1.
Social behavior
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Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms, typically from the same species. Social behavior is exhibited by a range of organisms including social bacteria, slime moulds, social insects, social shrimp, naked mole-rats. Sociology is the scientific or academic study of behavior, including its origins, development, organization. Research has shown that a variety of animals, including humans, share similar types of social behavior such as aggression, even species with less complex brains, such as ants, may have behaviors serving similar general functions. Even though humans and animals share some aspects of social behavior, Social psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. In psychology, social behaviour is referred to human behaviour and it covers behaviours ranging from physical to emotional that we communicate in and also the way we are influenced by ethics, attitudes, genetics and culture etc. The types of behaviour include the following, Violent and bullying behaviour are two types of aggressive behaviour, their outcomes are extremely similar. These outcomes include affiliation, gaining attention, power and control, aggressive behaviour is a type of social behaviour that can potentially cause or threaten physical or emotional harm. People who suffer from aggressive behaviour are most likely to be irritable, impulsive, although, an outburst of aggression is highly common. Aggressive behaviour on the hand is always deliberate, and occurs either habitually or in a pattern. Biological factors and lack of skills are a couple to name. As children grow up, in many cases tend to imitate behaviour from their elders such as violence or aggression. Aggressive behaviour can be irritating, and to stop a child from doing such, they receive attention for it from their parents, however, there can be times where parents arent aware of when such behaviour is occurring and unknowingly reward it, they are encouraging the child. Aggressive behaviour can lead onto bipolar disorders, adults can also suffer from aggressive behaviour, these can develop over time, from undesirable life experiences or an illness. Disorders such as depression, anxiety or post traumatic stress disorder tend to have aggressive behaviour, however, those without any recent underlying medical or emotional disorder, frustration is the answer to their aggressive behaviour. Emotional behaviour can also trigger aggression when someone stops caring about others, an individual that threatens or physically harms another individual is classified as violent behaviour. Violent behaviour usually starts of with verbal abuse but then escalates to physical harm such as hitting or hurting, violence is learned behaviour, just like aggressive behaviour, children imitate what they see from their elders. Violent behaviour is similar to aggressive behaviour, it is either habitually or occurs in a pattern, the concept for violent behaviour is very simple, at first there is tension and conflict
2.
Society
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In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
3.
Institutions
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Institutions are stable, valued, recurring patterns of behavior. As structures or mechanisms of social order, they govern the behaviour of a set of individuals within a given community, Institutions are identified with a social purpose, transcending individuals and intentions by mediating the rules that govern living behavior. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions such as the family that are enough to encompass other institutions. As structures and mechanisms of social order, institutions are an object of study in social sciences such as political science, anthropology, economics. Institutions are also a concern for law, the formal mechanism for political rule-making. That is, institutions arise, develop and function in a pattern of social self-organization beyond conscious intentions of the individuals involved, as mechanisms of social interaction, institutions manifest in both formal organizations, such as the U. S. Formal institutions are set forth by a relevant authority and informal institutions are generally unwritten societal rules, norms. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions that encompass many other institutions, both formal and informal (e. g. the family, government, the economy, education, most important institutions, considered abstractly, have both objective and subjective aspects, examples include money and marriage. The subjective experience of money is so pervasive and persuasive that economists talk of the illusion and try to disabuse their students of it. Examples of institutions include, Family, The family is the center of the childs life, the family teaches children cultural values and attitudes about themselves and others - see sociology of the family. Children learn continuously from the environment that adults create, Children also become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to each class accordingly. Religion, Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations. Parental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization—more so than religious peers or religious beliefs, see sociology of religion and civil religion. Peer groups, A peer group is a group whose members have interests, social positions. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships on their own, the influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence. Capitalist society may encourage the growth of centralization and interdependence under the control of an elite, socialism encourages democratic, bottom-up control by the people and their communities. Legal systems, Children are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or norms of the group/community, parents’ attitudes toward legal systems influence children’s views as to what is legally acceptable. For example, children whose parents are continually in jail are more accepting of incarceration, see jurisprudence, philosophy of law, sociology of law
4.
