1.
Pi
–
The number π is a mathematical constant, the ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter, commonly approximated as 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek letter π since the mid-18th century, being an irrational number, π cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction. Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other numbers are commonly used to approximate π. The digits appear to be randomly distributed, in particular, the digit sequence of π is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date no proof of this has been discovered. Also, π is a number, i. e. a number that is not the root of any non-zero polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass, ancient civilizations required fairly accurate computed values for π for practical reasons. It was calculated to seven digits, using techniques, in Chinese mathematics. The extensive calculations involved have also used to test supercomputers. Because its definition relates to the circle, π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses, and spheres. Because of its role as an eigenvalue, π appears in areas of mathematics. It is also found in cosmology, thermodynamics, mechanics, attempts to memorize the value of π with increasing precision have led to records of over 70,000 digits. In English, π is pronounced as pie, in mathematical use, the lowercase letter π is distinguished from its capitalized and enlarged counterpart ∏, which denotes a product of a sequence, analogous to how ∑ denotes summation. The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol π, π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circles circumference C to its diameter d, π = C d The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of the circles size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio C/d. This definition of π implicitly makes use of geometry, although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curved geometry. Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which can be defined independently of geometry using limits. An integral such as this was adopted as the definition of π by Karl Weierstrass, definitions of π such as these that rely on a notion of circumference, and hence implicitly on concepts of the integral calculus, are no longer common in the literature. One such definition, due to Richard Baltzer, and popularized by Edmund Landau, is the following, the cosine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series, or as the solution of a differential equation
2.
Srinivasa Ramanujan
–
Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan FRS was an Indian mathematician and autodidact who lived during the British Raj. Though he had almost no training in pure mathematics, he made substantial contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series. Ramanujan initially developed his own research in isolation, it was quickly recognized by Indian mathematicians. When his skills became obvious and known to the mathematical community, centred in Europe at the time. The Cambridge professor realized that Srinivasa Ramanujan had produced new theorems in addition to rediscovering previously known ones, during his short life, Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3,900 results. Nearly all his claims have now been proven correct and his original and highly unconventional results, such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function, have inspired a vast amount of further research. The Ramanujan Journal, a scientific journal, was established to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by Ramanujan. Deeply religious, Ramanujan credited his substantial mathematical capacities to divinity, An equation for me has no meaning, he once said, the name Ramanujan means younger brother of the god Rama. Iyengar is a caste of Hindu Brahmins of Tamil origin whose members follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Ramanuja, Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 into a Tamil Brahmin Iyengar family in Erode, Madras Presidency, at the residence of his maternal grandparents. His father, K. Srinivasa Iyengar, worked as a clerk in a sari shop and his mother, Komalatammal, was a housewife and also sang at a local temple. They lived in a traditional home on Sarangapani Sannidhi Street in the town of Kumbakonam. The family home is now a museum, when Ramanujan was a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a son, Sadagopan, who died less than three months later. In December 1889, Ramanujan contracted smallpox, but unlike the thousands in the Thanjavur district who died of the disease that year and he moved with his mother to her parents house in Kanchipuram, near Madras. His mother gave birth to two children, in 1891 and 1894, but both died in infancy. On 1 October 1892, Ramanujan was enrolled at the local school, after his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram, Ramanujan and his mother moved back to Kumbakonam and he was enrolled in the Kangayan Primary School. When his paternal grandfather died, he was sent back to his maternal grandparents and he did not like school in Madras, and tried to avoid attending. His family enlisted a local constable to make sure the boy attended school, within six months, Ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam. Since Ramanujans father was at work most of the day, his mother took care of the boy as a child and he had a close relationship with her
3.
Geometry
–
Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
4.
