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Philosophy of science
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Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of theories. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, in addition to these general questions about science as a whole, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences. Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself, Karl Popper and Charles Sanders Pierce moved on from positivism to establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of an analysis of human experience. Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einsteins general relativity, a central theme is whether one scientific discipline can be reduced to the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology, the general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics, the question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the philosophy of medicine. Distinguishing between science and non-science is referred to as the demarcation problem, for example, should psychoanalysis be considered science. How about so-called creation science, the multiverse hypothesis, or macroeconomics. Karl Popper called this the question in the philosophy of science. However, no unified account of the problem has won acceptance among philosophers, Martin Gardner has argued for the use of a Potter Stewart standard for recognizing pseudoscience. Early attempts by the logical positivists grounded science in observation while non-science was non-observational, Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability. That is, every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false, a closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about events, society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. One early and influential theory of scientific explanation is the deductive-nomological model and it says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law
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Philosophy
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Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Ontology
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Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence or reality as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Although ontology as an enterprise is highly hypothetical, it also has practical application in information science and technology. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Principal questions of ontology include, What can be said to exist, into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things. What are the meanings of being, what are the various modes of being of entities. Various philosophers have provided different answers to these questions, one common approach involves dividing the extant subjects and predicates into groups called categories. Such an understanding of ontological categories, however, is merely taxonomic, what does it mean for a being to be. Is existence a genus or general class that is divided up by specific differences. Which entities, if any, are fundamental, how do the properties of an object relate to the object itself. What features are the essential, as opposed to merely accidental attributes of a given object, how many levels of existence or ontological levels are there. Can one give an account of what it means to say that an object exists. Can one give an account of what it means to say that an entity exists. What constitutes the identity of an object, when does an object go out of existence, as opposed to merely changing. Do beings exist other than in the modes of objectivity and subjectivity, i. e. is the subject/object split of modern philosophy inevitable. e. Being, that which is, which is the present participle of the verb εἰμί, eimí, i. e. to be, I am, and -λογία, -logia, i. e. logical discourse. The first occurrence in English of ontology as recorded by the OED came in a work by Gideon Harvey, Archelogia philosophica nova, or, New principles of Philosophy
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Epistemology
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer
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Truth
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Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard. Truth may also often be used in modern contexts to refer to an idea of truth to self, the commonly understood opposite of truth is falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. Commonly, truth is viewed as the correspondence of language or thought to an independent reality, other philosophers take this common meaning to be secondary and derivative. On this view, the conception of truth as correctness is a derivation from the concepts original essence. Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, language and words are a means by which humans convey information to one another and the method used to determine what is a truth is termed a criterion of truth. The English word truth is derived from Old English tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ, Middle English trewþe, cognate to Old High German triuwida, like troth, it is a -th nominalisation of the adjective true. Old Norse trú, faith, word of honour, religious faith, thus, truth involves both the quality of faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity, and that of agreement with fact or reality, in Anglo-Saxon expressed by sōþ. All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a distinction between truth fidelity and truth factuality. To express factuality, North Germanic opted for nouns derived from sanna to assert, affirm, while continental West Germanic opted for continuations of wâra faith, trust, pact. Romance languages use terms following the Latin veritas, while the Greek aletheia, Russian pravda, each presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars. However, the theories are not universally accepted. More recently developed deflationary or minimalist theories of truth have emerged as competitors to the substantive theories. Minimalist reasoning centres around the notion that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature. Minimalist reasoning realises truth as a label utilised in general discourse to express agreement, to stress claims, correspondence theories emphasise that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs. This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other and it is a traditional model tracing its origins to ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to things, Aquinas also restated the theory as, A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality. Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors, for example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages
