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1. Ancient Roman pottery – Pottery was produced in enormous quantities in ancient Rome, mostly for utilitarian purposes. It is found all over the former Roman Empire and beyond, fine wares were serving vessels or tableware used for more formal dining, and are usually of more decorative and elegant appearance. For example, dozens of different types of British coarse and fine wares were produced locally and it is clear from the quantities found that fine pottery was used very widely in both social and geographic terms. The more expensive pottery tended to use relief decoration, usually moulded, rather than colour, especially in the Eastern Empire, local traditions continued, hybridizing with Roman styles to varying extents. From the 3rd century the quality of fine pottery steadily declined, partly because of economic and political disturbances and these are not normally classified under the heading pottery by archaeologists, but the terracottas and lamps will be included in this article. Pottery is a key material in the dating and interpretation of archaeological sites from the Neolithic period onwards, in the Roman period, ceramics were produced and used in enormous quantities, and the literature on the subject, in numerous languages, is very extensive. These vessels have fine, fairly hard and well-fired buff to pink fabrics, however the definition of all these terms has varied and evolved over the many generations during which the material has been studied. Technically, red-gloss wares have much in common with earlier Greek painted pottery, African Red Slip ware belonged to the same tradition, and continued to be made much later than Italian and Gaulish sigillata, right through to the Islamic conquest. ARS in turn influenced the production of Phocaean red slip, which is common in the Eastern Mediterranean and also appeared occasionally as far west as Southern France and Britain. Most of these wares were widely distributed and produced on an industrial scale, the names of many potters and factory-owners are known from the potters marks frequently applied to fine wares, and can be highly informative. However, the interpretation of name-stamps can be more complex than it appears at first sight, theoretically, a decorated vessel might bear the mould-makers name, that of the bowl-maker or finisher, and the brand-name of the factory in the decoration. The use of labour in the Italian workshops is unproven. The site of La Graufesenque in South Gaul, near Millau, has extensively studied and excavated. Its products had a wide distribution in the later 1st century AD. In 1895, the German scholar Hans Dragendorff produced a classification of shapes in Roman red gloss pottery that is still used. Other numbering systems used with Italian and Gaulish sigillata include those of Déchelette, Knorr, Curle, Walters, Loeschcke, Ritterling and Ludowici, to name, details could also be added by hand with a stylus. When the decoration was complete in intaglio on the interior, the mould was dried and fired in the usual way, the details varied according to the form. The completed bowl could then be slipped, dried again, relief-decoration of tall vases or jars was usually achieved by using moulded appliqué motifs and/or barbotine decoration
2. African red slip ware – It is distinguished by a thick-orange red slip over a slightly granular fabric. Interior surfaces are covered, while the exterior can be only partially slipped. By the 3rd century AD, African red slip appears on sites throughout the Mediterranean and it was the most widely distributed representative of the sigillata tradition in the late-Roman period, and occasional imports have been found as far afield as Britain in the 5th-6th centuries. African red slip ware was widely distributed in the 5th century but after that time the volume of production. From about the 4th century, competent copies of the fabric and forms were made in several other regions, including Asia Minor. Over the long period of production, there was obviously much change, both Italian and Gaulish plain forms influenced ARS in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, but over time a distinctive ARS repertoire developed. There was a range of dishes and bowls, many with rouletted or stamped decoration. A wide range of bowls, dishes and flagons were made in ARS, instead, appliqué motifs were frequently used where decoration in relief was required, separately made and applied to the vessel before drying and firing. Similar forms and fabrics were made for local distribution in Egypt. Surface decoration of ARS is relatively simple during the first three centuries of production, with occasional rouletting, barbotine motifs and some appliqué being typical, in the 4th century applied decoration becomes common. By the 5th century stamped central motifs such as animals, crosses, paralleling developments in other visual media, gladatorial scenes and references to pagan mythology come to be replaced by Christian figures. In the last phase of production, surface treatment consists of light spiral burnishing on some plates, in 1972 John Hayes published a type series running from form 1 to 200, with forms 112-120 remaining unused. In addition to previous work, Hayes made use of Waages work in both Antioch and the Athenian Agora, as well as Lamboglias in Ventimiglia. Michael Fulfords publication of the British excavations at Avenue du Président Habib Bourguiba, carandinis typology, published in Enciclopedia dellarte antica classica e orientale, is also important. Michael Mackensen offers an alternate typology for later forms based on his work in northern Tunisia, michel Bonifay has also collected previous scholarship alongside his own observations. London, British School at Rome Hayes, John, die spätantiken Sigillata- und Lampentöpfereien von el Mahrine, Studien zur nordafrikanischen Feinkeramik des 4. Roman Pottery in Britain, London, B. T. Batsford ISBN 0-7134-7412-2 African Red Slip in Greek, Roman and Byzantine Pottery at Ilion North African Red-Slipped Ware from Potsherd, Atlas of Roman Pottery
