1.
Drug nomenclature
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Drug nomenclature is the systematic naming of drugs, especially pharmaceutical drugs. Generic names for drugs are nowadays constructed out of affixes and stems that classify the drugs into different categories, a marketed drug might also have a company code or compound code. The chemical names are the names, based on the molecular structure of the drug. There are various systems of nomenclature and thus various chemical names for any one substance. The most important is the IUPAC name, chemical names are typically very long and too complex to be commonly used in referring to a drug. Sometimes, a company that is developing a drug might give the drug a company code, for example, CDP870 is UCB’s company code for Cimzia. Many of these codes, although not all, have prefixes that correspond to the company name, during development, the company will apply for regulatory approval of the drug by the relevant national regulatory agency, and it will apply for a generic name for that country. It will also apply for an International Nonproprietary Name through the World Health Organization, nowadays the national nonproprietary names are usually the same as the INN. The generic names usually indicate via their stems what drug class the drug belongs to, for example, one can tell that aciclovir is an antiviral drug because its name ends in the -vir suffix. Otherwise the 2 names are both given, joined by hyphens or slashes. For example, suspensions combining trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole are called either trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or co-trimoxazole, similarly, co-codamol is codeine-acetaminophen, and co-triamterzide is triamterene-hydrochlorothiazide. The USP ceased maintaining PENs, but the similar co-prefixed BANs are still current, for drugs that make it all the way through development, testing, and regulatory acceptance, the pharmaceutical company then gives the drug a trade name. The term trade name is a term in the pharmaceutical industry for a brand name or trademark name. For example, Lipitor is Pfizers trade name for atorvastatin, a cholesterol-lowering medication, Drug names are often subject to legal regulation, including approval for new drugs and on packaging to establish clear rules about adulterants and fraudulent or misleading labelling. A national formulary is often designated to define drug names for regulatory purposes, unbiased mentions of a drug place the nonproprietary name first and follow it with the trade name in parentheses, if relevant. This pattern is important for the literature, where conflict of interest is disclosed or avoided. The authors reporting on a study are not endorsing any particular brand of drug and they will often state which brand was used, for methodologic validity, but they do so in a way that makes clear the absence of endorsement. For example, the 2015 American Society of Hematology publication policies say, Non-proprietary names should be used and he first letter of the name of a proprietary drug should be capitalized
2.
Drugs.com
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Drugs. com is an online pharmaceutical encyclopedia which provides drug information for consumers and healthcare professionals primarily in the USA. The domain Drugs. com was registered by Bonnie Neubeck in 1994. In 1999 at the height of the boom, Eric MacIver purchased an option to buy the domain from Neubeck. com. Venture Frogs sold the drugs. com domain name to an investor in June 2001. The Drugs. com website is owned and operated by the Drugsite Trust, the Drugsite Trust is a privately held Trust administered by two New Zealand pharmacists, Karen Ann and Phillip James Thornton The Drugs. com website was officially launched in September 2001. Stedmans, AHFS, Harvard Health Publications, Mayoclinic, North American Compendiums, in March 2008, Drugs. com announced the release of Mednotes —an online personal medication record application which connected to Google Health. In May 2010, U. S. FDA announced a collaboration with Drugs. com to distribute consumer health updates on the Drugs. com website, Drugs. com is certified by the TRUSTe online privacy certification program and the HONcode Health on the Net Foundation
3.
Regulation of therapeutic goods
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The regulation of therapeutic goods, that is drugs and therapeutic devices, varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions they are regulated at the level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health, regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed, there is usually some degree of restriction of the availability of certain therapeutic goods depending on their risk to consumers. Therapeutic goods in Australia are regulated by the Therapeutic Goods Administration, there are 5 main categories, Normal Medicines - Cough, cold and fever medicines, antiseptics, vitamins and others. Sold freely in pharmacies and some large supermarkets, red Stripe Medicines - These medicines are sold only with medical prescription. Antibiotics, Anti allergenics, Anti inflammatories, and other medicines, in Brazil, governmental control is loose on this type, it is not uncommon to buy this type of prescription medicine over the counter without a prescription. Red Stripe Psychoactive Medicines - These medicines are only with a Special Control white medical prescription with carbon copy. The original must be retained by the pharmacist after the sale, Drugs include anti-depressants, anti-convulsants, some sleep aids, anti-psychotics and other non-habit-inducing controlled medicines. Though some consider them habit inducing, anabolic steroids are also regulated under this category, black Stripe Medicines - These medicines are sold only with the Blue B Form medical prescription, which is valid for 30 days and must be retained by the pharmacist after the sale. Includes sedatives, some anorexic inducers and other habit-inducing controlled medicines, includes amphetamines and other stimulants, opioids and other strong habit-forming controlled medicines. In Canada, regulation of goods are governed by the Food and Drug Act. In addition, the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act requires additional regulatory requirements for controlled drugs, the regulation of drugs in Burma is governed by the Food and Drug Administration and Food and Drug Board of Authority. The regulation of drugs in China is governed by the China Food, Medicines for Human Use in the United Kingdom are regulated by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. The availability of drugs is regulated by classification by the MHRA as part of marketing authorisation of a product, Medicines in the Republic of Ireland are regulated according to the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 1988. Controlled drugs are divided into five categories based on their potential for misuse, cD1, cannabis, lysergamide, coca leaf, etc. Use prohibited except in limited circumstances where a license has been granted, CD2, amphetamine, methadone, morphine, fentanyl, oxycodone, tapentadol, etc
4.