Activity theory
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Activity theory is more of a descriptive meta-theory or framework than a predictive theory. It considers an entire work/activity system beyond just one actor or user and it accounts for environment, history of the person, culture, role of the artifact, motivations, and complexity of real life activity. One of the strengths of AT is that it bridges the gap between the subject and the social reality—it studies both through the mediating activity. The unit of analysis in AT is the concept of object-oriented, collective and culturally mediated human activity and this system includes the object, subject, mediating artifacts, rules, community and division of labor. The motive for the activity in AT is created through the tensions and contradictions within the elements of the system, the object of activity theory is to understand the unity of consciousness and activity. AT is particularly useful as a lens in qualitative research methodologies, a particular activity is a goal-directed or purposeful interaction of a subject with an object through the use of tools. These tools are exteriorized forms of mental processes manifested in constructs, AT recognizes the internalization and externalization of cognitive processes involved in the use of tools, as well as the transformation or development that results from the interaction. The origins of activity theory can be traced to several sources and this account will focus on three of the most important of these strands. The first is associated with the Moscow Institute of Psychology and in particular the troika of young Russian researchers, Vygotsky, Leontev, finally, in the Western world, discussions and use of AT are primarily framed within the Scandinavian activity theory strand, developed by Yrjö Engeström. After Vygotskys early death, Leontev became the leader of the research group known as the Kharkov school of psychology. Leontev first examined the psychology of animals, looking at the different degrees to which animals can be said to have mental processes and he concluded that Pavlovs reflexionism was not a sufficient explanation of animal behaviour and that animals have an active relation to reality, which he called activity. In particular, the behaviour of higher primates such as chimpanzees could only be explained by the formation of multi-phase plans using tools. Leontev then progressed to humans and pointed out that people engage in actions that do not in themselves satisfy a need, often, these actions only make sense in a social context of a shared work activity. This led him to a distinction between activities, which satisfy a need, and the actions that constitute the activities, Activity theory also influenced the development of activity games as developed by Georgy Shchedrovitsky. AT remained virtually unknown outside the Soviet Union until the mid-1980s, the first international conference on activity theory was not held until 1986. The earliest non-Soviet paper cited by Nardi is a 1987 paper by Yrjö Engeström and this resulted in a reformulation of AT. It is known as Scandinavian activity theory, work in the systems-structural theory of activity is also being carried on by researchers in the US and UK. Some of the changes are a systematisation of Leontevs work, although Leontevs exposition is clear and well structured, it is not as well-structured as the formulation by Yrjö Engeström
5.
Altruism
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Altruism or selflessness is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of selfishness, the word was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as altruisme, for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian altrui, which in turn was derived from Latin alteri, Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty, in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether true altruism is possible in human psychology, the validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as benefits. The actor also may not be expecting a reward, the term altruism may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is contrasted with egoism. The concept has a history in philosophical and ethical thought. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, in simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. Marcel Mausss book The Gift contains a passage, Note on alms and this note describes the evolution of the notion of alms from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes, Alms are the fruits of a notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and this is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor. Compare Altruism – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice, compare explanation of alms in various scriptures. Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins, two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the mechanisms are, Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures, even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance, one study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the family name, especially if rare
6.
Anarcho-primitivism
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Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, alienation, many traditional anarchists reject the critique of civilization while some, such as Wolfi Landstreicher, endorse the critique but do not consider themselves anarcho-primitivists. Anarcho-primitivists are often distinguished by their focus on the praxis of achieving a state of being through rewilding. Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of Henry David Thoreau, in his book Walden, he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today by John Zerzan, Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his edited compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against Civilization, Readings and Reflections from 1999. In the late 19th century, anarchist naturism appeared as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies and it mainly was important within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France and Portugal. Important influences in it were Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism and an ecological world view within anarchist groups and outside them. Anarcho-naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages, and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and this tendency was strong enough as to call the attention of the CNT–FAI in Spain. Daniel Guérin, in Anarchism, From Theory to Practice, reports how Spanish anarcho-syndicalism had long been concerned to safeguard the autonomy of what it called affinity groups, there were many adepts of naturism and vegetarianism among its members, especially among the poor peasants of the south. Both these ways of living were considered suitable for the transformation of the human being in preparation for a stateless society, at the Zaragoza congress, the members did not forget to consider the fate of groups of naturists and nudists, unsuited to industrialization. On the eve of a vast, bloody, social transformation, primitivists, however, extend ideas of non-domination to all life, not just human life, going beyond the traditional anarchists analysis. From by anthropologists, primitivists look at the origins of civilization so as to understand what they are up against, inspired by the Luddites, primitivists rekindle an anti-technological orientation. Insurrectionalists do not believe in waiting for critiques to be fine-tuned, primitivists may owe much to the Situationists and their critique of the ideas in The Society of the Spectacle and alienation from a commodity-based society. Bioregionalists bring the perspective of living within ones bioregion, and being connected to the land, water, climate, plants, animals. Some primitivists have been influenced by the indigenous cultures. Primitivists attempt to learn and incorporate sustainable techniques for survival and healthier ways of interacting with life, some are also inspired by the feral subculture, where people abandon domestication and have re-integrate themselves with the wild. Some anarcho-primitivists state that prior to the advent of agriculture, humans lived in small, nomadic bands which were socially, politically, being without hierarchy, these bands are sometimes viewed as embodying a form of anarchism
7.