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History and philosophy of science
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The history and philosophy of science is an academic discipline that encompasses the philosophy of science and the history of science. Although many scholars in the field are trained primarily as either historians or as philosophers and it is work that is both historical and philosophical at the same time. The founding insight of the discipline of HPS is that history and philosophy have a special affinity. One origin of the discipline is the historical approach to the discipline of the philosophy of science. This hybrid approach is reflected in the career of Thomas Kuhn and his first permanent appointment, at the University of California, Berkeley, was to a position advertised by the philosophy department, but he also taught courses from the history department. They differ in a number of their central constitutive characteristics, of which the most general, the final product of most historical research is a narrative, a story, about particulars of the past. The philosopher, on the hand, aims principally at explicit generalizations. He is no teller of stories, true or false and his goal is to discover and state what is true at all times and places rather than to impart understanding of what occurred at a particular time and place. More recent work questions whether these methodological and conceptual divisions are in fact barriers to a unified discipline. srbiau. ac
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Antipositivism
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Antipositivism is the belief within social science that the social realm is not subject to the same methods of investigation as the natural world. The social realm requires a different epistemology in which academics do not use the method of the natural sciences. Antipositivists hold that researchers need to be, first, aware that our concepts, ideas, therefore, antipositivists focus on understanding the interpretative method employed. Beginning with Giambattista Vico in the eighteenth century, and later with Montesquieu. The former is not directly under mans control whereas the latter is in mans creation. As such, a distinction is made between the natural world and the social realm which informs antipositivism. The natural world can only be understood with regard to its characteristics, whereas the social realm can be understood externally and internally. The internal focus is seen fully developed in antipositivist methods, in the early nineteenth century, various intellectuals, led by the Hegelians, questioned the prospect of empirical social analysis. The enhanced positivism presented by Emile Durkheim would serve to found modern academic sociology and social research, edmund Husserl, meanwhile, negated positivism through the rubric of phenomenology. As an antipositivist, however, one seeks relationships that are not as ahistorical, invariant, the interaction between theory and data is always fundamental in social science and this subjection distinguishes it from physical science. Durkheim himself noted the importance of constructing concepts in the abstract in order to form workable categories for experimentation. The science whose object is to interpret the meaning of action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds. By action in this definition is meant the human behaviour when, in neither case is the meaning thought of as somehow objectively correct or true by some metaphysical criterion. Through the work of Simmel, in particular, sociology acquired a possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand and his sociology engaged in a neo-Kantian critique of the limits of human perception. One may say Michel Foucaults critiques of the human sciences take Kantian scepticism to its extreme over half a century later. Antipositivism thus holds there is no unity of the sciences. Science aims at understanding causality so control can be exerted, if this succeeded in sociology, those with knowledge would be able to control the ignorant and this could lead to social engineering. The base concepts of antipositivism have expanded beyond the scope of science, in fact
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Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society
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It is an international society, which also has a publication series. The location of the ALWS is in Kirchberg am Wechsel and the location was selected because Ludwig Wittgenstein taught at elementary schools close Kirchberg am Wechsel in the 1920s, the ALWS has two primary goals. To promote the analysis, tradition, and dissemination of Wittgenstein’s philosophy and they currently report 120 members both national and international. Individuals can download an application form their website, membership is decided by the Executive Committee of the ALWS based on academic criteria. Members receive a 30% discount on fees for the International Wittgenstein Symposium, since the first International Wittgenstein Symposium, the ALWS has published its proceedings. In 2006, they started a new series, the new series contains, The official proceedings of the International Wittgenstein Symposium Special workshops High-quality publications submitted to and reviewed by the ALWS. The ILWI was recently founded by the ALWS and supports scientific and cultural projects that are related to Wittgenstein’s philosophy and the goals of the ALWS
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Causality