Over-the-counter drug
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In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physicians care. OTC drugs are regulated by active pharmaceutical ingredients, not final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers freedom to formulate ingredients, or combinations of ingredients, into proprietary mixtures. The term over-the-counter may be somewhat counterintuitive, since, in many countries, in contrast, prescription drugs are almost always passed over a counter from the pharmacist to the customer. Some drugs may be classified as over-the-counter, but may only be dispensed by a pharmacist after an assessment of the patients needs or the provision of patient education. In many countries, a number of OTC drugs are available in establishments without a pharmacy, such as stores, supermarkets. Regulations detailing the establishments where drugs may be sold, who is authorized to dispense them, as of 2011, around a third of older adults in the U. S. reportedly use OTC drugs. In Canada, there are four drug schedules, Schedule 1, Schedule 2, Do not require a prescription, but require an assessment by a pharmacist prior to sale. These drugs are kept in an area of the pharmacy where there is no public access, Schedule 3, Do not require a prescription, but must be kept in an area under the supervision of a pharmacist. These drugs are kept in an area of the outlet where self-selection is possible. Unscheduled, Do not require a prescription and may be sold in any retail outlet, all medications outside of Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, due to this, the exact drugs found in each schedule may vary from province to province. The drug can be on the shelves like any other product, examples are domperidone,400 mg ibuprofen up to 50 tablets and dextromethorphan. The drugs are usually on the shelves and the store sells items like toys, gadgets, perfumes. The drugs in this category have limited risk and addiction potential, examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine,400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. In the United States, the manufacture and sale of OTC substances is regulated by the Food, the FDA requires that all new drugs obtain a New Drug Application before entering interstate commerce, but the act exempts any drugs generally recognized as safe and effective from this requirement. Thus, in the United States an OTC drug product is allowed to be marketed either pursuant to an FDA monograph, the Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising of OTC products. This is in contrast to prescription drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA, the FDA requires that OTC products are labeled with an approved Drug Facts label to educate consumers about their medications
5.
ChemSpider
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ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses
6.
Coke (fuel)
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Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous, while coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes. Coke is used in preparation of producer gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, producer gas is produced by passing air over red-hot coke. Coke is also used to water gas. Historical sources dating to the 4th century describe the production of coke in ancient China, the Chinese first used coke for heating and cooking no later than the ninth century. By the first decades of the century, Chinese ironworkers in the Yellow River valley began to fuel their furnaces with coke. In 1589 a patent was granted to Thomas Proctor and William Peterson for making iron and steel and melting lead with earth-coal, sea-coal, turf, the patent contains a distinct allusion to the preparation of coal by cooking. In 1590 a patent was granted to the Dean of York to purify pit-coal, in 1620 a patent was granted to a company composed of William St. John, Robert Follensbee and other knights, mentioning the use of coke in smelting ores and manufacturing metals. In 1627 a patent was granted to Sir John Hacket and Octavius de Strada for a method of rendering sea-coal and pit-coal as useful as charcoal for burning in houses, without offense by smell or smoke. In 1603 Hugh Plat suggested that coal might be charred in an analogous to the way charcoal is produced from wood. In 1709 Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, cokes superior crushing strength allowed blast furnaces to become taller and larger. The ensuing availability of iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Before this time, iron-making used large quantities of charcoal, produced by burning wood, in the late 18th century, brick beehive ovens were developed, which allowed more control over the burning process. In 1768 John Wilkinson built a more practical oven for converting coal into coke, with greater skill in the firing, covering and quenching of the heaps, yields were increased from about 33 per cent to 65 per cent by the middle of the 19th century. The Scottish iron industry expanded rapidly in the second quarter of the 19th century. In 1802 a battery of beehives was set up near Sheffield, by 1870, there were 14,000 beehive ovens in operation on the West Durham coalfields, capable of producing 4.2 million tons of coke
7.
Coal gas
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Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system. Town gas is a general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers. Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems, originally created as a by-product of the coking process, its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization. Facilities where the gas was produced were known as a manufactured gas plant or a gasworks. The production process is distinct, both physically and chemically, from used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas, syngas, hygas, Dowson gas. Manufactured gas can be made by two processes, carbonization or gasification, carbonization refers to the devolatilization of an organic feedstock to yield gas and char. Gasification is the process of subjecting a feedstock to chemical reactions that produce gas, the first process used was the carbonization and partial pyrolysis of coal. The off gases liberated in the high-temperature carbonization of coal in coke ovens were collected, scrubbed and used as fuel, Coke plants are typically associated with metallurgical facilities such as smelters, and blast furnaces, while gas works typically served urban areas. A facility used to manufacture coal gas, carburetted water gas, in the early years of MGP operations, the goal of a utility gas works was to produce the greatest amount of illuminating gas. The illuminating power of a gas was related to amount of soot-forming hydrocarbons dissolved in it and these hydrocarbons gave the gas flame its characteristic bright yellow color. Gas works would typically use oily bituminous coals as feedstock and these coals would give off large amounts of volatile hydrocarbons into the coal gas, but would leave behind a crumbly, low-quality coke not suitable for metallurgical processes. Coal or coke oven gas typically had a value between 10 and 20 MJ/m³, with values around 20 MJ/m³ being typical. The advent of electric lighting forced utilities to search for markets for manufactured gas. MGPs that once produced gas almost exclusively for lighting shifted their efforts towards supplying gas primarily for heating and cooking, fuel gas for industrial use was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed in a gas producer, the reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide, this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of the fuel gas by enriching it with CO. Producer gas has a very low value of 3.7 to 5. The incandescent fuel bed would be blasted with air followed by steam
8.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
9.