Circle
–
A circle is a simple closed shape in Euclidean geometry. The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius, a circle is a simple closed curve which divides the plane into two regions, an interior and an exterior. Annulus, the object, the region bounded by two concentric circles. Arc, any connected part of the circle, centre, the point equidistant from the points on the circle. Chord, a segment whose endpoints lie on the circle. Circumference, the length of one circuit along the circle, or the distance around the circle and it is a special case of a chord, namely the longest chord, and it is twice the radius. Disc, the region of the bounded by a circle. Lens, the intersection of two discs, passant, a coplanar straight line that does not touch the circle. Radius, a line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle itself, or the length of such a segment, sector, a region bounded by two radii and an arc lying between the radii. Segment, a region, not containing the centre, bounded by a chord, secant, an extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points. Semicircle, an arc that extends from one of a diameters endpoints to the other, in non-technical common usage it may mean the diameter, arc, and its interior, a two dimensional region, that is technically called a half-disc. A half-disc is a case of a segment, namely the largest one. Tangent, a straight line that touches the circle at a single point. The word circle derives from the Greek κίρκος/κύκλος, itself a metathesis of the Homeric Greek κρίκος, the origins of the words circus and circuit are closely related. The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history, natural circles would have been observed, such as the Moon, Sun, and a short plant stalk blowing in the wind on sand, which forms a circle shape in the sand. The circle is the basis for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, in mathematics, the study of the circle has helped inspire the development of geometry, astronomy and calculus. Some highlights in the history of the circle are,1700 BCE – The Rhind papyrus gives a method to find the area of a circular field. The result corresponds to 256/81 as a value of π.300 BCE – Book 3 of Euclids Elements deals with the properties of circles
5.
Archimedes
–
Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the scientists in classical antiquity. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, founding hydrostatics and statics and he is credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion. Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder, unlike his inventions, the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity. Archimedes was born c.287 BC in the city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years, in The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes gives his fathers name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing is known. Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, a biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he married or had children. During his youth, Archimedes may have studied in Alexandria, Egypt and he referred to Conon of Samos as his friend, while two of his works have introductions addressed to Eratosthenes. Archimedes died c.212 BC during the Second Punic War, according to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, the soldier was enraged by this, and killed Archimedes with his sword. Plutarch also gives an account of the death of Archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier. According to this story, Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments, and was killed because the thought that they were valuable items. General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes, as he considered him a valuable asset and had ordered that he not be harmed. Marcellus called Archimedes a geometrical Briareus, the last words attributed to Archimedes are Do not disturb my circles, a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. This quote is given in Latin as Noli turbare circulos meos. The phrase is given in Katharevousa Greek as μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε
6.
Seki Takakazu
–
Seki Takakazu, also known as Seki Kōwa, was a Japanese mathematician in the Edo period. Seki laid foundations for the subsequent development of Japanese mathematics known as wasan and he created a new algebraic notation system and, motivated by astronomical computations, did work on infinitesimal calculus and Diophantine equations. A contemporary of Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton, Sekis work was independent and his successors later developed a school dominant in Japanese mathematics until the end of the Edo period. While it is not clear how much of the achievements of wasan are Sekis, since many of them only in writings of his pupils. For example, he is credited with the discovery of Bernoulli numbers, the resultant and determinant are attributed to him. This work was an advance on, for example, the comprehensive introduction of 13th-century Chinese algebra made as late as 1671. Not much is known about Kōwas personal life and his birthplace has been indicated as either Fujioka in Gunma prefecture, or Edo. His birth date ranges from 1635 to 1643 and he was born to the Uchiyama clan, a subject of Ko-shu han, and adopted into the Seki family, a subject of the Shogun. While in Ko-shu han, he was involved in a project to produce a reliable map of his employers land. He spent many years in studying 13th-century Chinese calendars to replace the accurate one used in Japan at that time. His mathematics was based on knowledge from the 13th to 15th centuries. This consisted of algebra with numerical methods, polynomial interpolation and its applications, Sekis work is more or less based on and related to these known methods. Chinese algebra discovered numerical evaluation of arbitrary degree algebraic equation with real coefficients, by using the Pythagorean theorem, they reduced geometric problems to algebra systematically. The number of unknowns in an equation was, however, quite limited and they used notations of an array of numbers to represent a formula, for example, for a x 2 + b x + c. Later, they developed a method that uses two-dimensional arrays, representing four variables at most, hence, a target of Seki and his contemporary Japanese mathematicians was the development of general multi-variable algebraic equations and elimination theory. In the Chinese approach to interpolation, the motivation was to predict the motion of celestial bodies from observed data. The method was applied to find various mathematical formulas. Seki learned this technique, most likely, through his examination of Chinese calendars
7.