3. Amphora – An amphora is a type of container of a characteristic shape and size, descending from at least as early as the Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products and they are most often ceramic, but examples in metals and other materials have been found. The amphora complements the large container, the pithos, which makes available capacities between one-half and two and one-half tons. In contrast, the amphora holds under a half-ton, typically less than 100 pounds, the bodies of the two types have similar shapes. Where the pithos may have small loops or lugs for fastening a rope harness. The necks of pithoi are wide for scooping or bucket access, the necks of amphorae are narrow for pouring by a person holding it by the bottom and a handle. The handles might not be present, the size may require two or three handlers to lift. For the most part, however, an amphora was tableware, or sat close to the table, was intended to be seen, stoppers of perishable materials, which have rarely survived, were used to seal the contents. Two principal types of amphorae existed, the amphora, in which the neck and body meet at a sharp angle. Neck amphorae were used in the early history of ancient Greece. Most were produced with a base to allow upright storage by embedding in soft ground. The base facilitated transport by ship, where the amphorae were packed upright or on their sides in as many as five staggered layers. If upright, the bases probably were held by some sort of rack, heather and reeds might be used as packing around the vases. Racks could be used in kitchens and shops, the base also concentrated deposits from liquids with suspended solid particles, such as olive oil and wines. Amphorae are of use to maritime archaeologists, as they often indicate the age of a shipwreck. They are occasionally so well preserved that the content is still present, providing information on foodstuffs. Amphorae were too cheap and plentiful to return to their origin-point and so, amphora is a Greco-Roman word developing in ancient Greek during the Bronze Age. The Romans acquired it during the Hellenization that occurred in the Roman Republic, cato is the first known literary person to use it
4. Antefix – An antefix is a vertical block which terminates the covering tiles of the roof of a tiled roof. In grand buildings the face of each stone ante-fix was richly carved, in less grand buildings moulded ceramic ante-fixae, usually terracotta, might be decorated with figures or other ornament, especially in the Roman period. By this time they were found on large buildings, including private houses. From Latin antefixa, pl. of antefixum, something fastened in front, from antefixus, fastened in front, ante-, ante- and fixus, fastened, past participle of figere, to fasten. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Media related to Antefixes at Wikimedia Commons
5. Barbotine – Barbotine is the French for ceramic slip, or a mixture of clay and water used for moulding or decorating pottery. In English the term is used for two different techniques, though in both cases mainly for historical works. In the first, common from the Ancient World onwards, the barbotine is piped onto the object rather as cakes are decorated with icing, using a quill, horn, or other kind of nozzle. The slip would normally be in a colour to the rest of the vessel, and forms a pattern, or inscription. This is normally called slip-trailing in English today, but barbotine remains common in archaeology, the second technique is a term for slipcasting, couler en barbotine in French. Barbotine pottery is used for 19th-century French and American pottery with added slipcast decoration. Slip or barbotine is cast in moulds to form three-dimensional decorative sections which when dried out are added to the main vessel, typically, these might be flowers, fruit, or small animals. The first barbotine technique in pottery styling was in use in the ancient world, the Egyptians were known to have used barbotine design. The second sense of the term entered English via French potteries such as Sèvres and the Haviland Company of Limoges, the term Barbotine ware also describes the American art pottery that emulated the Haviland pottery. Minoan pottery Samian ware Roman jug from the British Museum
6. Campana reliefs – Campana reliefs are Ancient Roman terracotta reliefs made from the middle of the first century BC until the first half of the second century AD. They are named after the Italian collector Giampietro Campana, who first published these reliefs and they were produced in unknown quantities of copies from moulds and served as decoration for temples as well as public and private buildings, as cheaper imitations of carved stone friezes. They originated in the tiled roofs of the Etruscan temples. A wide variety of motifs from mythology and religion featured on the reliefs as well as images of everyday Roman life, landscapes, originally they were painted in colour, of which only traces of this occasionally remain. They were mainly produced in the region of Latium around the city of Rome, today examples are found in almost all major museums of Roman art worldwide. The first collector to make the items of interest was marchese Giampietro Campana. His influence and contemporary reputation in archaeology was so great that