Breastfeeding
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Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk from a womans breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a life and continue as often. During the first few weeks of life babies may nurse roughly every two to three hours, the duration of a feeding is usually ten to fifteen minutes on each breast. Mothers may pump milk so that it can be used later when breastfeeding is not possible, Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby, which infant formula lacks. Deaths of an estimated 820,000 children under the age of five could be prevented every year with increased breastfeeding. Breastfeeding decreases the risk of respiratory infections and diarrhea, both in developing and developed countries. Other benefits include lower risks of asthma, food allergies, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, Breastfeeding may also improve cognitive development and decrease the risk of obesity in adulthood. Mothers may feel pressure to breastfeed, however in the developed world children generally grow up normally when bottle fed, benefits for the mother include less blood loss following delivery, better uterus shrinkage, weight loss, and less postpartum depression. Breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation and fertility, a known as lactational amenorrhea. Long term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, Breastfeeding is less expensive than infant formula. Health organizations, including the World Health Organization, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months and this means that no other foods or drinks other than possibly vitamin D are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until at least one to two years of age, globally about 38% of infants are only breastfed during their first six months of life. In the United States, about 75% of women begin breastfeeding, Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare. Mothers who take certain drugs and medications should not breastfeed. Smoking, limited intake of alcohol, and coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding, the endocrine system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy, a body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the breasts milk duct system. After birth, the hormone oxytocin contracts the muscle layer of cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is also necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur, let-down occurs in response to the babys suckling, though it also may be a conditioned response, e. g. to the cry of the baby
10.
Phenols
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In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C 6H 5OH, phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule. Synonyms are arenols or aryl alcohols, phenolic compounds are synthesized industrially, they also are produced by plants and microorganisms, with variation between and within species. Although similar to alcohols, phenols have unique properties and are not classified as alcohols and they have higher acidities due to the aromatic rings tight coupling with the oxygen and a relatively loose bond between the oxygen and hydrogen. The acidity of the group in phenols is commonly intermediate between that of aliphatic alcohols and carboxylic acids. Phenols can have two or more hydroxy groups bonded to the ring in the same molecule. The simplest examples are the three benzenediols, each having two groups on a benzene ring. Organisms that synthesize phenolic compounds do so in response to pressures such as pathogen and insect attack, UV radiation. As they are present in food consumed in human diets and in used in traditional medicine of several cultures, their role in human health. Some phenols are germicidal and are used in formulating disinfectants, others possess estrogenic or endocrine disrupting activity. They can also be classified on the basis of their number of phenol groups and they can therefore be called simple phenols or monophenols, with only one phenolic group, or di-, tri- and oligophenols, with two, three or several phenolic groups respectively. The phenolic unit can be found dimerized or further polymerized, creating a new class of polyphenol, two natural phenols from two different categories, for instance a flavonoid and a lignan, can combine to form a hybrid class like the flavonolignans. Nomenclature of polymers, Plants in the genus Humulus and Cannabis produce terpenophenolic metabolites, phenolic lipids are long aliphatic chains bonded to a phenolic moiety. The majority of compounds are solubles molecules but the smaller molecules can be volatiles. Many natural phenols present chirality within their molecule, an example of such molecules is catechin. Cavicularin is an unusual macrocycle because it was the first compound isolated from nature displaying optical activity due to the presence of planar chirality, natural phenols chemically interact with many other substances. Stacking, a property of molecules with aromaticity, is seen occurring between phenolic molecules. When studied in mass spectrometry, phenols easily form adduct ions with halogens and they can also interact with the food matrices or with different forms of silica
11.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons—organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen—that are composed of multiple aromatic rings. Formally, the class is defined as lacking further branching substituents on these ring structures. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are a subset of PAHs that have fused aromatic rings, the simplest such chemicals are naphthalene, having two aromatic rings, and the three-ring compounds anthracene and phenanthrene. PAHs are neutral, nonpolar molecules found in coal and in tar deposits and they are produced as well by incomplete combustion of organic matter. The tricyclic species phenanthrene and anthracene represent the members of the PAHs. Smaller molecules, such as benzene, are not PAHs, PAHs with five or six-membered rings are most common. Those composed only of six-membered rings are called alternant PAHs, which include benzenoid PAHs, the following are examples of PAHs that vary in the number and arrangement of their rings, Examples of PAH compounds PAHs are nonpolar and lipophilic. Larger PAHs are generally insoluble in water, while some PAHs are soluble, the larger members are also poorly soluble in organic solvents as well as lipids. Although PAHs clearly are aromatic compounds, the degree of aromaticity can be different for each ring segment, according to Clars rule for PAHs the resonance structure with the largest number of disjoint aromatic п-sextets—i. e. Benzene-like moieties—is the most important for the characterization of the properties, in contrast, in anthracene the resonance structures have one sextet, which can be at any of the three rings, and the aromaticity spreads out more evenly across the whole molecule. Three Clar structures with two each are present in chrysene. Superposition of these reveals that the aromaticity in the outer rings is greater compared to the inner rings. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are found in natural sources such as creosote. They can result from the combustion of organic matter. PAHs can also be produced geologically when organic sediments are transformed into fossil fuels such as oil. Wild fires are another notable source, substantially higher outdoor air, soil, and water concentrations of PAHs have been measured in Asia, Africa, and Latin America than in Europe, Australia, and the U. S. /Canada. PAHs are typically found as complex mixtures, most PAHs are insoluble in water, which limits their mobility in the environment. Aqueous solubility of PAHs decreases approximately logarithmically as molecular mass increases, two-ring PAHs, and to a lesser extent three-ring PAHs, dissolve in water, making them more available for biological uptake and degradation
12.