Anomie
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Anomie is a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. It is the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community, e. g. under unruly scenarios resulting in fragmentation of social identity and it was popularized by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his influential book Suicide. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness, rather, he describes anomie as derangement, Durkheim used the term the malady of the infinite because desire without limit can never be fulfilled, it only becomes more intense. Thus, a society with too much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a person is too rule-governed. In 1893 Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to describe the mismatch of collective guild labour to evolving societal needs when the guild was homogeneous in its constituency and he equated homogeneous skills to mechanical solidarity whose inertia retarded adaptation. Durkheim observed that the conflict between the organic division of labour and the homogeneous mechanical type was such that one could not exist in the presence of the other. When solidarity is organic, anomie is impossible, sensitivity to mutual needs promotes evolution in the division of labour. Producers, being near consumers, can easily reckon the extent of the needs to be satisfied, equilibrium is established without any trouble and production regulates itself. Relations rare, are not repeated enough, the producer can no longer embrace the market at a glance, nor even in thought. He can no longer see its limits, since it is, accordingly, production becomes unbridled and unregulated. g. Economics, due to the necessity of a buildup of sufficient force or momentum to overcome the inertia. Later in 1897, in his studies of suicide, Durkheim associated anomie to the influence of a lack of norms or norms that were too rigid. In 1983 Robert K. Merton links anomie with deviance and argues that the discontinuity between culture and structure have the consequence of leading to deviance within society. He described 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection of social goals, the word, a reborrowing with French spelling of anomy, comes from Greek ἀνομία lawlessness, namely the privative alpha prefix, and nomos law. The Greeks distinguished between nomos, and arché, for example, a monarch is a single ruler but he or she might still be subject to, and not exempt from, the prevailing laws, i. e. nomos. In the original city state democracy, the majority rule was an aspect of arché because it was a rule-based, customary system, which might or might not make laws, i. e. nomos. Thus, the meaning of anomie defined anything or anyone against or outside the law. This was contrary to theories on suicide which generally maintained that suicide was precipitated by negative events in a persons life
8.
Antimilitarism
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Antimilitarism is a doctrine that opposes war, relying heavily on a critical theory of imperialism and was an explicit goal of the First and Second International. Cynthia Cockburn defines an anti-militarist movement as one opposed to military rule, pacifism is the belief that disputes between nations can and should be settled peacefully. It is the opposition to war and the use of violence as a means of settling disputes and it can include the refusal to participate in military action. Antimilitarism does not reject war in all circumstances, but rejects the belief or desire to maintain a large, similarities are seen between Sorel and the International Workingmens Association theorization of propaganda of the deed. The violence that conserves the law is equivalent to the states monopoly of legitimate violence. The violence that founds the law is the original violence necessary to the creation of a state, revolutionary violence is totally separated from the juridical sphere. Giorgio Agamben showed the theoretical link between the law and violence permitted Nazi-thinker Carl Schmitt to justify the state of exception as the characteristic of sovereignty, thus indefinite suspension of the law may only be blocked by breaking this link between violence and right. Henry David Thoreaus 1849 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government and his refusal to pay taxes is justified as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican–American War, in accordance to the practice of civil disobedience. He writes in his essay that the individual is not with obligations to the majority of the State, instead the individual should break the law if the law is is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another. Capitalism has often thought by antimilitarist literature to be a major cause of wars. The military-industrial complex has been accused of pushing for war in pursuit of economic or financial interests. The assassination of French socialist leader Jean Jaurès days before the proclamation of World War I resulted in massive participation in the coming war, after World War II, US President Eisenhowers 1961 issued a warning on the influence of the military-industrial complex. American right-wing antimilitarists draw heavily upon the statements of Thomas Jefferson and other Founding Fathers condemning standing armies, such an instrument is a standing army. To this end, there is overlap between the Militia movement and right-wing antimilitarists, although the two groups are not mutually inclusive. Such antimilitarist constitution was based on the belief that Japans military organizations were to blame for thrusting the country into World War II. These evidences include the Yoshida Doctrine, adopted after the World War II, however, the postwar constitution on which Japan’s antimilitarism is based has seen some proposed amendments, and article 9 has been renounced by the Liberal Democratic Party. Some new legislation allows Japan’s Self Defense Forces to act more like a conventional army and this legislation has been strongly opposed by Japanese opposition parties, especially the Japanese Communist Party, which is strongly pacifist. Until its dissolution, the Second International was antimilitarist, Jaurès assassination on July 31,1914, marks antimilitarisms failure in the socialist movement
9.