he was named a member of the Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica. He published his collection in 1842 in Antiche opere in plastica, thus the tiles became known as Campana reliefs. Afterwards Campana was sentenced to imprisonment for embezzlement, in 1858 he lost his membership in the Istituto di corrispondenza archeologica and his collection was pawned. The terracotta reliefs owned by him are now in the Louvre in Paris, the British Museum in London, other collectors, such as August Kestner, also collected the reliefs and fragments of them in greater numbers. Today examples are found in most larger collections of Roman archaeological finds, though the majority of the reliefs are in Italian museums, despite Campanas research, for a long time the reliefs were rather neglected. They were viewed as handicrafts, thus inherently inferior, and not art and this was the first attempt to organise and classify the reliefs according to the emerging principles of Art history. The two authors first distinguished the main types, discussed their use and considered their development, style, thereafter, apart from the publication of new finds, interest flagged for more than fifty years. In 1968 Adolf Heinrich Borbeins thesis Campanareliefs, typologische und Stilkritische Untersuchungen brought these archaeological finds to wider attention. In his work, Borbein was able to establish the development of the Campana reliefs from their origins among Etruscan-Italiote terracotta tiles and he also dealt with the use of motifs and templates derived from other media and pointed out that the artisans thereby produced creative new works. The quality of the ceramic product depended principally on the quality, particular importance attached to the tempering, when the clay had various additives mixed in, sand, chopped straw, crushed brick, or even volcanic pozzolan. These additives minimised the contraction of the tile as it dried so that it retained its shape and these additives can be recognised as little red, brown, or black flecks, especially noticeable when crushed brick is used. The tiles were not individually made as unique artworks but as series, from an original relief a mould in the shape of a negative was produced
7. Giampietro Campana – Giampietro Campana, created marchese di Cavelli, was an Italian art collector who assembled one of the nineteenth centurys greatest collection of Greek and Roman sculpture and antiquities. The part of his collection of Hellenistic and Roman gold jewellery conserved in the Musée du Louvre warranted an exhibition devoted to it in 2005-06. He was a collector of early Italian paintings, the so-called primitives of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. And like many collectors of his generation, he coveted Italian maiolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1835 he was made a cavaliere of the Order of the Golden Spur by Pope Gregory XVI in gratitude for the loans that the reorganized Monte di Pietà had been able to make to the Vatican. Campagnas first archaeological excavations were undertaken in 1829 at Frascati, where the family had the use of properties belonging to the Camera Apostolica and he also collected Italian paintings, forming a notable collection of the so-called primitives of the 14th and 15th centuries. His obtained prominent positions with the administration and was placed in charge of the excavations at Ostia. Giovanni in Laterano, it had been beautified and its range extended in a classicising manner that seemed to one lady visitor a temple of old Rome, with well-proportioned columns. Its curving drive was shaded with some of the first Eucalyptus in Rome, annexed to the villa was the tiny ancient Church of Santa Maria Imperatrice. The two sections of the grounds were connected by a private tunnel beneath via Santi Quattro Coronati. In 1851 Campana married the Englishwoman Emily Rowles, whose family had connections to Prince Louis Napoleon, soon Napoleon III, because of his cultural merits, he was given the title of marchese di Cavelli by Ferdinand II of Naples. John Lateran, among the guests was Ludwig of Bavaria, the Campana reliefs were more easily viewed, as they were at the Monte di Pietà. The head of the horned Bacchus, and a gold fibula with an Etruscan inscription, equal, if they do not surpass, one of the most remarkable objects in this collection is a superb Scarabæus in sardonyx, representing Cadmus destroying the Dragon. The collection of Etruscan vases is also very fine, several presenting historical scenes, with Greek, there are several fine specimens of Etruscan helmets, with delicate wreaths of gold foliage placed upon them. The collection of glass and enamels is most interesting, consisting of elegant tazze of blue, white, the series of Etruscan vases, not only from Etruria proper, but from Magna Grecia, is rich and extensive. In 2001 Susanna Sarti published an attempt to trace the current location of the listed items, in a stunning reversal of his private fortunes, he pawned his antique jewels, and successively other parts of the collection. He was accused, arrested in November 1857 and convicted of embezzlement from the funds in his care. After a dramatic trial he was condemned to twenty years prison which was commuted to exile and his collection was sequestered by the Pontifical State
