1.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
2.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
3.
Ecma International
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ECMA is a standards organization for information and communication systems. It acquired its current name in 1994, when the European Computer Manufacturers Association changed its name to reflect the global reach. As a consequence, the name is no longer considered an acronym, the organization was founded in 1961 to standardize computer systems in Europe. Ecma publications, including standards, can be copied by all interested parties without copyright restrictions. The development of standards and technical reports is done in co-operation with the national, European. Unlike national standardization bodies, Ecma is a membership-based organization and it takes pride in the resulting business-like approach to standards, claimed to lead to better standards in less time, thanks to a less bureaucratic process focused on achieving results by consensus. Ecma has actively contributed to worldwide standardization in information technology and telecommunications, more than 400 Ecma Standards and 100 Technical Reports have been published, more than 2/3 of which have also been adopted as international standards and/or technical reports. The memberlist of Ecma International is available on its website, thus, Ecma is not responsible for the standardization of Java. Ecma is involved in the standardization of the Ecma Office Open XML format based on the XML office document formats by Microsoft, the Ecma Office Open XML maintenance process is performed by technical committee 45
4.
.NET Framework
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. NET Framework is a software framework developed by Microsoft that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a class library named Framework Class Library and provides language interoperability across several programming languages. FCL and CLR together constitute. NET Framework, FCL provides user interface, data access, database connectivity, cryptography, web application development, numeric algorithms, and network communications. Programmers produce software by combining their source code with. NET Framework, the framework is intended to be used by most new applications created for the Windows platform. Silverlight was available as a web browser plugin, Microsoft began developing. NET Framework in the late 1990s, originally under the name of Next Generation Windows Services. By late 2000, the first beta versions of. NET1.0 were released, in August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Intel worked to standardize Common Language Infrastructure and C#. By December 2001, both were ratified Ecma International standards, International Organisation for Standardisation followed in April 2003. The current version of ISO standards are ISO-IEC23271,2012, while Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI and C#, ECMA and ISO require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. The firms agreed to meet these terms, and to make the patents available royalty-free, however, this did not apply for the part of. NET Framework not covered by ECMA-ISO standards, which included Windows Forms, ADO. NET, and ASP. NET. Patents that Microsoft holds in these areas may have deterred non-Microsoft implementations of the full framework, on 3 October 2007, Microsoft announced that the source code for. NET Framework 3.5 libraries was to become available under the Microsoft Reference Source License. The source code became available online on 16 January 2008 and included BCL, ASP. NET, ADO. NET, Windows Forms, WPF. Scott Guthrie of Microsoft promised that LINQ, WCF, and WF libraries were being added, in November 2014, Microsoft also produced an update to its patent grants, which further extends the scope beyond its prior pledges. The new grant does maintain the restriction that any implementation must maintain compliance with the mandatory parts of the CLI specification. On 31 March 2016, Microsoft announced at Microsoft Build that they will completely relicense Mono under an MIT License even in scenarios where formerly a commercial license was needed and it was announced that the Mono Project was contributed to the. NET Foundation. These developments followed the acquisition of Xamarin, which began in February 2016 and was finished on 18 March 2016. Microsofts press release highlights that the cross-platform commitment now allows for a fully open-source, however, Microsoft does not plan to release the source for WPF or Windows Forms. By implementing the core aspects of. NET Framework within the scope of CLI, microsofts implementation of CLI is Common Language Runtime. It serves as the engine of. NET Framework
5.