Mathematical constant
–
A mathematical constant is a special number, usually a real number, that is significantly interesting in some way. Constants arise in areas of mathematics, with constants such as e and π occurring in such diverse contexts as geometry, number theory. The more popular constants have been studied throughout the ages and computed to many decimal places, all mathematical constants are definable numbers and usually are also computable numbers. These are constants which one is likely to encounter during pre-college education in many countries, however, its ubiquity is not limited to pure mathematics. It appears in many formulas in physics, and several physical constants are most naturally defined with π or its reciprocal factored out and it is debatable, however, if such appearances are fundamental in any sense. For example, the textbook nonrelativistic ground state wave function of the atom is ψ =11 /2 e − r / a 0. This formula contains a π, but it is unclear if that is fundamental in a physical sense, furthermore, this formula gives only an approximate description of physical reality, as it omits spin, relativity, and the quantal nature of the electromagnetic field itself. The numeric value of π is approximately 3.1415926535, memorizing increasingly precise digits of π is a world record pursuit. The constant e also has applications to probability theory, where it arises in a way not obviously related to exponential growth, suppose a slot machine with a one in n probability of winning is played n times. Then, for large n the probability that nothing will be won is approximately 1/e, another application of e, discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with French mathematician Pierre Raymond de Montmort, is in the problem of derangements, also known as the hat check problem. Here n guests are invited to a party, and at the door each guest checks his hat with the butler who then places them into labelled boxes, the butler does not know the name of the guests, and so must put them into boxes selected at random. The problem of de Montmort is, what is the probability that none of the hats gets put into the right box, the answer is p n =1 −11. + ⋯ + n 1 n. and as n tends to infinity, the numeric value of e is approximately 2.7182818284. The square root of 2, often known as root 2, radical 2, or Pythagorass constant, and written as √2, is the algebraic number that. It is more called the principal square root of 2. Geometrically the square root of 2 is the length of a diagonal across a square sides of one unit of length. It was probably the first number known to be irrational and its numerical value truncated to 65 decimal places is,1.41421356237309504880168872420969807856967187537694807317667973799. The quick approximation 99/70 for the root of two is frequently used
8.
Pi Day
–
Pi Day is an annual celebration of the mathematical constant π. Pi Day is observed on March 14 since 3,1, in 2009, the United States House of Representatives supported the designation of Pi Day. Pi Approximation Day is observed on July 22, since the fraction 22⁄7 is an approximation of π. The Exploratorium continues to hold Pi Day celebrations, on March 12,2009, the U. S. House of Representatives passed a non-binding resolution, recognizing March 14,2009 as National Pi Day. For Pi Day 2010, Google presented a Google Doodle celebrating the holiday, with the word Google laid over images of circles, the entire month of March 2014 was observed by some as Pi Month. In the year 2015, Pi Day had special significance on 3/14/15 at 9,26,53 a. m. and also at p. m. with the date, Pi Day of 2016 was also significant because its mm/dd/yy represents pi rounded to the first five digits. Pi Day has been observed in many ways, including eating pie, throwing pies and discussing the significance of the number π, due to a pun based on the words pi and pie being homophones in English. Massachusetts Institute of Technology has often mailed its application decision letters to students for delivery on Pi Day. Starting in 2012, MIT has announced it will post those decisions online on Pi Day at exactly 6,28 pm, in 2015, the regular decisions were put online at 9,26 AM, following that years pi moment. The town of Princeton, New Jersey, hosts events in a combined celebration of Pi Day and Albert Einsteins birthday. Einstein lived in Princeton for more than twenty years working at the Institute for Advanced Study. In addition to pie eating and recitation contests, there is an annual Einstein look-alike contest, mole Day Square Root Day Sequential time Exploratoriums Pi Day Web Site NPR provides a Pi Rap audiovideo Pi Day Professor Lessers Pi Day page Pi Day in France
9.