Heterocyclic compound
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A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring. Heterocyclic chemistry is the branch of chemistry dealing with the synthesis, properties. Examples of heterocyclic compounds include all of the acids, the majority of drugs, most biomass. Although heterocyclic compounds may be inorganic, most contain at least one carbon, while atoms that are neither carbon nor hydrogen are normally referred to in organic chemistry as heteroatoms, this is usually in comparison to the all-carbon backbone. But this does not prevent a compound such as borazine from being labelled heterocyclic, IUPAC recommends the Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature for naming heterocyclic compounds. Heterocyclic compounds can be classified based on their electronic structure. The saturated heterocycles behave like the acyclic derivatives, thus, piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are conventional amines and ethers, with modified steric profiles. Therefore, the study of heterocyclic chemistry focuses especially on unsaturated derivatives, included are pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan. Another large class of heterocycles are fused to rings, which for pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan are quinoline, benzothiophene, indole. Fusion of two benzene rings gives rise to a large family of compounds, respectively the acridine, dibenzothiophene, carbazole. The unsaturated rings can be classified according to the participation of the heteroatom in the pi system, heterocycles with three atoms in the ring are more reactive because of ring strain. Those containing one heteroatom are, in general, stable and those with two heteroatoms are more likely to occur as reactive intermediates. Five-membered rings with one heteroatom, The 5-membered ring compounds containing two heteroatoms, at least one of which is nitrogen, are called the azoles. Thiazoles and isothiazoles contain a sulfur and an atom in the ring. A large group of 5-membered ring compounds with three heteroatoms also exists, one example is dithiazoles that contain two sulfur and a nitrogen atom. Five-member ring compounds with four heteroatoms, With 5-heteroatoms, the compound may be considered rather than heterocyclic. With 7-membered rings, the heteroatom must be able to provide an empty pi orbital for normal aromatic stabilization to be available, otherwise, for example, with the benzo-fused unsaturated nitrogen heterocycles, pyrrole provides indole or isoindole depending on the orientation. The pyridine analog is quinoline or isoquinoline, for azepine, benzazepine is the preferred name
13.
Antifungal
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Such drugs are usually obtained by a doctors prescription, but a few are available OTC. A polyene is a molecule with multiple conjugated double bonds, a polyene antifungal is a macrocyclic polyene with a heavily hydroxylated region on the ring opposite the conjugated system. The polyene antimycotics bind with sterols in the cell membrane. This changes the temperature of the cell membrane, thereby placing the membrane in a less fluid. As a result, the contents including monovalent ions, small organic molecules leak. Animal cells contain cholesterol instead of ergosterol and so they are less susceptible. However, at therapeutic doses, some amphotericin B may bind to animal membrane cholesterol, amphotericin B is nephrotoxic when given intravenously. As a polyenes hydrophobic chain is shortened, its binding activity is increased. Therefore, further reduction of the chain may result in it binding to cholesterol. Depletion of ergosterol in fungal membrane disrupts the structure and many functions of fungal membrane leading to inhibition of fungal growth, examples include Amorolfin, Butenafine, Naftifine, and Terbinafine. When administered by injection they will reach most tissues and organs with concentrations sufficient to treat localized and it is most useful against tinea versicolour. Balsam of Peru has antifungal properties, apart from side-effects like liver damage or affecting estrogen levels, many antifungal medicines can cause allergic reactions in people. For example, the group of drugs is known to have caused anaphylaxis. There are also many drug interactions, patients must read in detail the enclosed data sheet of the medicine. For example, the azole antifungals such as ketoconazole or itraconazole can be both substrates and inhibitors of the P-glycoprotein, which excretes toxins and drugs into the intestines, before oral antifungal therapies are used to treat nail disease, a confirmation of the fungal infection should be made. Approximately half of suspected cases of infection in nails have a non-fungal cause. The side effects of treatment are significant and people without an infection should not take these drugs. Antifungals work by exploiting differences between mammalian and fungal cells to kill the organism with fewer adverse effects to the host
14.
Antiparasitic
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Antiparasitics target the parasitic agents of the infections by destroying them or inhibiting their growth, they are usually effective against a limited number of parasites within a particular class. Antiparasitics are one of the drugs which include antibiotics that target bacteria. They may be administered orally, intravenously or topically, antiparastics may be given via a variety of routes depending on the specific medication, including oral, topical, and intravenous. Early antiparasitics were ineffective, frequently toxic to patients, and difficult to due to the difficulty in distinguishing between the host and the parasite. This led to new public sector and public-private partnerships, including investment by the Bill, between 2000 and 2005, twenty new antiparasitic agents were developed or in development. In 2005, a new antimalarial cost approximately $300 million to develop with a 50% failure rate, balsam of Peru, which has antiparasitic attributes Naegleria fowleri Balamuthia mandrillaris
15.