Mono (software)
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The logo of Mono is a stylized monkeys face, mono being Spanish for monkey. The stated purpose of Mono is not only to be able to run Microsoft. NET applications cross-platform, but also to bring better development tools to Linux developers. Mono can be run on many systems including Android, most Linux distributions, BSD, macOS, Windows, Solaris, and even some game consoles such as PlayStation 3, Wii. The Mono project has been controversial within the community, as it implements portions of. NET Framework that may be covered by Microsoft patents. Following Microsofts open-sourcing of several core. NET technologies since 2014 and its acquisition of Xamarin in the beginning of 2016, Miguel de Icaza of Ximian believed that. NET had the potential to increase programmer productivity and began investigating whether a Linux version was feasible. Recognizing that their team could not expect to build and support a full product, they launched the Mono open-source project. After three years development, Mono 1.0 was released on June 30,2004, Mono evolved from its initial focus of a developer platform for Linux desktop applications to supporting a wide range of architectures and operating systems - including embedded systems. After Novell was acquired by Attachmate in April 2011, Attachmate announced hundreds of layoffs for the Novell workforce, on May 16, Miguel de Icaza announced in his blog that Mono would continue to be supported by Xamarin, a company he founded after being laid off from Novell. The original Mono team had moved to the new company. Xamarin planned to keep working on Mono and had planned to rewrite the commercial. NET stacks for iOS and Android from scratch, because Novell still owned MonoTouch and Mono for Android at the time. This version provides the core API of the. NET Framework and support for Visual Basic. NET and C# versions 2.0,3.0, LINQ to Objects, XML, and SQL are part of the distribution. C#6.0 is now the default mode of operation for the C# compiler, Windows Forms 2.0 is also supported, but not actively developed, and as such its support on Mono is incomplete. Version 4.0 is the first version that incorporates Microsoft original source code that was released by Microsoft as part of the. NET Core project. Monos aim is to full support for the features in. NET4.5 except Windows Presentation Foundation, Windows Workflow Foundation. Some missing parts of the. NET Framework are under development in an experimental Mono subproject called Olive, the Mono project has also created a Visual Basic. NET compiler and a runtime designed for running VB. NET applications. It is currently being developed by Rolf Bjarne Kvinge, an open-source implementation of Microsoft Silverlight, called Moonlight, has been included since Mono 1.9. Moonlight 1.0, which supports the Silverlight 1.0 APIs, was released January 20,2009, Moonlight 2.0 supports Silverlight 2.0 and some features of Silverlight 3.0. A preview release of Moonlight 3.0 was announced in February 2010, the Moonlight project was abandoned on May 29,2012
6.
DotGNU
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DotGNU is a decommissioned part of the GNU Project that aims to provide a free software replacement for Microsofts. NET Framework by Free Software Foundation. Other goals of the project are better support for non-Windows platforms, the main goal of the DotGNU project code base was to provide a class library that is 100% Common Language Specification compliant. Portable. NET claims to support various instruction set architectures including x86, PPC, ARM, DotGNU Execution Environment is a web service server. It implements an intermediate based on three-address code, in which variables are kept in static single assignment form. LibJIT has also some use in other open source projects, including ILDJIT. The Portable. NET class library seeks to provide facilities for application development and these are primarily written in C#, but because of the Common Language Specification they can be used by any. NET language. Like. NET, the library is structured into Namespaces and Assemblies. It has additional top-level namespaces including Accessibility and DotGNU, in a typical operation, the Portable. NET compiler generates a Common Language Specification image, as specified in chapter 6 of ECMA-335, and the Portable. NET runtime takes this image and runs it. DotGNU points out that it is Free Software, and it sets out to ensure all aspects of DotGNU minimize dependence on proprietary components. DotGNU was one of the High Priority Free Software Projects from July 31,2007 till October 2,2008. DotGNU’s implementation of components of the. NET stack not submitted to the ECMA for standardization has been the source of patent violation concerns for much of the life of the project. In particular, discussion has taken place about whether Microsoft could destroy the DotGNU project through patent suits, the base technologies submitted to the ECMA may be non-problematic. These technologies are not fully implemented in DotGNU and are not required for developing DotGNU-applications
7.
Programming language
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A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
8.
