assembly languages were developed that let the programmer specify instruction in a text format, with abbreviations for each operation code. However, because a language is little more than a different notation for a machine language. High-level languages allow the programmer to write programs in terms that are more abstract and they harness the power of computers to make programming easier by allowing programmers to specify calculations by entering a formula directly. Programs were mostly still entered using punched cards or paper tape, see computer programming in the punch card era. By the late 1960s, data storage devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough that programs could be created by typing directly into the computers, text editors were developed that allowed changes and corrections to be made much more easily than with punched cards. Whatever the approach to development may be, the program must satisfy some fundamental properties
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Western philosophy
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Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy
17.
Plato
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Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
18.
Statesman (dialogue)
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The Statesman, also known by its Latin title, Politicus, is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. The text describes a conversation among Socrates, the mathematician Theodorus, another person named Socrates, and it is ostensibly an attempt to arrive at a definition of statesman, as opposed to sophist or philosopher and is presented as following the action of the Sophist. According to John M. Cooper, the intention was to clarify that to rule or have political power called for a specialized knowledge. The statesman was one who possesses this special knowledge of how to rule justly and well and it is presented that politics should be run by this knowledge, or gnosis. This claim runs counter to those who, the Stranger points out and those that rule merely give the appearance of such knowledge, but in the end are really sophists or imitators. For, as the Stranger maintains, a sophist is one who does not know the thing to do. The Strangers ideal of how one arrives at this knowledge of power is through social divisions, the visitor takes great pains to be very specific about where and why the divisions are needed in order to properly rule the citizenry. Project Gutenberg, Statesman, Translated by Benjamin Jowett with introduction, Benjamin Jowett,1892, full text with introduction. Harold North Fowler,1921, full text Cooper, John M. and Hutchinson, D. S. Plato, ISBN 0-87220-349-2 Works related to Statesman at Wikisource Statesman, english translation by Benjamin Jowett public domain audiobook at LibriVox
19.
Property (philosophy)
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In philosophy, mathematics, and logic, a property is a characteristic of an object, a red object is said to have the property of redness. The property may be considered a form of object in its own right, a property however differs from individual objects in that it may be instantiated, and often in more than one thing. Understanding how different individual entities can in some sense have some of the properties is the basis of the problem of universals. The terms attribute and quality have similar meanings, in classical Aristotelian terminology, a property is one of the predicables. It is a quality of a species, but a quality which is nevertheless characteristically present in members of that species. For example, ability to laugh may be considered a characteristic of human beings. However, laughter is not a quality of the species human. A determinable property is one that can get more specific, for example, color is a determinable property because it can be restricted to redness, blueness, etc. A determinate property is one that become more specific. This distinction may be useful in dealing with issues of identity, in other words, it is the view that non-physical, mental properties inhere in some physical substances. e. The set, p is its indicator function and it may be objected that this defines merely the extension of a property, and says nothing about what causes the property to hold for exactly those values. The ontological fact that something has a property is represented in language by applying a predicate to a subject. However, taking any grammatical predicate whatsoever to be a property, or to have a property, leads to certain difficulties, such as Russells paradox. Other predicates, such as is an individual, or has some properties are uninformative or vacuous, there is some resistance to regarding such so-called Cambridge properties as legitimate. An intrinsic property is a property that an object or a thing has of itself, independently of other things, an extrinsic property is a property that depends on a things relationship with other things. A relation is considered to be a more general case of a property. Relations are true of several particulars, or shared amongst them, holds between two individuals, who would occupy the two ellipses. Relations can be expressed by N-place predicates, where N is greater than 1 and it is widely accepted that there are at least some apparent relational properties which are merely derived from non-relational properties
20.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
21.