Health system
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There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. In some countries, health system planning is distributed among market participants, however, health care planning has been described as often evolutionary rather than revolutionary. According to WHO, healthcare systems goals are good health for the citizens, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, progress towards them depends on how systems carry out four vital functions, provision of health care services, resource generation, financing, and stewardship. Other dimensions for the evaluation of systems include quality, efficiency, acceptability. They have also described in the United States as the five Cs, Cost, Coverage, Consistency, Complexity. Also, continuity of care is a major goal. Often health system has been defined with a reductionist perspective, for reducing it to healthcare system. In many publications, for example, both expressions are used interchangeably, the World Health Organization defines health systems as follows, A health system consists of all organizations, people and actions whose primary intent is to promote, restore or maintain health. This includes efforts to influence determinants of health as well as more direct health-improving activities, a health system is therefore more than the pyramid of publicly owned facilities that deliver personal health services. It includes inter-sectoral action by staff, for example, encouraging the ministry of education to promote female education. Healthcare providers are institutions or individuals providing healthcare services and they may also work outside of direct patient care such as in a government health department or other agency, medical laboratory, or health training institution. One study based on data from the OECD concluded that all types of health care finance are compatible with an efficient health system, the study also found no relationship between financing and cost control. The term health insurance is used to describe a form of insurance that pays for medical expenses. It is sometimes used broadly to include insurance covering disability or long-term nursing or custodial care needs. It may be provided through an insurance program, or from private insurance companies. It may be obtained on a basis or purchased by individual consumers. In each case premiums or taxes protect the insured from high or unexpected health care expenses, the benefit is typically administered by a government agency, a non-profit health fund or a corporation operating seeking to make a profit. Many government schemes also have co-payment schemes but exclusions are rare because of political pressure, the larger insurance schemes may also negotiate fees with providers
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Generic drug
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A generic drug is a pharmaceutical drug that is equivalent to a brand-name product in dosage, strength, route of administration, quality, performance, and intended use. The term may refer to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising. Although they may not be associated with a company, generic drugs are usually subject to government regulations in the countries where they are dispensed. They are labeled with the name of the manufacturer and a generic name such as the United States Adopted Name or international nonproprietary name of the drug. A generic drug must contain the active ingredients as the original brand-name formulation. The U. S. Biopharmaceuticals such as monoclonal antibodies differ biologically from small molecule drugs, Generic versions of these drugs, known as biosimilars, are typically regulated under an extended set of rules. In most cases, generic products become available after the patent protections afforded to an original developer expire. Once generic drugs enter the market, competition leads to substantially lower prices for both the original brand-name product and its generic equivalents. In most countries, patents give 20 years of protection, manufacturers, wholesalers, insurers, and drugstores can each increase prices at various stages of production and distribution. In 2014, according to an analysis by the Generic Pharmaceutical Association, Generic drug names are constructed using standardized affixes that distinguish drugs between and within classes and suggest their action. When a pharmaceutical company first markets a drug, it is usually under a patent that, until it expires, large pharmaceutical companies often spend millions of dollars protecting their patents from generic competition. Apart from litigation, they may reformulate a drug or license a subsidiary to sell generics under the original patent, generics sold under license from the patent holder are known as authorized generics. Generic drugs are sold for significantly lower prices than their branded equivalents. One reason for this is that competition increases among producers when a drug is no longer protected by patents, the prices are often low enough for users in less-prosperous countries to afford them. For example, Thailand has imported millions of doses of a version of the blood-thinning drug Plavix from India. Many drugs introduced by generic manufacturers have already been on the market for a decade or more and may already be known to patients and providers. In the United Kingdom, generic drug pricing is controlled by the governments reimbursement rate, the price paid by pharmacists and doctors is determined mainly by the number of license holders, the sales value of the original brand, and the ease of manufacture. A typical price decay graph will show a scalloped curve, which starts at the brand-name price on the day of generic launch
17.
National Health Service
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The National Health Service is the name of the public health services of England, Scotland and Wales, and is commonly used to refer to those of Northern Ireland. They were established together as one of the social reforms following the Second World War on the founding principles of being comprehensive, universal. Today, each provides a range of health services, the vast majority of which are free for people ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. Taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a budget of £136.7 billion. For non-residents, the NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner, the NHS began on the Appointed Day of 5 July 1948. This put into practice Westminster legislation for England and Wales from 1946 and Scotland from 1947, when Clement Attlees Labour Party won the 1945 election he appointed Aneurin Bevan as Health Minister. Bevan then embarked upon what the historian of the NHS, Charles Webster. Three years after the founding of the NHS, Bevan resigned from the Labour government in opposition to the introduction of charges for the provision of dentures and glasses, the following year, Winston Churchills Conservative government introduced prescription charges. These charges were the first of many controversies over reforms to the NHS throughout its history, each of the UKs four nations have their own separate NHS, each with its own history. From its earliest days, the history of the NHS has shown its place in British society reflected and debated in film, TV, cartoons. However, some functions might be performed by one health service on behalf of another. There have been issues about cross-border payments, taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a combined budget of £136.7 billion. In 2014 the total health sector workforce across the UK was 2,165,043 and this broke down into 1,789,586 in England,198,368 in Scotland,110,292 in Wales and 66,797 in Northern Ireland. The NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner and emergency treatment not including admission to hospital, people with the right to medical care in European Economic Area nations are also entitled to free treatment by using the European Health Insurance Card. Those from other countries with which the UK has reciprocal arrangements also qualify for free treatment, people not ordinarily resident in the UK are in general not entitled to free hospital treatment, with some exceptions such as refugees. People not ordinarily resident may be subject to an interview to establish their eligibility, patients who do not qualify for free treatment are asked to pay in advance, or to sign a written undertaking to pay, except for emergency treatment. The provision of treatment to non-UK-residents, formerly interpreted liberally, has been increasingly restricted. As of 2016 the surcharge was £200 per year, with exemptions and reductions in some cases, the systems are 98. 8% funded from general taxation and National Insurance contributions, plus small amounts from patient charges for some services
18.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
19.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
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Pharmaceutical industry
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The pharmaceutical industry discovers, develops, produces, and markets drugs or pharmaceutical drugs for use as medications. Pharmaceutical companies may deal in generic or brand medications and medical devices and they are subject to a variety of laws and regulations that govern the patenting, testing, safety, efficacy and marketing of drugs. The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources, the first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome, Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly, in 1897, John Abel of Johns Hopkins University identified the active principle as epinephrine, which he isolated in an impure state as the sulfate salt. Industrial chemist Jokichi Takamine later developed a method for obtaining epinephrine in a pure state, Parke Davis marketed epinephrine under the trade name Adrenalin. Injected epinephrine proved to be efficacious for the acute treatment of asthma attacks. By 1929 epinephrine had been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion, while highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of norepinephrine and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant, following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of exhilaration, amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, the discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy. A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance produced by the pancreas. In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas. In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study, the researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the companys experience with large scale purification of biological materials. Chemist George Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced, prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months. In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan, arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease which prior to time was incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage
21.