8. Corpus vasorum antiquorum – Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum is an international research project for ceramic documentation of the classical area. CVA is the first and oldest research project of the Union Académique Internationale, the first project meeting was organized by Edmond Pottier in Paris in 1919. The final decision was to publish a catalogue of ancient Greek vases. He was also the publisher of the first fascicle for the Louvre in 1922, at that time six countries were part of the project. Today the project covers a compendium of more than 100,000 vases located in collections of 26 participating countries, at present day only public collections located in museums are added to the catalogue. Every participating country is responsible for its own scope, while the Union Académique Internationale in Brussels has the patronage traditionally led by a French scientist. Currently in charge is Juliette de La Genière, the CVA publishes Greek and Italian ceramics of the classical period between the seventh millennium B. C. and the late Antiquity. The publications are divided into fascicles by country and museum, by the end of 2007 a total of 350 volumes consisting of 40,000 fascicles were published. One of the largest amounts of publications was done in Germany,84 volumes and 3 supplements, since 2004 all textual descriptions and images are freely accessible as a web-based database. Languages allowed for publication are English, French, German and Italian, further publication rules have to be fulfilled. This often requires a restoration of the actual objects, for example, fragments have to be distinctively different from restored parts. For older restorations this is not the case. The documentation of a vessel is done in several steps, first the vessel is described in its overall condition followed by an iconographic interpretation. If possible an artist or a workshop will be determined, integral parts of the documentation are photographs and hand-drawings depending on the condition of the vessel and the projects budget. The Austrian commission used for the first-time of the CVA a 3D-Scanner for documentation of vessel shapes, a follow-up project using 3D-Acquisition has been granted. The last step of the documentation is a chronologic classification, art in Ancient Greece Pottery of ancient Greece Colloque International sur le Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum, compte rendu réd. par Charles Dugas. Summary guide to Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum, compiled by Thomas H. Carpenter, kurtz, A corpus of ancient vases
9. Hans Dragendorff – Hans Dragendorff was a Baltic German scholar who introduced the first classification system for the type of Ancient Roman pottery known as Samian ware or Terra sigillata, in 1896, using type numbers. His scheme was based on the forms the vessels took and although it has since been augmented and refined by others. Dragendorff studied in Dorpat, Berlin and Bonn with Georg Loeschcke, 1911-1922 he was secretary general of the DAI. In 1922, he got a chair in Freiburg, a post he held until 1933. for an obituary, see Nachrichtenblatt für Deutsche Vorzeit 17,1941, Hans Dragendorff Biography Potsherd Searchable database by Dragendorff and other classification systems. Works by or about Hans Dragendorff at Internet Archive
10. Duenos inscription – The Duenos inscription is one of the earliest known Old Latin texts, variously dated from the 7th to the 5th century BC. It is inscribed on the sides of a kernos, in case a trio of small globular vases adjoined by three clay struts. It was found by Heinrich Dressel in 1880 on the Quirinal Hill in Rome, the kernos belongs to the Staatliche Museen in Berlin. The inscription is written right to left in three units, without spaces to separate words and it is difficult to translate, as some letters are hard to distinguish, particularly since they cannot always be deduced by context. The absence of spaces causes additional difficulty in assigning the letters to the respective words, there have been many proposed translations advanced by scholars since the discovery of the kernos, Arthur E. Gordon in 1983 estimated their number as over fifty, no two in full agreement. However thanks to Gordons work the reading of the text can be now considered certain, below is the transcription and one of many possible interpretations, a. the direct transcription b. direct transcription with possible macrons and word breaks c. A speculative interpretation and translation into Classical Latin d. an English translation of that transcription, interpretation and translation, IOVESATDEIVOSQOIMEDMITATNEITEDENDOCOSMISVIRCOSIED b. iouesāt deivos qoi mēd mitāt, nei tēd endō cosmis vircō siēd c. Iurat deos qui me mittit, ni in te comis virgo sit d, the person who sends me prays to the gods, lest the girl be not kind towards thee Line 2, a. ASTEDNOISIOPETOITESIAIPAKARIVOIS b. as tēd noisi opetoit esiāi pākā riuois c. at te paca rivis d. without thee calm with rivers Line 3, DVENOSMEDFECEDENMANOMEINOMDVENOINEMEDMALOSTATOD b. duenos mēd fēced en mānōm einom duenōi nē mēd malo statōd c. Bonus me fecit in manum einom bono, ne me malus d, a good man made me in his own. Hands for a man, in case an evil man take me. An interpretation set out by Warmington and Eichner, renders the complete translation as follows and it is sworn with the gods, whence Im issued, If a maiden does not smile at you,2. Nor is strongly attracted to you, then soothe her with this fragrance, someone good has filled me for someone good and well-mannered, and not shall I be obtained by someone bad. Duenos is a form of the Latin word bonus, meaning good. Some scholars posit Duenos as a name, instead of merely an adjective. Although these claims have been disproven, as a new analysis performed in 2011 declared it to be genuine beyond any reasonable doubt, the inscription is scratched along the side of the body of three vases made of dark brown bucchero, connected with each other by short cylindric arms. It is written right to left spiralling downwards about 1. Some letters are written in a fashion that appears influenced by Greek