Capitalism
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Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
10.
Citizen Cyborg
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The editors of the popular science magazine Scientific American recommended Citizen Cyborg in their April 2005 issue. Retrieved on 2011-07-07 Cave, Stephen, Cave, Friederike von Tiesenhausen, the most dangerous idea on earth
11.
Constitutional patriotism
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It is associated with post-nationalist identity, because it is seen as a similar concept to nationalism, but as an attachment based on values of the constitution rather than a national culture. In essence, it is an attempt to group identity with a focus on the interpretation of citizenship as a loyalty that goes beyond individuals ethnocultural identification. Theorists believe this to be more defensible than other forms of shared commitment in a modern state with multiple languages. It is particularly relevant in post-national democratic states in which multiple cultural and it was influential in the development of the European Union and a key to Europeanism as a basis for multiple countries belonging to a supranational union. Constitutional patriotism has been interpreted in a variety of ways, providing a range of positions, there are also multiple opinions as to whether a prior group identity is necessary before a moral, political one is achieved. The concept of constitutional patriotism originates from Post-World War Two West Germany, in this context, constitutional patriotism was a protective and state-centered means of dealing with the memory of the Holocaust and militancy of the Third Reich. The concept can be traced to the liberal philosopher Karl Jaspers and his student, Dolf Sternberger explicitly introduced the concept on the thirtieth birthday of the Federal Republic. However, it is associated with the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas. Sternberger saw constitutional patriotism as a means to ensure political stability to maintain peace in Germany in the aftermath of the Second World War. He framed the concept as a way for citizens to identify with the state in order that it could defend itself against internal and external threats. Thus, with the emphasis on defense and protection, Sternberger linked constitutional patriotism to the concept of militant democracy. He drew on Aristotelianism, arguing that patriotism had traditionally not been linked to sentiments towards the nation, constitutional patriotism is a development of Sternbergers earlier notion of Staatsfreundschaft. Habermas played a key role in developing, contextualizing and spreading the idea of patriotism to English-speaking countries. Post-war West Germany provided the context for Habermass theories, during the historians dispute of the late 1980s, Habermas fought against the normalization of exceptional historical events. Constitutional patriotism was Habermass suggestion as a way to unify West Germans, thus it became an inner counterpart to the bond of the Federal Republic to the West, it was not only an advance in respect to traditional German nationalism, but also a step toward overcoming it. To Habermas, post-national German identity was dependent on understanding and overcoming its past and this historical memory was essential to constitutional patriotism. His theory was therefore grounded in the idea that the unity of the person that is produced and maintained through self-identification depends. On belonging to the reality of a group, on the possibility of localizing oneself in the world of this group
12.