Natural kind
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In analytic philosophy, the term natural kind is used to refer to a natural grouping, not an artificial one. If any natural kinds exist at all, good candidates might include each of the chemical elements, physical particles, like quarks, might also be natural kinds. That is, they would still be groups of things, distinct from other things as a group, the set of objects that weigh more than 50 pounds, on the other hand, almost certainly does not constitute a natural kind. The term was brought into contemporary analytic philosophy by W. V, hence raven and black refer to concepts that match natural kinds because any black raven constitutes at least some evidence that all ravens are black. But nonblack and nonraven are not, because a nonblack nonraven is not evidence that all things are nonravens. He argued that kind-hood was logically primitive, it could not be reduced non-trivially to any other relation among individuals, see also New riddle of induction#Quine. Cultural artifacts are not generally considered natural kinds, as one author puts it, they never stop changing, and terms that designate them constitute only what Wittgenstein called family resemblance predicates. There is considerable debate in analytic philosophy about whether there are any natural kinds at all, others debate whether races, sexes, or sexual orientations are natural kinds, or rather, to what extent they can be given the wide and continuous variety of race- and gender-related qualities. Language is often drawn into the debate as a complicating factor, the linguistic argument is that it is the way in which cultures inevitably bias words such as democracy that makes us ultimately unable to apprehend natural types even if they did exist. Such approaches are associated with Hermeneutics and the family of subjectivist philosophies generally, essentially contested concept Species problem Andreasen, Robin O.2005. The Meaning of Race, Folk Conceptions and the New Biology of Race, the Seven Sexes, A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 32, Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 31, 637–646. Natural Kinds. in Robert B. Barrett and Roger Gibson, how Natural Are Kinds of Sexual Orientation. From Cutting Nature at Its Joints to Measuring It, New Kinds, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 32, 613–645. Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Music and Natural Language, The Origins of Music, cambridge, Mass, A Bradford Book, The MIT Press. The Meaning of Meaning. in Keith Gunderson, editor, minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. Essays in Honor of Carl G. Hempel, reprinted in, Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, Ch.5, Columbia Univ. Causal Regularities in the Biological World of Contingent Distributions, Natural Kinds, by Alexander Bird and Emma Tobin, in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Project Cosmology Modern effort to produce a comprehensive list of major categories for natural kinds
22.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
23.
Aristotelianism
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Aristotelianism is a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. The works of Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the Peripatetic school, and, later on, by the Neoplatonists, who produced many commentaries on Aristotles writings. Moses Maimonides adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his famous Guide for the Perplexed on it, scholars such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas interpreted and systematized Aristotles works in accordance with Christian theology. Although this project was criticized by Trendelenburg and Brentano as non-Aristotelian, postmodernists, in contrast, reject Aristotelianisms claim to reveal important theoretical truths. In this, they follow Heideggers critique of Aristotle as the greatest source of the tradition of Western philosophy. Recent Aristotelian ethical and practical philosophy, such as that of Gadamer, the most famous contemporary Aristotelian philosopher is Alasdair MacIntyre. Politically and socially, it has been characterized as a newly revolutionary Aristotelianism and this may be contrasted with the more conventional, apolitical and effectively conservative uses of Aristotle by, for example, Gadamer and McDowell. Other important contemporary Aristotelian theorists include Fred D. Miller, Jr. in politics, the original followers of Aristotle were the members of the Peripatetic school. The most prominent members of the school after Aristotle were Theophrastus and Strato of Lampsacus, during the Roman era the school concentrated on preserving and defending his work. The most important figure in this regard was Alexander of Aphrodisias who commentated on Aristotles writings, in the Abbasid Empire, many foreign works were translated into Arabic, large libraries were constructed, and scholars were welcomed. Under the caliphs Harun al-Rashid and his son Al-Mamun, the House of Wisdom in Baghdad flourished, Christian scholar Hunayn ibn Ishaq was placed in charge of the translation work by the caliph. In his lifetime, Ishaq translated 116 writings, including works by Plato and Aristotle, into Syriac, al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world. He incorporated Aristotelian and Neoplatonist thought into an Islamic philosophical framework and this was an important factor in the introduction and popularization of Greek philosophy in the Muslim intellectual world. The philosopher Al-Farabi had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries and his work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and Sufism, paved the way for the work of Avicenna. Avicenna was one of the interpreters of Aristotle. The school of thought he founded became known as Avicennism, which was built on ingredients and conceptual building blocks that are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonist. At the western end of the Mediterranean Sea, during the reign of Al-Hakam II in Córdoba, a massive effort was undertaken. Averroes, who spent much of his life in Cordoba and Seville, was distinguished as a commentator of Aristotle
24.
Analytic philosophy
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Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the current practice. Central figures in historical development are Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore, Gottlob Frege. This may be contrasted with the traditional foundationalism, which considers philosophy to be a science that investigates the fundamental reasons. Consequently, many philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to. This is an attitude that begins with John Locke, who described his work as that of an underlabourer to the achievements of scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth century, the most influential advocate of the continuity of philosophy with science was Willard Van Orman Quine, the principle that the logical clarification of thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions. The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it, to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, however, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language. The neglect of generalized philosophical systems in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigorously and it is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. Its methods, in respect, resemble those of science. Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism and phenomenology. British idealism, as taught by such as F. H. Bradley and Thomas Hill Green. With reference to this basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell. Inspired by developments in logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism — the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are actually internal relations, that is, properties internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism, Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Like Frege, Russell attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics, later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic
25.