11. Eastern sigillata A – In archeology, eastern sigillata A is a category of late Hellenistic and early Roman terra sigillata. In 1957, Kathleen Kenyon introduced categories A, B, C, for ESA, still no production centers have been identified but distribution patterns suggest an origin in northern Syria. ESA is distinguished by the fineness of its fabric, which stands out as pale in comparison to the deep red-slip that usually covers all surfaces. When fully applied, the slip is of a consistent color, there are many examples on which the thickness of the slip varies considerably or on which firing is inconsistent and very dark in patches. A full range of plates, bowls, cups and jugs was produced, early forms develop in the context of an eastern Mediterranean Hellenistic Koine, while later products are influenced by trends originating in Italian workshops. Many ESA forms are mold-made and exhibit distinct delineation between walls and floors as well as elegantly curved exterior and base profiles, the consequent overlap produced a line of thicker slip that became visibly darker during firing. Eastern sigillata B Eastern sigillata C Eastern sigillata D Hayes, John, sigillate Orientali, in Enciclopedia dellarte antica classica e orientale. Atlante delle Forme Ceramiche II, Ceramica Fine Romana nel Bacino Mediterraneo, Rome, “The fine wares” in Sharon Herbert, Tel Anafa II, i, Ann Arbor, 247-416
12. Eastern sigillata C – Eastern sigillata C, also known as Çandarli ware, is a category of Late Hellenistic and Roman terra sigillata. The best known center is at Çandarlı, ancient Pitane. Eastern sigillata A Eastern sigillata B Eastern sigillata D Hayes, John, sigillate Oriental in Enciclopedia dellarte antica classica e orientale. Atlante delle Forme Ceramiche II, Ceramica Fine Romana nel Bacino Mediterraneo, Eastern Sigillata C in Greek, Roman and Byzantine Pottery at Ilion. Loeschke, S. Sigillata-Töpfereien in Çandarlı, Athenische Mitteilungen 37, pp. 344–407
13. Egyptian faience – Egyptian faience is a sintered-quartz ceramic displaying surface vitrification which creates a bright lustre of various colours, with blue-green being the most common. Notably, faience is considerably more porous than glass proper and can be cast in molds to create vessels or objects, Egyptian faience was very widely used for small objects from beads to small statues, and is found in both elite and popular contexts. It was the most common material for scarabs and other forms of amulet and shabti figures, larger applications included cups and bowls, and wall tiles, mostly used for temples. 9-centimetre faience sceptre from Egypt dated 1427–1400 BC. It is called Egyptian faience to distinguish it from faience, the tin-glazed pottery associated with Faenza in northern Italy, the term is therefore unsatisfactory in several respects, although clear in an Ancient Egyptian context, and is increasingly rejected in museum and archaeological usage. The bodies are usually colourless but natural impurities give them a brown or greyish tint, colourants can also be added to give it an artificial colour. It can be modelled by hand, thrown or moulded, and this material is used in the context of Islamic ceramics where it is described as stonepaste. Glazed composition is related to glass, but glass is formed by fusing the ingredients in a liquid melted at high temperature. This material is also popularly called faience in the contexts of Ancient Egypt, however, this is a misnomer as these objects have no relationship to the glazed pottery vessels made in Faenza, from which the faience term derives. From the inception of faience in the record of Ancient Egypt. Glazed in these colours, faience was perceived as substitute for blue-green materials such as turquoise, found in the Sinai peninsula, and lapis lazuli, from Afghanistan. As early as the Predynastic graves at Naqada, Badar, el-Amrah, Matmar, Harageh, Avadiyedh and El-Gerzeh, glazed steatite and faience beads are found associated with these semi-precious stones. The symbolism embedded in blue glazing could recall both the Nile, the waters of heaven and the home of the gods, whereas green could possibly evoke images of regeneration, rebirth and vegetation. Such close relationship is reflected in the prominent similarity of the formulations of faience glaze, Faience has been defined as the first high technology ceramic, to emphasize its status as an artificial medium, rendering it effectively a precious stone. Plant ash, from halophyte plants typical of dry and sea areas, was the source of alkali until the Ptolemaic Period. Typical faience mixture is thixotropic, that is thick at first and then soft and this property, together with the angularity of silica particles, accounts for the gritty slumps formed when the material is wetted, rendering faience a difficult material to hold a shape. If pressed too vigorously, this material will resist flow until it yields and cracks, due to its limited plastic deformation and low yield strength. A number of possible binding agents, amongst Arabic gum, clay, lime, egg white, the use of alkalis as binders, in the form of natron or plant ash, produced suitable results in experiments. Three methods have been hypothesized to shape the body of faience objects, modeling, moulding and abrasion, modeling, scraping and grinding are the techniques most widely used in earlier times, as represented in the material qualities of Predynastic and Protodynastic faience objects