Cosmopolitanism
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Cosmopolitanism is the ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or cosmopolite, a cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. In a cosmopolitan community individuals from different places form relationships of mutual respect, various cities and locales, past or present, have or are defined as cosmopolitan, that does not necessarily mean that all or most of their inhabitants consciously embrace the above philosophy. Rather, locales could be defined as simply by the fact of being where people of various ethnic, cultural and/or religious background live in proximity. The word derives from the Greek κοσμοπολίτης, or kosmopolitês, formed from κόσμος, kosmos, i. e. world, universe, or cosmos, contemporary usage defines the term as citizen of the world. Definitions of cosmopolitanism usually begin with the Greek etymology of citizen of the world, however, as Appiah points out, world in the original sense meant cosmos or universe, not earth or globe as current use assumes. Cosmopolitanism can be traced back to Diogenes of Sinope, the father of the Cynic movement in Ancient Greece. Of Diogenes it is said, Asked where he came from, he answered and this was a ground-breaking concept, because the broadest basis of social identity in Greece at that time was either the individual city-state or the Greeks as a group. Within these circles human beings feel a sense of affinity or endearment towards others, the task of world citizens becomes then to draw the circles somehow towards the centre, making all human beings more like our fellow city dwellers, and so forth. For Levinas, the foundation of ethics consists in the obligation to respond to the Other, in Being for the Other, he writes that there is no universal moral law, only the sense of responsibility that the Other, in a state of vulnerability, calls forth. The proximity of the Other is an important part of Levinass concept, for Derrida, the foundation of ethics is hospitality, the readiness and the inclination to welcome the Other into ones home. Pure, unconditional hospitality is a desire that underscores the conditional hospitality necessary in our relationships with others, Levinass and Derridas theories of ethics and hospitality hold out the possibility of an acceptance of the Other as different but of equal standing. Further, both reveal the importance of considering how best to interact with the Other and others. You also have St. Paul in the Christian tradition, also a call for a citizen of the world as, precisely. A further state of cosmopolitanism occurred after the Second World War, as a reaction to the Holocaust and the other massacres, the concept of crimes against humanity became a generally accepted category in international law. This clearly shows the appearance and acceptance of a notion of responsibility that is considered to exist toward all of humankind. Philosophical cosmopolitans are moral universalists, they believe all humans. The boundaries between nations, states, cultures or societies are therefore morally irrelevant, a widely cited example of a contemporary cosmopolitan is Kwame Anthony Appiah
13.
Criticism of capitalism
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Criticism of capitalism ranges from expressing disagreement with the principles of capitalism in its entirety, to expressing disagreement with particular outcomes of capitalism. Some critics believe there are merits in capitalism, and wish to balance it with some form of social control and it is now well known that capitalist development leads to the concentration of capital, employment and power. It is somewhat less known that it leads to the almost complete destruction of economic freedom, activists argue that capitalism leads to a significant loss of political, democratic, and economic power for the vast majority of the global human population. As part of the left, activists against corporate power and influence support a decreased income gap. David Schweickart wrote that, in capitalist societies, ordinary people are deemed competent enough to select their political leaders-but not their bosses, thomas Jefferson, one of the founders of the United States, said I hope we shall crush. In its birth the aristocracy of our moneyed corporations, which dare already to challenge our government to a trial of strength and bid defiance to the laws of our country. Franklin D. That, in its essence, is fascism — ownership of government by an individual, by a group, critics of capitalism view the system as inherently exploitative. In an economic sense, exploitation is often related to the expropriation of labor for profit, in Das Kapital, Karl Marx identified the commodity as the basic unit of capitalist organization. Marx described a common denominator between commodities, in particular that commodities are the product of labor and are related to other by an exchange value. However, due to the forces of industrial organization, laborers are seen as creating more exchange value during the course of the working day than the cost of their survival. Marxists argue that capitalists are able to pay for this cost of survival. Marxists further argue that due to inequality, the purchase of labor cannot occur under free conditions. Since capitalists control the means of production and workers control only their labor, critics argue that exploitation occurs even if the exploited consents, since the definition of exploitation is independent of consent. In essence, workers must allow their labor to be exploited or face starvation, since some degree of unemployment is typical in modern economies, Marxists argue that wages are naturally driven down in free market systems. Hence, even if a worker contests their wages, capitalists are able to find someone from the army of labor who is more desperate. Unions are the method for workers to have more bargaining power in the marketplace. The act of striking has historically been an action to withhold labor from capitalists. Some critics of capitalism, while acknowledging the necessity of trade unionism, believe that trade unions simply reform an already exploitative system, lysander Spooner argued that almost all fortunes are made out of the capital and labour of other men than those who realize them
14.