Machine code
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Machine code or machine language is a set of instructions executed directly by a computers central processing unit. Each instruction performs a specific task, such as a load. Every program directly executed by a CPU is made up of a series of such instructions, numerical machine code may be regarded as the lowest-level representation of a compiled or assembled computer program or as a primitive and hardware-dependent programming language. While it is possible to write directly in numerical machine code, it is tedious and error prone to manage individual bits and calculate numerical addresses. For this reason machine code is almost never used to programs in modern contexts. Almost all practical programs today are written in languages or assembly language. However, the interpreter itself, which may be seen as an executor or processor, performing the instructions of the source code, every processor or processor family has its own machine code instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits that by physical design correspond to different commands to the machine, thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using the same architecture. Successor or derivative processor designs often include all the instructions of a predecessor, systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will not run the same machine code. A machine code instruction set may have all instructions of the same length, how the patterns are organized varies strongly with the particular architecture and often also with the type of instruction. Not all machines or individual instructions have explicit operands, an accumulator machine has a combined left operand and result in an implicit accumulator for most arithmetic instructions. Other architectures have accumulator versions of common instructions, with the accumulator regarded as one of the general registers by longer instructions, a stack machine has most or all of its operands on an implicit stack. Special purpose instructions also often lack explicit operands and this distinction between explicit and implicit operands is important in machine code generators, especially in the register allocation and live range tracking parts. A good code optimizer can track implicit as well as explicit operands which may allow more frequent constant propagation, constant folding of registers, a computer program is a sequence of instructions that are executed by a CPU. While simple processors execute instructions one after another, superscalar processors are capable of executing several instructions at once, program flow may be influenced by special jump instructions that transfer execution to an instruction other than the numerically following one. Conditional jumps are taken or not depending on some condition, a much more readable rendition of machine language, called assembly language, uses mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than using the instructions numeric values directly. For example, on the Zilog Z80 processor, the machine code 00000101, the MIPS instruction set provides a specific example for a machine code whose instructions are always 32 bits long
9.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
10.
Intel
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Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board
11.
Common Language Runtime
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The Common Language Runtime, the virtual machine component of Microsofts. NET framework, manages the execution of. NET programs. A process known as just-in-time compilation converts compiled code into machine instructions which the computers CPU then executes, the CLR provides additional services including memory management, type safety, exception handling, garbage collection, security and thread management. All programs written for the. NET framework, regardless of programming language, are executed by the CLR, all versions of the. NET framework include CLR. CLR implements the Virtual Execution System as defined in the Common Language Infrastructure standard, a public standard defines the Common Language Infrastructure specification. The runtime provides the features, The ability to easily use components developed in other languages. Extensible types provided by a class library, Language features such as inheritance, interfaces, and overloading for object-oriented programming. Support for threads that allows creation of multithreaded, scalable applications, use of delegates instead of function pointers for increased type safety and security. For more information about delegates, see Common Type System
12.
Xbox 360
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The Xbox 360 is a home video game console developed by Microsoft. As the successor to the original Xbox, it is the console in the Xbox series. The Xbox 360 competed with Sonys PlayStation 3 and Nintendos Wii as part of the generation of video game consoles. The Xbox 360 was officially unveiled on MTV on May 12,2005, with detailed launch, the Xbox 360 features an online service, Xbox Live, which was expanded from its previous iteration on the original Xbox and received regular updates during the consoles lifetime. In addition to multimedia features, the Xbox 360 allows users to stream media from local PCs. Several peripherals have been released, including controllers, expanded hard drive storage. The release of additional services and peripherals helped the Xbox brand grow from gaming-only to encompassing all multimedia. Launched worldwide across 2005–2006, the Xbox 360 was initially in short supply in many regions, including North America, the earliest versions of the console suffered from a high failure rate, indicated by the so-called Red Ring of Death, necessitating an extension of the devices warranty period. Microsoft released two redesigned models of the console, the Xbox 360 S in 2010, and the Xbox 360 E in 2013. As of June 2014,84 million Xbox 360 consoles have sold worldwide, making it the sixth-highest-selling video game console in history. The Xbox 360s successor, the Xbox One, was released on November 22,2013, on April 20,2016, Microsoft announced that it would end the production of new Xbox 360 hardware, although the company will continue to support the platform. Known during development as Xbox Next, Xenon, Xbox 2, Xbox FS or NextBox, in February 2003, planning for the Xenon software platform began, and was headed by Microsofts Vice President J Allard. That month, Microsoft held an event for 400 developers in Bellevue, also that month, Peter Moore, former president of Sega of America, joined Microsoft. On August 12,2003, ATI signed on to produce the graphic processing unit for the new console, before the launch of the Xbox 360, several Alpha development kits were spotted using Apples Power Mac G5 hardware. This was because the systems PowerPC970 processor running the same PowerPC architecture that the Xbox 360 would eventually run under IBMs Xenon processor, the cores of the Xenon processor were developed using a slightly modified version of the PlayStation 3s Cell Processor PPE architecture. According to David Shippy and Mickie Phipps, the IBM employees were hiding their work from Sony and Toshiba, jeff Minter created the music visualization program Neon which is included with the Xbox 360. The Xbox 360 was released on November 22,2005, in the United States and Canada, December 2,2005, in Europe and December 10,2005, in Japan. It was later launched in Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, and Russia
13.