14. Horrea Galbae – The Horrea Galbae were warehouses in the southern part of ancient Rome, located between the southern end of the Aventine Hill and the waste dump of Monte Testaccio. They ran for a distance, possibly extending as far as the Porta Ostensis in the east. The horrea were built on the site of a suburban villa owned by the Sulpicii Galbae. The tomb of Servius Sulpicius Galba stood in front of the warehouse complex and it is not clear when the horrea were founded, but presumably it was some time after the tomb was built. The complex was originally known as the Horrea Sulpicia, after the nomen of the gens Sulpicia. They were used to store the annona publica as well as oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing. The size of the Horrea Galbae was enormous, even by modern standards and it is thought that Monte Testaccio, the giant mound of broken amphorae that lay behind the Horrea Galbae, was associated with the complex. Olive oil imported from far-away Baetica was emptied into bulk containers, probably in the horrea, little now remains of the Horrea Galbae. Walls and brickwork, dating probably from the 1st century AD, have discovered by archaeologists along with large lead pipes bearing inscriptions from Hadrians reign in the following century
15. Imbrex and tegula – The imbrex and tegula were overlapping roof tiles used in ancient Greek and Roman architecture as a waterproof and durable roof covering. They were made predominantly of fired clay, but also sometimes of marble, in Rome, they replaced wooden shingles, and were used on almost every type of structure, from humble outbuildings to grand temples and public facilities. When well-made and properly imbricated, there was little need for further waterproofing or sealant, the roofing area was generally surrounded by antefixae which were often decorated, and had several decorative anthemia to cover each end row imbrex. Imbrices and tegulae were first made by the Greeks, like bricks, they were formed of wet clay in a four-sided mould, often shaped with a piece of wire, and then baked in an oven or kiln. More sophisticated moulds were developed over time, the imbrices completed the waterproofing of the roof by arching over the joints between the vertical edges of the tegulae, dividing the roof into channels. Rain water flowed off the curved imbrices into the channels and down over the surfaces of the tegulae, in formal architecture the canalis had a plain or ornamented frontal piece set atop the entablature, immediately above the cornice. By Roman times many tiles were being made under the auspices of various Roman legions, imbrices and tegulae are common finds in archaeological sites, and their design and markings can be of use in dating the sites and identifying the inhabitants. For instance, a 1993 archaeological dig in Merseyside in England uncovered over 300 kg of tile, some of the tegulae were stamped with the LXXVV insigniae of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix. Romans also often recycled broken tiles by incorporating them into mortar, tiles of marble were first used around the year 620 BC. Besides the superior beauty and durability of the material, these tiles could be made of a larger size than those of clay. Consequently, they were used in the construction of the greatest temples, such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Parthenon at Athens, still more expensive and magnificent tiles were made of bronze and gilt. Ceramic building material Monk and Nun William, Smith, a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
16. La Graufesenque – La Graufesenque is an archaeological site 2 km from Millau, Aveyron, France, at the confluence of the Tarn and Dourbie rivers. The site, partly owned by the commune and partly private, has been listed by the French Ministry of Culture since 1926 and it was classified as a monument historique in 1995. Production of pottery at La Graufesenque started under the reign of Augustus, production reached a peak in the third quarter of the first century, and declined as a major exporter thereafter. Reduced activity servicing local needs continued until the third century, the pottery was made from local clay with a red slip and fired in wood burning kilns which could hold up to 40 thousand items. More than six hundred pottery workshops are known to have been in operation, lieux de production du Haut Empire, implantations, produits, relations. Documents darchéologie française,6, Maison des Sciences de lHomme, ministère de la Culture et de la Communication. Marichal, R. Les graffites de la Graufesenque, supplément à Gallia,47, Éditions du CNRS, Paris
17. Monte Testaccio – Monte Testaccio is an artificial mound in Rome composed almost entirely of testae, fragments of broken amphorae dating from the time of the Roman Empire, some of which were labelled with tituli picti. It has a circumference of nearly a kilometre and stands 35 metres high, though it was considerably higher in ancient times. It stands a short distance away from the east bank of the River Tiber, the mound later had both religious and military significance. It has been estimated that the contains the remains of as many as 53 million olive oil amphorae. The vast majority of vessels had a capacity of some 70 liters. As the vessels found at Monte Testaccio appear to represent mainly state-sponsored olive oil imports, Monte Testaccio was not simply a haphazard waste dump, it was a highly organised and carefully engineered creation, presumably managed by a state administrative authority. Excavations carried out in 1991 showed that the mound had been raised as a series of terraces with retaining walls made of nearly intact amphorae filled with shards to anchor them in place. Empty amphorae were probably carried up the mound intact on the backs of donkeys or mules and then broken up on the spot, lime appears to have been sprinkled over the broken pots to neutralise