Criticisms of welfare
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The modern welfare state has been criticized on economic and moral grounds from all ends of the political spectrum. The government, Milton Friedman and others argued, told the poor, make money and we will take away your free housing, food stamps. People are rational, Friedman said, so they not work for long if they get nothing or next to nothing for it. And so, from 1970 to 2000, a coalition of conservatives, centrists. Libertarians criticize the state because welfare programs do not work to reduce poverty, improve education. Also, welfare programs increase out-of-wedlock births and decrease the incentive to work, moreover, libertarians believe welfare programs reduce freedom by reducing the opportunity of individuals to manage their own lives. According to Belloc, this servile state resembles ancient slavery in its reliance on positive law as opposed to custom or economic necessity by themselves, austrian-born economist Friedrich Hayek mentions Bellocs Servile State favorably in his book The Road to Serfdom. Belloc, along with others, such as G. K. 55% of people in England and 43% of people in Scotland believe that benefits for unemployed people are too high and discourage them from finding jobs. Additionally, citizens resentment of paying taxes to create benefits for others creates hostility between more and less favored groups that is wholly at odds with what modern liberals desire. Moreover, the state must employ an extensive bureaucracy whose members are granted discretionary powers. This means that classical liberals concern for the rule of law, there is thus a grave risk of disillusionment with liberalism in general as a result of its failure when it overextends itself. Some writers suppose that the popularity of conservative governments during the 1980s is explained by this consideration. Critiques of the state and of social welfare programs have come from various socialist perspectives. Initially, social insurance schemes were promoted by liberals and conservatives to appeal to working class voters to undercut the appeal of socialism, while some socialist parties tolerated social insurance, socialists often viewed advocacy of such programs as antithetical to their goal of replacing capitalism with socialism. Therefore, the state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative. For example, attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation, as socialists, democratic socialists aim to create an alternative to capitalism. Market socialism is also critical of and contrasted with social welfare states. Karl Marx famously critiqued the basic institutions of the state in his Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League by warning against the programs advanced by liberal democrats
15.
Economic freedom
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Economic freedom or economic liberty is the ability of members of a society to undertake economic actions. This is a used in economic and policy debates as well as in the philosophy of economics. One approach to economic freedom comes from liberal and libertarian traditions emphasizing free markets, free trade. Another approach to economic freedom extends the welfare economics study of individual choice, other conceptions of economic freedom include freedom from want and the freedom to engage in collective bargaining. The free market viewpoint defines economic liberty as the freedom to produce, trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force, there are several indices of economic freedom that attempt to measure free market economic freedom. According to the free view, a secure system of private property rights is an essential part of economic freedom. Such systems include two main rights, the right to control and benefit from property and the right to property by voluntary means. These rights offer people the possibility of autonomy and self-determination according to their personal values, economist Milton Friedman sees property rights as the most basic of human rights and an essential foundation for other human rights. In such conditions most people can achieve much greater personal freedom, a secure system of property rights also reduces uncertainty and encourages investments, creating favorable conditions for an economy to be successful. According to Hernando de Soto, much of the poverty in the Third World countries is caused by the lack of Western systems of laws and well-defined, de Soto argues that because of the legal barriers poor people in those countries can not utilize their assets to produce more wealth. One thinker to question private property was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a socialist and anarchist, Freedom of contract is the right to choose ones contracting parties and to trade with them on any terms and conditions one sees fit. Contracts permit individuals to create their own enforceable legal rules, adapted to their unique situations, however, not all contracts need to be enforced by the state. For example, in the United States there is a number of third-party arbitration tribunals which resolve disputes under private commercial law. Negatively understood, freedom of contract is freedom from government interference, therefore, you have this paramount public policy to consider – that you are not lightly to interfere with this freedom of contract. The doctrine of freedom of contract received one of its strongest expressions in the US Supreme Court case of Lochner v New York which struck down legal restrictions on the hours of bakers. As in the case of restrictions on working hours, workers as a group may benefit from legal protections that prevent individuals agreeing to contracts that require long working hours and he commented that centralized control of economic activities was always accompanied with political repression. Through elimination of centralized control of activities, economic power is separated from political power. Political freedom is the corollary of economic freedom and it is no accident that the age of capitalism became also the age of government by the people
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Ethical socialism
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Ethical socialism is a political philosophy that appeals to socialism on ethical and moral grounds as opposed to economic, egoistic, and consumeristic grounds. It emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism, and not merely criticism of the economic, systemic, and material issues of capitalism. Soon self-recognized ethical socialists arose in Britain, such as R. H. Tawney, a British Christian socialist, and its ideals were connected to Christian socialist, Fabian, ethical socialism was an important ideology within the British Labour Party. Ethical socialism has been supported by British Prime Ministers Ramsay MacDonald, Clement Attlee. When the Social Democratic Party of Germany renounced Marxism during the Godesberg Program in the 1950s, ethical socialist thought emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism. Ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism, R. H. Tawney denounced self-seeking amoral and immoral behaviour that he claimed is supported by capitalism. Tawney opposed what he called the society that causes private property to be used to transfer surplus profit to functionless owners – capitalist rentiers. However Tawney did not denounce managers as a whole, believing that management and he supported nationalization of strategic industries and services. Tawney supported worker participation in the business of management in the economy as well as consumer, employee, employer, Green opposed property rights of the few that were preventing the ownership of property by the many. Ethical socialism was advocated and promoted by former British Prime Minister Tony Blair who has influenced by John Macmurray who himself was influenced by Green
17.