Necessity and sufficiency
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In logic, necessity and sufficiency are implicational relationships between statements. The assertion that one statement is a necessary and sufficient condition of another means that the statement is true if. That is, the two statements must be simultaneously true or simultaneously false. In ordinary English, necessary and sufficient indicate relations between conditions or states of affairs, not statements, being a male sibling is a necessary and sufficient condition for being a brother. Freds being a male sibling is necessary and sufficient for the truth of the statement that Fred is a brother, in the conditional statement, if S then N, the expression represented by S is called the antecedent and the expression represented by N is called the consequent. This conditional statement may be written in many equivalent ways, for instance, in the above situation, we also say that N is a necessary condition for S. In common language this is saying that if the statement is a true statement. Phrased differently, the antecedent S can not be true without N being true, for example, in order for someone to be called Socrates, it is necessary for that someone to be Named. We also say that S is a sufficient condition for N, if the conditional statement is true, then if S is true, N must be true. In common terms, S guarantees N, continuing the example, knowing that someone is called Socrates is sufficient to know that that someone has a Name. A necessary and sufficient condition requires that both of the implications S ⇒ N and N ⇒ S hold, from the first of these we see that S is a sufficient condition for N, and from the second that S is a necessary condition for N. This is expressed as S is necessary and sufficient for N, S if and only if N, the assertion that Q is necessary for P is colloquially equivalent to P cannot be true unless Q is true or if Q is false, then P is false. By contraposition, this is the thing as whenever P is true. The logical relation between them is expressed as if P, then Q and denoted P ⇒ Q and it may also be expressed as any of P only if Q, Q, if P, Q whenever P, and Q when P. One often finds, in prose for instance, several necessary conditions that, taken together, constitute a sufficient condition. Example 2 For the whole numbers greater than two, being odd is necessary to being prime, since two is the whole number that is both even and prime. Example 3 Consider thunder, the caused by lightning. We say that thunder is necessary for lightning, since lightning never occurs without thunder, the thunder does not cause the lightning, but because lightning always comes with thunder, we say that thunder is necessary for lightning
26.
Conceptual clustering
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Conceptual clustering is a machine learning paradigm for unsupervised classification developed mainly during the 1980s. It is distinguished from data clustering by generating a concept description for each generated class. Most conceptual clustering methods are capable of generating hierarchical category structures, conceptual clustering is closely related to formal concept analysis, decision tree learning, and mixture model learning. Thus, a statistically strong grouping in the data may fail to be extracted by the if the prevailing concept description language is incapable of describing that particular regularity. In most implementations, the language has been limited to feature conjunction, although in COBWEB. A fair number of algorithms have been proposed for conceptual clustering, some examples are given below, CLUSTER/2 COBWEB CYRUS GALOIS, GCF INC ITERATE, LABYRINTH SUBDUE. There are many other algorithms using different heuristics and category goodness or category evaluation criteria, the reader is referred to the bibliography for other methods. The COBWEB data structure is a hierarchy wherein each node represents a given concept, each concept represents a set of objects, each object being represented as a binary-valued property list. The data associated with each node are the integer property counts for the objects in that concept. For example, let a concept C1 contain the four objects. The three properties might be, for example, then what is stored at this concept node is the property count, indicating that 1 of the objects in the concept is male,3 of the objects have wings, and 3 of the objects are nocturnal. The concept description is the probability of the properties at the node. Thus, given that an object is a member of category C1, likewise, the likelihood that the object has wings and likelihood that the object is nocturnal or both is 3 /4 =0.75. The concept description can therefore simply be given as, which corresponds to the C1 -conditional feature likelihood, the figure to the right shows a concept tree with five concepts. C0 is the concept, which contains all ten objects in the data set. Concepts C1 and C2 are the children of C0, the former containing four objects, concept C2 is also the parent of concepts C3, C4, and C5, which contain three, two, and one object, respectively. Note that each parent node contains all the objects contained by its child nodes, in Fishers description of COBWEB, he indicates that only the total attribute counts are stored at the nodes. Any probabilities are computed from the attribute counts as needed, the description language of COBWEB is a language only in a loose sense, because being fully probabilistic it is capable of describing any concept
27.
Machine learning
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Machine learning is the subfield of computer science that, according to Arthur Samuel in 1959, gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning is related to computational statistics, which also focuses on prediction-making through the use of computers. It has strong ties to optimization, which delivers methods, theory. Machine learning is sometimes conflated with data mining, where the latter subfield focuses more on data analysis and is known as unsupervised learning. Machine learning can also be unsupervised and be used to learn and establish baseline behavioral profiles for various entities, tom M. be replaced with the question Can machines do what we can do. In the proposal he explores the characteristics that could be possessed by a thinking machine. Machine learning tasks are typically classified into three categories, depending on the nature of the learning signal or feedback available to a learning system. These are Supervised learning, The computer is presented with example inputs and their outputs, given by a teacher. Unsupervised learning, No labels are given to the learning algorithm, unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself or a means towards an end. Reinforcement learning, A computer program interacts with an environment in which it must perform a certain goal. The program is provided feedback in terms of rewards and punishments as it navigates its problem space, between supervised and unsupervised learning is semi-supervised learning, where the teacher gives an incomplete training signal, a training set with some of the target outputs missing. Transduction is a case of this principle where the entire set of problem instances is known at learning time. Among other categories of machine learning problems, learning to learn learns its own inductive bias based on previous experience and this is typically tackled in a supervised way. Spam filtering is an example of classification, where the inputs are email messages, in regression, also a supervised problem, the outputs are continuous rather than discrete. In clustering, a set of inputs is to be divided into groups, unlike in classification, the groups are not known beforehand, making this typically an unsupervised task. Density estimation finds the distribution of inputs in some space, dimensionality reduction simplifies inputs by mapping them into a lower-dimensional space. Topic modeling is a problem, where a program is given a list of human language documents and is tasked to find out which documents cover similar topics. As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence, already in the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data
28.