the smell of rancid oil. As the oldest parts of Monte Testaccio are at the bottom of the mound, deposits found by excavators have been dated to a period between approximately AD140 to 250, but it is possible that dumping could have begun on the site as early as the 1st century BC. The mound has a triangular shape comprising two distinct platforms, the eastern side being the oldest. At least four series of terraces were built in a stepped arrangement. Layers of small sherds were laid down in places, possibly to serve as paths for those carrying out the waste disposal operations. The hill was constructed using mostly the fragments of large globular 70-liter vessels from Baetica and it also included smaller numbers of two types of amphorae from Tripolitania and Byzacena. All three types of vessel were used to transport olive oil, however, it is not clear why Monte Testaccio was built using only olive oil vessels. The oil itself was probably decanted into bulk containers when the amphorae were unloaded at the port, one possibility is that the Dressel 20 amphora, the principal type found at Monte Testaccio, may have been unusually difficult to recycle. Many types of amphora could be re-used to carry the type of product or modified to serve a different purpose—for instance. Fragmentary amphorae could be pounded into chips to use in opus signinum, the Dressel 20 amphora, however, broke into large curved fragments that could not readily be reduced to small shards. It is likely that the difficulty of reusing or repurposing the Dressel 20s meant that it was economical to discard them
18. Mortarium – A mortarium was one of a class of Ancient Roman pottery kitchen vessels. They are hemispherical or conical bowls, commonly with heavy flanges and they were used for pounding or mixing foods and are an important indicator of the spread of Romanized food preparation methods. Stamps on some early Roman mortaria record the name of the potter, some vessels produced in Italy and Gaul are transported long distances but local factories dominate at most periods. Many fancy red mortaria had a hole near the top to allow the discharge of liquids. The English word mortar derives from classical Latin mortarium, meaning, among several other usages, receptacle for pounding and product of grinding or pounding
19. Oil lamp – An oil lamp is an object used to produce light continuously for a period of time using an oil-based fuel source. The use of oil lamps began thousands of years ago and continues to this day and they are often associated with stories in which rubbing an oil lamp would summon a genie dwelling in it, like seen in Aladdin. Oil lamps are a form of lighting, and were used as an alternative to candles before the use of electric lights, starting in 1780 the Argand lamp quickly replaced other oil lamps still in their basic ancient form. These in turn were replaced by the lamp in about 1850. In small towns and rural areas the latter continued in use well into the 20th century, until such areas were finally electrified, most modern lamps have been replaced by gas-based or petroleum-based fuels to operate when emergency non-electric light is required. Therefore, oil lamps of today are used for the particular ambience they produce. The following are the external parts of a terra-cotta lamp. The width ranges from 0. 5-5 cm in general, there may be single or multiple holes. It may be just an opening in the body of the lamp, in some specific types of lamps there is a groove on the superior aspect of the nozzle that runs to the pouring hole to collect back the oozing oil from the wick. Handle Lamps come with and without a handle, the handle comes in different shapes. The most common is ring shaped for the forefinger surmounted by a palmette on which the thumb is pressed to stabilize the lamp, other handles are crescent shaped, triangular and semi-oval. The handleless lamps usually have a nozzle, and sometimes have a lug rising diagonally from the periphery. The lug may act as a handle where the thumb rests. It was speculated that pierced lugs were used to place a pen or straw, called the acus or festuca, others think that the pierced lugs were used to hang the lamp with a metal hook when not in use. Discus Fuel chamber The fuel reservoir, the mean volume in a typical terra-cotta lamp is 20 cc. Lamps can be categorized based on different criteria, including material, shape, structure, design, and imagery. Typologically, lamps of the Ancient Mediterranean can be divided into seven categories, Wheel made, This category includes Greek. They are characterized by simple, little or no decoration, and a wide hole, a lack of handles. Pierced lugs occurred briefly between 4th and 3rd century BCE, unpierced lugs continued until the 1st century BCE
20. Olla (Roman pot) – In ancient Roman culture, the olla is a squat, rounded pot or jar. An olla would be used primarily to cook or store food, in ancient Roman religion, ollae have ritual use and significance, including as cinerary urns. In the study of Gallo-Roman art and culture, an olla is the small pot carried by Sucellus, by the mallet god often identified with him, olla is a generic word for a cooking pot, such as would be used for vegetables, porridge, pulse and such. Isidore of Seville said that the word derived from ebullit, it boils up. It was a word of ordinary usage, and does not appear in works by Vergil, Horace. The kitchen reconstructed at the House of the Vettii from Pompeii shows a large set on a tripod on the stove. Ollae were used for funerary purposes from earliest times, in Italic inhumations, ollae might be placed with the body in the tomb as grave goods, sometimes with a ladle or dipper. A tomb from a 7th-century BC necropolis