Ethics
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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, the branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions What is the best way for people to live, and What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice. As a field of enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as a set of concepts, the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality. And sometimes it is used narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition. Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to various kinds of ethical questions. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written, Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values, Ethics can also be used to describe a particular persons own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example, Joe has strange ethics, the English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word êthikos, which means relating to ones character. The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake. —cannot be a meta-ethical question, a meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, Is it ever possible to have knowledge of what is right. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, meta-ethics is also important in G. E. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy, moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics, earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism, non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false
18.
Eurocentrism
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The adjective Eurocentric, or Europe-centric, has been in use, in various contexts, since at least the 1920s. The term is popularised in the context of decolonization and internationalism in the mid 20th century, English usage of Eurocentric as an ideological term in identity politics is current by the mid-1980s. Amin used the term in the context of a global, core-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development, English usage of Eurocentrism is recorded by 1979. The coinage of Western-centrism is younger, attested in the late 1990s, thus, Johann Heinrich Zedler, in 1741, wrote that even though Europe is the smallest of the worlds four continents, it has for various reasons a position that places it before all others. Its inhabitants have excellent customs, they are courteous and erudite in both sciences and crafts, European exceptionalism is widely reflected in popular genres of literature, especially literature for young adults and adventure literature in general. European miracle, a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981, the result was that by the 19th century, European powers dominated world trade and world politics. Even in the 19th century, anticolonial movements had developed claims about national traditions, orientalism develops in the 19th century as a disproportionate Western interest in and idealization of Eastern cultures. By the early 20th century, some historians, such as Arnold J. Toynbee, were attempting to construct models of world civilizations. Toynbee also drew attention in Europe to non-European historians, such as the medieval Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun and he also established links with Asian thinkers, such as through his dialogues with Daisaku Ikeda of Soka Gakkai International. The explicit concept of Eurocentrism is a product of the period of decolonisation in the 1960s to 1970s and its original context is the core-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development of Marxian economics. Eurocentrism has been an important concept in development studies. Brohman argued that Eurocentrism perpetuated intellectual dependence on a group of prestigious Western academic institutions that determine the subject matter. The terms Afrocentrism vs. Afrocentrist scholars, such as Molefi Asante, have argued there is a prevalence of Eurocentric thought in the processing of much of academia on African affairs. Luke Clossey and Nicholas Guyatt have measured the degree of Eurocentrism in the programs of top history departments. Economics and World History, Myths and Paradoxes, paradise on Earth, Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, not Out of Africa, How Afrocentrism Became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History. Being Different, An indian challenge to western universalism, Ethnocentrism and History, Africa, Asia, and Indian America in Western Textbooks. How to Overcome Ethnocentrism, Approaches to a Culture of Recognition by History in the Twenty-First Century, History and Theory, Studies in the Philosophy of History, 118–129
19.
Evil
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In religion, ethics, philosophy and psychology good and evil is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic opposite of good, Evil, in a general context, is the absence or opposite of that which is described as being good. Often, evil is used to denote profound immorality, in certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural force. Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis of its motives, however, elements that are commonly associated with evil involve unbalanced behavior involving expediency, selfishness, ignorance, or neglect. How to achieve good is also discussed in the social sciences, every language has a word expressing good in the sense of having the right or desirable quality and bad in the sense undesirable. A sense of judgment and a distinction right and wrong, good. This idea developed into a religion which spawned many sects, some of which embraced an extreme dualistic belief that the world should be shunned. Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of Plato, the idea is further developed in Late Antiquity by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers. Medieval theology was shaped by St. Augustine of Hippo. According to the definition of St. Augustine of Hippo sin is a word, deed. Other later Germanic forms include Middle English evel, ifel, ufel, Old Frisian evel, Old Saxon ubil, Old High German ubil, differing views also exist as to why evil might arise. Many religious and philosophical traditions claim that evil behavior is an aberration that results from the human condition. Sometimes, evil is attributed to the existence of free will, Some argue that evil itself is ultimately based in an ignorance of truth. A variety of Enlightenment thinkers have alleged the opposite, by suggesting that evil is learned as a consequence of social structures. In physics and statistical thermodynamics, the property of goodness or order is referred to as a state of low entropy. Confucianisms primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man, thus evil would correspond to wrong behavior. By good, I understand that which we know is useful to us. By evil, on the contrary I understand that which we certainly know hinders us from possessing anything that is good
20.