Shampoo
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Shampoo is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap, Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner, the goal of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up in the hair without stripping out so much sebum as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium sulfate, with a co-surfactant. There are also intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas. The word shampoo entered the English language from India during the colonial era and it dates to 1762, and is derived from Hindi chāmpo, itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapayati. Sake Dean Mahomed is identified as a promoter of the practice in Britain. In India, a variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times, a very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called Ksuna in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant, the extract of soapberries, a tropical tree widespread in India, creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka. It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable, other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai, soapnuts, hibiscus flowers, ritha and arappu. Guru Nanak, the prophet and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree. Cleansing with hair and body massage during daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India, when they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learnt habits, including hair treatment they called shampoo. During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine, commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century. A1914 ad for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake, magazine ads in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo. In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products, both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent. Modern shampoo as it is today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene. Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw of rice, the husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes are mixed with water to form lather. The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it
22.
Wright's Coal Tar Soap
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Created by William Valentine Wright in 1860, Wrights Traditional Soap, or Wrights Coal Tar Soap, is a popular brand of antiseptic soap that is designed to thoroughly cleanse the skin. For over 130 years, Wright’s Coal Tar Soap was a brand of household soap, it can still be bought in supermarkets. William Valentine Wright, born in 1826 in Aldeburgh, Suffolk, was a wholesale druggist and chemist who had a business, W. V. Wright & Co. at 11 Old Fish Street Hill, Doctors Commons. Now non-existent, Old Fish Street Hill south east of St Pauls Cathedral was the 14th century fish market, Wrights business can be traced back to that of James Curtis & Co. a wholesale druggist at these premises since 1795. Wright developed a reputation with his recipe for non-alcoholic communion wine, W. V. Wright & Co. s coal-tar soap was first sold in 1860. It was originally named Sapo Carbonis Detergens, which remains a registered trademark, in 1867, Wright moved his firm, Wright, Sellers & Layman, to small premises at 50 Southwark Street, Southwark, London. This area of London was already renowned for its factories and tanneries. It soon became necessary for the company to lease adjoining premises, until in quick succession numbers 44,46, erysipelas is an acute infection of the skin and underlying fat tissues, usually caused by the streptococcus bacteria. The eldest son, William Valentine Jr. born 1854, listed his occupation as gentleman, while the youngest son, Sydney Faulconer, became a physician, in 1892 as part of a survey into life and labour in London, the social researcher Charles Booth interviewed Charles Umney. The factory was enlarged in 1920, during the 1930s the company bought the old business of Dakin Brothers in Middlesex Street. In 1942, additional premises were built at 66 Park Street. The total floor space was by two and one third acres. The soap works in Park Street have now gone, and Park Street has been almost entirely rebuilt, above these fronts, however, the architecture of the upper parts of Nos.44 to 50 Southwark Street is clearly original Victorian. Nos.44 and 46 form parts of what is now called Thrale House, No.48 is called Saxon House, and No.50 is separate again. The original roofline of Nos.44 and 46, up to the Victorian cornice, survives, for much of the 20th century, Wright, Layman & Umney occupied all these properties. In June 1899 Wright, Layman & Umney became a limited company with a capital of £100,000. Charles maintained a role in the business until 1905 and subsequently acted as chairman of the company. In due course, Charles sons, Ernest Albert Umney and John Charles Umney, joined the firm, by 1898, John Charles Umney had taken over the management of the Coal Tar Soap section of the business
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Topical medication
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A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body, as opposed to systemically. Most often this means application to surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes including creams, foams, gels, lotions. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin, as a route of administration, the topical route is contrasted with the enteral route, the intravenous route, and others. A topical effect, in the sense, may refer to a local, rather than systemic. However, many topically administered drugs have effects, because they reach the circulation after being absorbed by the tissues. Topical medications differ from other types of drugs because mishandling them can lead to certain complications in a patient or administrator of the drug. Some hydrophobic chemicals, such as hormones, can be absorbed into the body after being applied to the skin in the form of a cream, gel. Transdermal patches have become a means of administering some drugs for birth control, hormone replacement therapy. One example of an antibiotic that may be applied topically is chloramphenicol, a medications potency often is changed with its base. For example, some topical steroids will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment, as a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base. The manufacturer of each product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the active ingredients, one manufacturers cream might be more acidic than the next. For example, a formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different clinical outcomes, no comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids. Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand, however, in a simple base like an ointment, much less variation between manufacturers is common. In dermatology, the base of a medication is often as important as the medication itself. It is extremely important to receive a medication in the correct base, a pharmacist should not substitute an ointment for a cream, or vice versa, as the potency of the medication can change. As a result, what the manufacturers marketing department chooses to list on the label of a medication might be completely different from what the form would normally be called
24.