Unsupervised learning
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Unsupervised machine learning is the machine learning task of inferring a function to describe hidden structure from unlabeled data. g. Principal component analysis, Independent component analysis, Non-negative matrix factorization, the classical example of unsupervised learning in the study of both natural and artificial neural networks is subsumed by Donald Hebbs principle, that is, neurons that fire together wire together. In Hebbian learning, the connection is reinforced irrespective of an error, a similar version that modifies synaptic weights takes into account the time between the action potentials. Hebbian Learning has been hypothesized to underlie a range of functions, such as pattern recognition. Among neural network models, the map and adaptive resonance theory are commonly used unsupervised learning algorithms. The SOM is a organization in which nearby locations in the map represent inputs with similar properties. ART networks are used for many pattern recognition tasks, such as automatic target recognition. The first version of ART was ART1, developed by Carpenter, one of the statistical approaches for unsupervised learning is the method of moments. In the method of moments, the parameters in the model are related to the moments of one or more random variables, and thus. The moments are usually estimated from samples empirically, the basic moments are first and second order moments. For a random vector, the first order moment is the vector. Higher order moments are usually represented using tensors which are the generalization of matrices to higher orders as multi-dimensional arrays, in particular, the method of moments is shown to be effective in learning the parameters of latent variable models. Latent variable models are statistical models where in addition to the observed variables, in the topic modeling, the words in the document are generated according to different statistical parameters when the topic of the document is changed. It is shown that method of moments consistently recover the parameters of a class of latent variable models under some assumptions. The Expectation–maximization algorithm is one of the most practical methods for learning latent variable models. However, it can get stuck in local optima, and it is not guaranteed that the algorithm will converge to the unknown parameters of the model. Alternatively, for the method of moments, the convergence is guaranteed under some conditions. Behavioral-based detection in network security has become a good area for a combination of supervised-
29.
Cluster analysis
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Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group are more similar to each other than to those in other groups. Cluster analysis itself is not one specific algorithm, but the task to be solved. It can be achieved by various algorithms that differ significantly in their notion of what constitutes a cluster, popular notions of clusters include groups with small distances among the cluster members, dense areas of the data space, intervals or particular statistical distributions. Clustering can therefore be formulated as an optimization problem. The appropriate clustering algorithm and parameter settings depend on the data set. Cluster analysis as such is not a task, but an iterative process of knowledge discovery or interactive multi-objective optimization that involves trial. It is often necessary to modify data preprocessing and model parameters until the result achieves the desired properties, besides the term clustering, there are a number of terms with similar meanings, including automatic classification, numerical taxonomy, botryology and typological analysis. The notion of a cluster cannot be defined, which is one of the reasons why there are so many clustering algorithms. There is a common denominator, a group of data objects, however, different researchers employ different cluster models, and for each of these cluster models again different algorithms can be given. The notion of a cluster, as found by different algorithms, understanding these cluster models is key to understanding the differences between the various algorithms. Typical cluster models include, Connectivity models, for example, hierarchical clustering builds models based on distance connectivity, centroid models, for example, the k-means algorithm represents each cluster by a single mean vector. Distribution models, clusters are modeled using statistical distributions, such as multivariate normal distributions used by the Expectation-maximization algorithm, density models, for example, DBSCAN and OPTICS defines clusters as connected dense regions in the data space. Subspace models, in Biclustering, clusters are modeled with both members and relevant attributes. Group models, some algorithms do not provide a model for their results. Graph-based models, a clique, that is, a subset of nodes in a such that every two nodes in the subset are connected by an edge can be considered as a prototypical form of cluster. Relaxations of the connectivity requirement are known as quasi-cliques, as in the HCS clustering algorithm. A clustering is essentially a set of clusters, usually containing all objects in the data set. Additionally, it may specify the relationship of the clusters to each other, for example, the following overview will only list the most prominent examples of clustering algorithms, as there are possibly over 100 published clustering algorithms
"Category". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 508–510.
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