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The four causes are elements of an influential principle in Aristotelian thought whereby explanations of change or movement are classified into four fundamental types of answer to the question why. Aristotle wrote that we do not have knowledge of a thing until we have grasped its why, while there are cases where identifying a cause is difficult, or in which causes might merge, Aristotle was convinced that his four causes provided an analytical scheme of general applicability. The translation of Aristotles αἰτία that is nearest to current ordinary language is explanation, for a table, that might be wood, for a statue, that might be bronze or marble. Form, a change or movements formal cause, is a change or movement caused by the arrangement, Aristotle says for example that the ratio 2,1, and number in general, is the cause of the octave. Agent, a change or movements efficient or moving cause, consists of things apart from the thing being changed or moved, which interact so as to be an agency of the change or movement. For example, the efficient cause of a table is a carpenter, or a working as one. End or purpose, a change or movements final cause, is that for the sake of which a thing is what it is, for a seed, it might be an adult plant. For a sailboat, it might be sailing, for a ball at the top of a ramp, it might be coming to rest at the bottom. The four causes are not mutually exclusive, for Aristotle, several answers to the question why have to be given to explain a phenomenon and especially the actual configuration of an object. In his philosophical writings, Aristotle used the Greek word αἴτιον, aition, the appropriation of this word by Aristotle and other philosophers reflects how the Greek experience of legal practice influenced the concern in Greek thought to determine what is responsible. The word developed other meanings, including its use in philosophy in an abstract sense. In the present context, Aristotle used the four causes to provide different answers to the question, the four answers to this question illuminate different aspects of how a thing comes into being or an event takes place. Aristotle considers the material cause of an object is equivalent to the nature of the raw material out of which the object is composed, whereas modern physics looks to simple bodies, Aristotles physics instead treated living things as exemplary. However, he felt that natural bodies such as earth, fire, air, and water also showed signs of having their own innate sources of motion, change. Fire, for example, carries things upwards, unless stopped from doing so, things like beds and cloaks, formed by human artifice, have no innate tendency to become beds or cloaks. In Aristotelian terminology, material is not the same as substance, matter has parallels with substance in so far as primary matter serves as the substratum for simple bodies which are not substance, sand and rock, rivers and seas, atmosphere and wind. Only individuals are said to be substance in the primary sense, secondary substance, in a different sense, also applies to man-made artifacts. Aristotle considers the formal cause as describing the pattern or form which when present makes matter into a type of thing
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Center for Philosophy of Science
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The Center for Philosophy of Science is an academic center located at the University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania dedicated to research in the philosophy of science. The Center was founded by Adolf Grünbaum in 1960, the current Director of the Center is Edouard Machery. Throughout its history, the Center has been associated with a number of individuals from philosophy of science. The Centers inaugural Annual Lecture Series included lectures from the noted philosophers Paul K. Feyerabend, Adolf Grünbaum, Carl Gustav Hempel, Ernest Nagel, Michael Scriven, and Wilfrid Sellars. Later Annual Lecture Series participants include Herbert Feigl, Norwood Russell Hanson, Philip Morrison, Hilary Putnam, nobel Prize–winning economist Alvin E. Roth once served as a fellow in the center. Currently, the Center hosts the Visiting Fellows Program, the Postdoctoral Fellowship Program, the Senior Visiting Fellows program, additionally, every four years the Center hosts the International Fellows Conference for current and former fellows. In conjunction with the University Library System, the Center created and operates philsci-archive. pitt. edu, in 2016, John D. Norton stepped down after a ten year tenure as the Director of the Center. The current Director is Edouard Machery
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The central science
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The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics. In forming these connections the lower field cannot be reduced to the higher ones. It is recognized that the lower fields possess emergent ideas and concepts that do not exist in the fields of science. Concepts such as the periodicity of the elements and chemical bonds in chemistry are emergent in that they are more than the forces that are defined by physics. In the same way, biology cannot be reduced to chemistry despite the fact that the machinery that is responsible for life is composed of molecules. For instance, the machinery of evolution may be described in terms of chemistry by the understanding that it is a mutation in the order of base pairs in the DNA of an organism. However, chemistry cannot fully describe the process since it not contain concepts such as natural selection that are responsible for driving evolution. Chemistry is fundamental to biology since it provides a methodology for studying and understanding the molecules that compose cells, connections made by chemistry are formed through various sub-disciplines that utilize concepts from multiple scientific disciplines. Chemistry and physics are both needed in the areas of chemistry, nuclear chemistry, and theoretical chemistry. Chemistry and biology intersect in the areas of biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, chemical biology, molecular genetics, chemistry and the earth sciences intersect in areas like geochemistry and hydrology. Fundamental science Philosophy of chemistry Hard and soft science Special sciences Unity of science
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Conflict of interest