Head louse
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The head louse is an obligate ectoparasite of humans that causes head lice infestation. Head lice are wingless insects spending their life on the human scalp. Humans are the known hosts of this specific parasite, while chimpanzees host a closely related species. Other species of lice infest most orders of mammals and all orders of birds, lice differ from other hematophagic ectoparasites such as fleas in spending their entire life cycle on a host. Head lice cannot fly, and their short stumpy legs render them incapable of jumping, the non-disease-carrying head louse differs from the related disease-carrying body louse in preferring to attach eggs to scalp hair rather than to clothing. The two subspecies are morphologically almost identical but do not normally interbreed, although they will do so in laboratory conditions. From genetic studies, they are thought to have diverged as subspecies about 30, 000–110,000 years ago, a much more distantly related species of hair-clinging louse, the pubic or crab louse, also infests humans. It is visually different from the two species and is much closer in appearance to the lice which infest other primates. Lice infestation of any part of the body is known as pediculosis, head lice have been, and still are, subject to various eradication campaigns. Unlike body lice, head lice are not the vectors of any known diseases, head lice are not easily contagious, but it is possible in adults. Exposure or association to an individual for more than 10 minutes results in an 85% chance in becoming exposed. If you are contaminated with head lice for more than 24 hours without using lice shampoo, it is almost certain you are infested and need to quarantine and remove yourself from your living space. Except for rare secondary infections that result from scratching at bites, head lice are harmless, like other insects of the suborder Anoplura, adult head lice are small, dorso-ventrally flattened, and entirely wingless. The thoracic segments are fused, but otherwise distinct from the head and abdomen, head lice are grey in general, but their precise color varies according to the environment in which they were raised. After feeding, consumed blood causes the body to take on a reddish color. One pair of antennae, each with five segments, protrude from the insects head, head lice also have one pair of eyes. Eyes are present in all species within Pediculidae but are reduced or absent in most other members of the Anoplura suborder, like other members of Anoplura, head lice mouth parts are highly adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood. These mouth parts are retracted into the insects head except during feeding, six legs project from the fused segments of the thorax
25.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
26.
Food and Drug Administration
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The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
27.
Alcohol
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In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group is bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the alcohol ethanol, the predominant alcohol in alcoholic beverages. The suffix -ol in non-systematic names also typically indicates that the substance includes a functional group and, so. But many substances, particularly sugars contain hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix, an important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members is the saturated straight chain alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH. The word alcohol is from the Arabic kohl, a used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English, alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide Sb 2S3, hence the essence or spirit of this substance. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic, the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when spirits as a synonym for hard liquor. Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, Vigo wrote, the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium, by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including alcohol of wine, the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia refers to vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum, Johnson glosses alcohol vini as quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat. The words meaning became restricted to spirit of wine in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as alcohols in modern chemistry after 1850, the term ethanol was invented 1892, based on combining the word ethane with ol the last part of alcohol. In the IUPAC system, in naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds ol, e. g. as in methanol and ethanol. When necessary, the position of the group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol, propan-1-ol for CH 3CH 2CH 2OH, propan-2-ol for CH 3CHCH3. If a higher priority group is present, then the prefix hydroxy is used, in other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word alcohol, e. g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary, based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. The primary alcohols have general formulas RCH2OH, the simplest primary alcohol is methanol, for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which R=CH3, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RRCHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol, for the tertiary alcohols the general form is RRRCOH
28.
Polysorbate 80
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Polysorbate 80 is a nonionic surfactant and emulsifier often used in foods and cosmetics. This synthetic compound is a viscous, water-soluble yellow liquid, Polysorbate 80 is derived from polyethoxylated sorbitan and oleic acid. The hydrophilic groups in this compound are also known as polyoxyethylene groups. In the nomenclature of polysorbates, the numeric designation following polysorbate refers to the lipophilic group, E number, E433 Brand names, Alkest TW80 Scattics Canarcel Poegasorb 80 Tween 80 – Tween is a registered trademark of Croda Americas, Inc. Polysorbate 80 is used as an emulsifier in foods, for example, in ice cream, polysorbate is added up to 0. 5% concentration to make the ice cream smoother and easier to handle, as well as increasing its resistance to melting. Adding this substance prevents milk proteins from completely coating the fat droplets and this allows them to join together in chains and nets, which hold air in the mixture, and provide a firmer texture that holds its shape as the ice cream melts. Polysorbate 80 is also used as a surfactant in soaps and cosmetics, the cosmetic grade of polysorbate 80 may have more impurities than the food grade. It is also used as an excipient in some European and Canadian influenza vaccines, influenza vaccines contain 25 μg of polysorbate 80 per dose. It is also used in the culture of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Middlebrook 7H9 broth and it is also used as an emulsifier in the estrogen-regulating drug Estrasorb. In Europe and America, people eat about 100 mg of polysorbate 80 in foods per day on average, Polysorbate 80 has not been found to be carcinogenic. Rats fed with diets containing up to 5% polysorbate 80 by volume for 12 weeks showed no toxic effects. A1997 study on two rats looked at the effect of consuming three doses by body weight of 0. 5%/day on the sex organs of female rats, in general, polysorbate 80 is safe and well tolerated, notwithstanding the items listed below. A small number of people may be sensitive to polysorbate 80, however, administration of 16.783 ml/kg·day to pregnant rats lowered body weight in male and female offspring. This is equivalent to a person consuming about 1.3 kg of polysorbate 80 per day for 21 days, a 1956 study saw no effect on reproduction in rats during their lifetime at up to 5% of their diet being polysorbate 80. Reproduction decreased at 20% of their diet, a 1993 study raised concerns that polysorbate 80 might decrease fertility in rats. Use of germ-free mice and fecal transplants indicated that changes in microbiota were necessary. Polysorbate 20, used as an agent in mouth drops Polysorbate 40 Polysorbate 60
29.