at Civita Castellana yielded an olla decorated with a pair of horses, from the 3rd century BC into the 2nd century AD of the Imperial era, cremation was the most characteristic means of disposing of a body among the Romans. Ollae shifted function to hold cremated remains for entombment, a practice of Etruscan as well as Italic burials, the remains of those of modest means might be contained in earthenware ollae placed on the shelves of an ollarium or columbarium. The exta were the liver, gall, lungs. The olla was one of the implements of sacrifice, and appears in reliefs as such. Ollae figured in the rituals of the Arval Brethren, the Brothers of the Fields who constituted a college of priests dating from Romes archaic period, the exta of the victims used in their sacrifices were placed in an olla and cooked. Examples of these pots have been uncovered by archaeologists in the sacred groves of the Arvals. Their rudimentary technique suggests the antiquity of the religious traditions associated with them. After conducting their rites, the Arval priests opened the door to the temple, the name of the woodland god Silvanus appears in inscriptions within the province of Gallia Narbonensis with representations of a mallet, an olla, or both. The mallet is not an attribute of Silvanus, and may be borrowed from the Celtic mallet god sometimes identified with Sucellus
21. Phocaean red slip – Phocaean red slip is a category of terra sigillata, or fine Ancient Roman pottery produced in or near the ancient city of Phokaia in Asia Minor. It is recognizable by its thin reddish slip over a fine fabric, the main period of production is the late 4th century AD into the 7th century, contemporary to the later production of African red slip. All forms are bowls or dishes. The supplement to that established the name Phocaean Red Slip. Hayes form 3 and Hayes form 10 are the most widely exported forms, appearing in the western Mediterranean, london, British School at Rome Hayes, John. A supplement to Late Roman Pottery, OCLC8185010 Phocaean Red Slip in Greek, Roman and Byzantine Pottery at Ilion
22. Pilae stacks – Pilae stacks are stacks of pilae tiles, square or round tiles, that were used in Roman times as an element of the underfloor heating system, common in Roman bathhouses, called the hypocaust. The concept of the Pilae stacks is that the floor is constructed at a position, allowing air to freely circulate underneath and up, through the hollow bricks. Examples of such baths are not only in Rome, but also in Roman Britain and distant parts of the Roman Empire such as the baths at Chellah. This architectural technique was the first form of heating and the same principle is still used today. Ceramic building material Roman bath Suspensura C. Michael Hogan, Chellah, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham J. H. Middleton. The Remains of Ancient Rome, Published by Adam and Charles Black, v.2
23. Terra sigillata – Usually roughly translated as sealed earth, the meaning of terra sigillata is clay bearing little images, not clay with a sealed surface. The archaeological term is applied, however, to plain-surfaced pots as well as decorated with figures in relief. Terra sigillata as a term refers chiefly to a specific type of plain and decorated tableware made in Italy. The sigillata industries grew up in areas where there were existing traditions of pottery manufacture, the products of the Italian workshops are also known as Aretine ware from Arezzo and have been collected and admired since the Renaissance. The wares made in the Gaulish factories are referred to by English-speaking archaeologists as samian ware. All these types of pottery are significant for archaeologists, they can often be closely dated, modern Terra sig should be clearly distinguished from the close reproductions of Roman wares made by some potters deliberately recreating and using the Roman methods. The finish called terra sigillata by studio potters can be made from most clay, mixed as a thin liquid slip. When applied to unfired clay surfaces, terra sig can be polished with a cloth or brush to achieve a shine ranging from a smooth silky lustre to a high gloss. The surface of ancient terra sigillata vessels did not require this burnishing or polishing, burnishing was a technique used on some wares in the Roman period, but terra sigillata was not one of them. The polished surface can only be retained if fired within the range and will lose its shine if fired higher. The oldest use for the terra sigillata was for a medicinal clay from the island of Lemnos. The latter was called sealed because cakes of it were pressed together, later, it bore the seal of the Ottoman sultan. He promoted it as a panacea effective against every type of poison and several diseases, berthold invited authorities to test it themselves. In 1581, a prince tested the antidote on a condemned criminal and these high-quality tablewares were particularly popular and widespread in the Western Roman Empire from about 50 BC to the early 3rd century AD. Not all red-gloss ware was decorated, and hence the more inclusive term Samian ware is sometimes used to all varieties of it. However, samian ware is normally used only to refer to the sub-class of terra sigillata made in ancient Gaul, in European languages other than English, terra sigillata, or a translation, is always used for both Italian and Gaulish products. Italian and Gaulish TS vessels were made in standardised shapes constituting services of matching dishes, bowls and these reference sometimes make it possible to date the manufacture of a broken decorated sherd to within 20 years or less. The mould was therefore decorated on its surface with a full decorative design of impressed