Squaring the circle
–
Squaring the circle is a problem proposed by ancient geometers. It is the challenge of constructing a square with the area as a given circle by using only a finite number of steps with compass. It may be taken to ask whether specified axioms of Euclidean geometry concerning the existence of lines and circles entail the existence of such a square. It had been known for decades before then that the construction would be impossible if π were transcendental. Approximate squaring to any given non-perfect accuracy, in contrast, is possible in a number of steps. The expression squaring the circle is used as a metaphor for trying to do the impossible. The term quadrature of the circle is used to mean the same thing as squaring the circle. Methods to approximate the area of a circle with a square were known already to Babylonian mathematicians. Indian mathematicians also found a method, though less accurate. Archimedes showed that the value of pi lay between 3 + 1/7 and 3 + 10/71, see Numerical approximations of π for more on the history. The first known Greek to be associated with the problem was Anaxagoras, Hippocrates of Chios squared certain lunes, in the hope that it would lead to a solution — see Lune of Hippocrates. Even then there were skeptics—Eudemus argued that magnitudes cannot be divided up without limit, the problem was even mentioned in Aristophaness play The Birds. It is believed that Oenopides was the first Greek who required a plane solution, james Gregory attempted a proof of its impossibility in Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura in 1667. Although his proof was faulty, it was the first paper to attempt to solve the problem using algebraic properties of pi and it was not until 1882 that Ferdinand von Lindemann rigorously proved its impossibility. The Victorian-age mathematician, logician and author, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson also expressed interest in debunking illogical circle-squaring theories, in one of his diary entries for 1855, Dodgson listed books he hoped to write including one called Plain Facts for Circle-Squarers. The value my friend selected for Pi was 3.2, more than a score of letters were interchanged before I became sadly convinced that I had no chance. A ridiculing of circle-squaring appears in Augustus de Morgans A Budget of Paradoxes published posthumously by his widow in 1872, originally published as a series of articles in the Athenæum, he was revising them for publication at the time of his death. Circle squaring was very popular in the century, but hardly anyone indulges in it today
10.
Aryabhata
–
Aryabhata or Aryabhata I was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the Āryabhaṭīya and the Arya-siddhanta, furthermore, in most instances Aryabhatta would not fit the metre either. Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that it was composed 3,600 years into the Kali Yuga and this corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was born in 476. Aryabhata called himself a native of Kusumapura or Pataliputra, Bhāskara I describes Aryabhata as āśmakīya, one belonging to the Aśmaka country. During the Buddhas time, a branch of the Aśmaka people settled in the region between the Narmada and Godavari rivers in central India. It has been claimed that the aśmaka where Aryabhata originated may be the present day Kodungallur which was the capital city of Thiruvanchikkulam of ancient Kerala. This is based on the belief that Koṭuṅṅallūr was earlier known as Koṭum-Kal-l-ūr, however, K. Chandra Hari has argued for the Kerala hypothesis on the basis of astronomical evidence. Aryabhata mentions Lanka on several occasions in the Aryabhatiya, but his Lanka is an abstraction and it is fairly certain that, at some point, he went to Kusumapura for advanced studies and lived there for some time. Both Hindu and Buddhist tradition, as well as Bhāskara I, identify Kusumapura as Pāṭaliputra, Aryabhata is also reputed to have set up an observatory at the Sun temple in Taregana, Bihar. Aryabhata is the author of treatises on mathematics and astronomy. His major work, Aryabhatiya, a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was referred to in the Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. The mathematical part of the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry and it also contains continued fractions, quadratic equations, sums-of-power series, and a table of sines. This work appears to be based on the older Surya Siddhanta and uses the midnight-day reckoning, a third text, which may have survived in the Arabic translation, is Al ntf or Al-nanf. It claims that it is a translation by Aryabhata, but the Sanskrit name of work is not known. Probably dating from the 9th century, it is mentioned by the Persian scholar and chronicler of India, direct details of Aryabhatas work are known only from the Aryabhatiya. The name Aryabhatiya is due to later commentators, Aryabhata himself may not have given it a name. His disciple Bhaskara I calls it Ashmakatantra and it is also occasionally referred to as Arya-shatas-aShTa, because there are 108 verses in the text. It is written in the terse style typical of sutra literature
11.