Petroleum jelly
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Its folkloric medicinal value as a cure-all has since been limited by better scientific understanding of appropriate and inappropriate uses. It is recognized by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration as an approved over-the-counter skin protectant, the raw material for petroleum jelly was discovered in 1859 in Titusville, Pennsylvania, United States, on some of the countrys first oil rigs. Workers disliked the material forming on rigs because it caused them to malfunction. Chesebrough took the unrefined black rod wax, as the drillers called it, back to his laboratory to refine it, chesebrough discovered that by distilling the lighter, thinner oil products from the rod wax, he could create a light-colored gel. Chesebrough patented the process of making petroleum jelly by U. S, the process involved vacuum distillation of the crude material followed by filtration of the still residue through bone char. He opened his first factory in 1870 in Brooklyn using the name Vaseline, Petroleum jelly is a mixture of hydrocarbons, having a melting point usually within a few degrees of human body temperature, approximately 37 °C. It is flammable only when heated to liquid, then the fumes will light, not the liquid itself, so a wick material like leaves, bark and it is colorless, or of a pale yellow color, translucent, and devoid of taste and smell when pure. It does not oxidize on exposure to the air and is not readily acted on by chemical reagents and it is soluble in dichloromethane, chloroform, benzene, diethyl ether, carbon disulfide and oil of turpentine. Depending on the application of petroleum jelly, it may be USP. This pertains to the processing and handling of the petroleum jelly so it is suitable for medicinal and personal care applications, because they feel similar when applied to human skin, there is a common misconception that petroleum jelly and glycerol are physically similar. Petroleum jelly is a hydrophobic hydrocarbon and insoluble in water. Glycerol is an alcohol that is hydrophilic, by continuously absorbing moisture from the air. This feeling of wetness is similar to the feeling of greasiness produced by petroleum jelly, most uses of petroleum jelly exploit its lubricating and coating properties. Vaseline brand First Aid Petroleum Jelly, or carbolated petroleum jelly containing phenol to give the jelly additional antibacterial effect, has been discontinued. During World War II, a variety of jelly called red veterinary petrolatum. Acting as a sunscreen, it provides protection against ultraviolet rays, the American Academy of Dermatology recommends keeping skin injuries moist with petroleum jelly to reduce scarring. A verified medicinal use is to protect and prevent moisture loss of the skin of a patient in the initial period following laser skin resurfacing. However, petroleum jelly is used extensively by otolaryngologists—ear, nose, and throat surgeons—for nasal moisture and epistaxis treatment, large studies have assessed petroleum jelly applied to the nose for short durations to have no significant side effects
30.
Pine tar
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Pine tar is a sticky material produced by the high temperature carbonization of pine wood in anoxic conditions. The wood is rapidly decomposed by applying heat and pressure in a closed container, Pine tar consists primarily of aromatic hydrocarbons, tar acids and tar bases. Components of tar vary according to the process and origin of the wood. The choice of wood, design of kiln, burning and collection of the tar can vary, only pine stumps and roots are used in the traditional production of pine tar. Pine tar has long used in Scandinavian nations as a preservative for wood which may be exposed to harsh conditions, including outdoor furniture. The high-grade pine tar used in application is often called Stockholm Tar since, for many years. It is also known as Archangel Tar, Tar and pitch for maritime use was in such demand that it became an important export for the American colonies, such as North Carolina, which had extensive pine forests. North Carolinians later became known as Tar Heels and it was used as a preservative on the bottoms of wooden, Nordic style skis until modern synthetic materials replaced wood in the construction of such skis. The pine tar also helped the adhesion of waxes which aided the grip, Pine tar is widely used as a veterinary care product. It is an antiseptic and hoof care product for horses. Pine tar has been used when chickens start pecking the low hen, applying a smear of pine tar on the wound gives the attacking hens something else to do, as they are distracted by the effort of trying to get the sticky pine tar off their beaks. Pine tar is now used as a softening solvent in the rubber industry. Pine tar can be used for preserving wooden boats by using a mixture of tar, gum turpentine. First, a coat is applied using a mixture with a greater proportion of turpentine. This allows it to permeate deeper into the oakum and fibre of the wood and lets the tar seep into any pinholes, the tar weeps out to the exterior and indicates where the boat needs the most attention. Having the solution in place and the complete, the vessel is ready for the thicker standard mix. Pine tar is also efficacious for properly saturating lead or standard oakum so that the endurance of the capacity is optimal. Such treatments, while effective, must be continually reapplied, traditionally, hemp and other natural fibers were the norm for rope production
. PMID 18882998.
Lunge, Georg (1911). "Coal-Tar". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 595–599.