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The presence of a conflict of interest is independent of the occurrence of impropriety. Therefore, a conflict of interest can be discovered and voluntarily defused before any corruption occurs. Primary interest refers to the goals of the profession or activity, such as the protection of clients, the health of patients, the integrity of research. These secondary interests are not treated as wrong in and of themselves, applicable statutes or canons of ethics may provide standards for recusal in a given proceeding or matter. Providing that the judge or presiding officer must be free from disabling conflicts of interest makes the fairness of the less likely to be questioned. In the legal profession, the duty of loyalty owed to a client prohibits an attorney from representing any other party with interests adverse to those of a current client. The few exceptions to this rule require informed consent from all affected clients. In some circumstances, a conflict of interest can never be waived by a client, in perhaps the most common example encountered by the general public, the same firm should not represent both parties in a divorce or child custody matter. Found conflict can lead to denial or disgorgement of legal fees, or in some cases, depending upon the law or rules related to a particular organization, the existence of a conflict of interest may not, in and of itself, be evidence of wrongdoing. In fact, for professionals, it is virtually impossible to avoid having conflicts of interest from time to time. A conflict of interest can, however, become a matter, for example. A director or executive of a corporation will be subject to legal liability if a conflict of interest breaches his/her duty of loyalty, there often is confusion over these two situations. Someone accused of a conflict of interest may deny that a conflict exists because he/she did not act improperly, in fact, a conflict of interest can exist even if there are no improper acts as a result of it. Such competing interests can make it difficult to fulfill his or her duties impartially, a conflict of interest exists even if no unethical or improper act results. A conflict of interest can create an appearance of impropriety that can undermine confidence in the internal auditor, the audit activity. A conflict of interest could impair an individuals ability to perform his or her duties and responsibilities objectively, an organizational conflict of interest may exist in the same way as described above, for instance where a corporation provides two types of service to the government and these services conflict. Corporations may develop simple or complex systems to mitigate the risk or perceived risk of a conflict of interest, the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on medical research has been a major cause for concern. In 2009 a study found that a number of academic institutions do not have clear guidelines for relationships between Institutional Review Boards and industry, the official is on both sides of the deal
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Criticism of science
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Criticism of science addresses and refines problems within science in order to improve science as a whole, and its role in society. It is distinct from the positions of antiscience or anti-intellectualism which seek to reject entirely the scientific method. Feyerabend also criticized science for not having evidence for its own philosophical precepts, particularly the notion of Uniformity of Law and the Uniformity of Process across time and space, as noted by Steven Jay Gould. without a promise of conceptual unification. In other words, science is begging the question when it presupposes that there is a universal truth with no proof thereof. Historian Jacques Barzun termed science a faith as fanatical as any in history and that science insists that only those who have been inducted into its community, through means of training and credentials, are qualified to make these criticisms. David Parkin compared the epistemological stance of science to that of divination, for example, scientists may re-run trials when they do not support a hypothesis but use results from the first trial when they do support their hypothesis. It is often argued that each individual has cognitive biases. However, systematic issues in the system of academic journals can often compound these biases. These biases have widespread implications, such as the distortion of meta-analyses where only studies that include positive results are likely to be included, other issues include replication crisis where journals are less likely to publication straight replication studies so it may be difficult to disprove results. The behavioral science and social sciences have suffered from the problem of their studies being largely not being reproducible. Now, biomedicine has come under similar pressures, though science itself allows for flexibility and it has no effect on the scientific method, credibility of scientists themselves and their work reflects on public opinion of science as its practiced. Several academics have offered critiques concerning ethics in science, a related criticism is the debate on positivism. While before the 19th century science was perceived to be in opposition to religion, in contemporary society science is defined as the antithesis of the humanities. Sciences focus on quantitative measures has led to critiques that it is unable to recognize important qualitative aspects of the world, because of small statistical power as much as 95% of neuroimaging-base studies could be false. 85% of biomedical research efforts is probably wasted, according to one analysis, in psychology about ⅛ of papers consist statistical error, which could changes conclusions of those papers. Most of economic hypothesis could be false, also due to replication crisis and omitting from publication negative finding results, most discoveries in science are inflated. They assert that gender bias exists in the language and practice of science, as well as in the expected appearance, anne Fausto-Sterling is a prominent example of this kind of feminist work within biological science. Some feminists, such as Ruth Hubbard and Evelyn Fox Keller, a part of the feminist research agenda is the examination of the ways in which power inequities are created and/or reinforced in scientific and academic institutions