William Jones (mathematician)
–
William Jones, FRS was a Welsh mathematician, most noted for his proposal for the use of the symbol π to represent the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. He was a friend of Sir Isaac Newton and Sir Edmund Halley. In November,1711 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, William Jones was born the son of Siôn Siôr and Elizabeth Rowland in the parish of Llanfihangel Trer Beirdd, about 4 miles west of Benllech on the Isle of Anglesey. He owed his career partly to the patronage of the distinguished Bulkeley family of north Wales. In this work he applied mathematics to navigation, studying methods of calculating position at sea. After his voyages were over he became a teacher in London, both in coffee houses and as a private tutor to the son of the future Earl of Macclesfield. He also held a number of undemanding posts in government offices with the help of his former pupils, Jones published Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos in 1706, a work which was intended for beginners and which included theorems on differential calculus and infinite series. This used π as an abbreviation for perimeter and his 1711 work Analysis per quantitatum series, fluxiones ac differentias introduced the dot notation for differentiation in calculus. In 1731 he published Discourses of the Natural Philosophy of the Elements and he was noticed and befriended by two of Britain’s foremost mathematicians – Edmund Halley and Sir Isaac Newton – and was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1711. His son, also named William Jones and born in 1746, was a renowned philologist who established links between Latin, Greek and Sanskrit, leading to the concept of the Indo-European language group. William Jones and other important Welsh mathematicians William Jones and his Circle, The Man who invented Pi Pi Day 2015, meet the man who invented π
12.
Ellipse
–
In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve in a plane surrounding two focal points such that the sum of the distances to the two focal points is constant for every point on the curve. As such, it is a generalization of a circle, which is a type of an ellipse having both focal points at the same location. The shape of an ellipse is represented by its eccentricity, which for an ellipse can be any number from 0 to arbitrarily close to, ellipses are the closed type of conic section, a plane curve resulting from the intersection of a cone by a plane. Ellipses have many similarities with the two forms of conic sections, parabolas and hyperbolas, both of which are open and unbounded. The cross section of a cylinder is an ellipse, unless the section is parallel to the axis of the cylinder and this ratio is called the eccentricity of the ellipse. Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engineering, for example, the orbit of each planet in our solar system is approximately an ellipse with the barycenter of the planet–Sun pair at one of the focal points. The same is true for moons orbiting planets and all other systems having two astronomical bodies, the shapes of planets and stars are often well described by ellipsoids. It is also the simplest Lissajous figure formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency, a similar effect leads to elliptical polarization of light in optics. The name, ἔλλειψις, was given by Apollonius of Perga in his Conics, in order to omit the special case of a line segment, one presumes 2 a > | F1 F2 |, E =. The midpoint C of the segment joining the foci is called the center of the ellipse. The line through the foci is called the major axis and it contains the vertices V1, V2, which have distance a to the center. The distance c of the foci to the center is called the distance or linear eccentricity. The quotient c a is the eccentricity e, the case F1 = F2 yields a circle and is included. C2 is called the circle of the ellipse. This property should not be confused with the definition of an ellipse with help of a directrix below, for an arbitrary point the distance to the focus is 2 + y 2 and to the second focus 2 + y 2. Hence the point is on the ellipse if the condition is fulfilled 2 + y 2 +2 + y 2 =2 a. The shape parameters a, b are called the major axis. The points V3 =, V4 = are the co-vertices and it follows from the equation that the ellipse is symmetric with respect to both of the coordinate axes and hence symmetric with respect to the origin