Folkhemmet
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Folkhemmet is a political concept that played an important role in the history of the Swedish Social Democratic Party and the Swedish welfare state. Sometimes referred to as the Swedish Middle Way, folkhemmet was viewed as midway between capitalism and socialism, the base of the Folkhem vision is that the entire society ought to be like a small family, where everybody contributes. It was later developed by the Prime Ministers Tage Erlander and Olof Palme until the Social Democratic party historically lost power in 1976. Another important proponent was Hjalmar Branting, who came into contact with the concept while a student at Uppsala university, per Albin Hansson introduced the concept on 18 January 1928, saying that Sweden should become more like a good home, this being marked by equality and mutual understanding. Hansson advocated that the class society should then be replaced by the peoples home. The concept came at a time when nationalization was being questioned, and marked the abandonment of the notion of class struggle. Instead they adapted a planned economy and what would be called Funktionssocialism, the government would then also have more control over the individual, however, to the extent required to increase the wellbeing of citizens. Good and easily available education, even to higher levels, was considered important for building the new society. Free universal health care was provided by the state, enacted in 1947-55, during the 1930s, social engineering became an important part of folkhemmet. Alva and Gunnar Myrdals 1934 book Crisis in the Population Question inspired a radical, a number of changes took place in this period including expansion of the public sector, Wigforss economic policies, Gustav Möllers reform of the pension system, and Gunnar Myrdals housing policies. In the 1940s and 50s, old worn down houses that served as the overcrowded dwellings of the class were demolished. Instead, people were offered modern housing with bathrooms and windows to let light into every room, in the same way, new housing projects – or working class suburbs – were constructed in the 1960s and 70s to fill the needs of the increasing population in the Million Programme. Alva and Gunnar Myrdal suggested a series of programs designed to help families, in 1983, Magnus Uggla recorded the album Välkommen till folkhemmet
21.
Historicism
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Historicism is a mode of thinking that assigns major significance to a specific context, such as historical period, geographical place, and local culture. As such it varies in emphasis from individualist theories of such as empiricism and rationalism. The term historicism was coined by German philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, over time it has developed different and somewhat divergent meanings. Elements of historicism appear in the writings of French essayist Michel de Montaigne, vico, and became more fully developed with the dialectic of Georg Hegel, influential in 19th-century Europe. The writings of Karl Marx, influenced by Hegel, also include historicism, the term is also associated with the empirical social sciences and with the work of Franz Boas. The Austrian-English philosopher Karl Popper condemned historicism along with the determinism and holism which he argued formed its basis, in his Poverty of Historicism, he identified historicism with the opinion that there are inexorable laws of historical destiny, which opinion he warned against. This contrasts with the contextually relative interpretation of historicism for which its proponents argue, talcott Parsons criticized historicism as a case of idealistic fallacy in The Structure of Social Action. Post-structuralism uses the term New Historicism, which has some associations with both anthropology and Hegelianism, the theological use of the word denotes the interpretation of biblical prophecy as being related to church history. Hegel viewed the realization of human freedom as the purpose of history. However, because humans are not aware of the goal of both humanity and history, the process of achieving freedom is necessarily one of self-discovery. Hegel also saw the progress toward freedom being conducted by the spirit, yet Hegel makes clear that the spirit is a mere abstraction, and only comes into existence through the activity of finite agents. For example, Karl Popper in his book The Poverty of Historicism interpreted Hegels philosophy of history as metaphysical, Popper referred to this Hegelian philosophy of history as Historicism. Hegels historicism also suggests that any society and all human activities such as science, art. Consequently, their essence can be only by understanding said history. Hegels famous aphorism, Philosophy is the history of philosophy, describes it bluntly, yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a social contract. It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten metaphors. To understand why a person is the way he is, you must examine that person in his society, and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that influenced it. The Zeitgeist, the Spirit of the Age, is the embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time