Open-source model
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
14.
Xamarin
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Over 1 million developers were using Xamarins products in more than 120 countries around the world as of May 2015. On February 24,2016, Microsoft announced it had signed an agreement to acquire Xamarin. The name Xamarin comes from the name of the Tamarin monkey and this is in line with the naming theme used ever since Ximian was started. In June 2000, Microsoft first announced their. NET Framework, Miguel de Icaza of Ximian began investigating whether a Linux version was feasible. The Mono open source project was launched on July 19,2001, Ximian was bought by Novell on August 4,2003, which was then acquired by Attachmate in April 2011. After the acquisition, Attachmate announced hundreds of layoffs for the Novell workforce, including Mono developers, putting the future of Mono in question. On May 16,2011, Miguel de Icaza announced on his blog that Mono would be developed and supported by Xamarin, according to de Icaza, at least part of the original Mono team had moved to the new company. After this announcement, the future of the project was questioned, since MonoTouch and it was not known at that time how Xamarin would prove they had not illegally used technologies previously developed when they were employed by Novell for the same work. In December 2012, Xamarin released Xamarin, in February 2013, Xamarin announced the release of Xamarin 2.0. On July 17,2013 Xamarin announced that they had closed $16 million in Series B funding led by Lead Edge Capital, several investors from their Series A funding also participated, including Charles River Ventures, Floodgate, and Ignition Partners. On August 21,2014 Xamarin successfully closed an additional $54 million in Series C funding, total funding for the company to date is $82 million. On February 24,2016 Xamarin and Microsoft announced that Microsoft signed an agreement to acquire Xamarin. Terms of the deal weren’t disclosed, though the Wall Street Journal reported the price at between $400 million and $500 million. As a part of the acquisition they would also relicense Mono completely under the MIT License and would release all other Xamarin SDK software through the. NET Foundation also under the MIT License. Xamarin 2.0 was released in February 2013 Xamarin. Android and Xamarin. iOS that make it possible to do native Android, iOS and Windows development in C#, developers re-use their existing C# code, and share significant code across device platforms. The product was used to make apps for several companies including 3M, AT&T, HP. Xamarin integrates with Visual Studio, Microsofts IDE for the. NET Framework, extending Visual Studio for Android, Xamarin also released a component store to integrate backend systems, 3rd party libraries, cloud services and UI controls directly into mobile apps. Introduced in Xamarin 3 on May 28,2014 and allows one to use portable controls subsets that are mapped to native controls of Android, iOS, Xamarin Test Cloud makes it possible to test mobile apps written in any language on real, non-jailbroken devices in the cloud
15.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
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Free Software Foundation
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The FSF was incorporated in Massachusetts, USA, where it is also based. From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSFs funds were used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSFs employees and volunteers have worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement. Consistent with its goals, the FSF aims to use free software on its own computers. The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development and it continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement, the FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed. The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, as holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License when copyright infringement occurs on that software. From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSFs lawyer, typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations. org. In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn, with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, from 2002-2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent. GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a focus of the FSFs efforts during this period. In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBMs contributions to free software, including FSFs GNU. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5,2003, during 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software. From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL, usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL. In 2007, the FSF published the version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input. In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products, Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. The GNU project The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software, the organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this. GNU licenses The GNU General Public License is a widely used license for software projects
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Visual Basic .NET
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Visual Basic. NET is a multi-paradigm, object-oriented programming language, implemented on the. NET Framework. Microsoft launched VB. NET in 2002 as the successor to its original Visual Basic language, along with Visual C#, it is one of the two main languages targeting the. NET framework. Microsofts integrated development environment for developing in Visual Basic. NET language is Visual Studio, most of Visual Studio editions are commercial, the only exceptions are Visual Studio Express and Visual Studio Community, which are freeware. In addition. NET Framework SDK includes a freeware command-line compiler called vbc. exe, mono also includes a command-line VB. NET compiler. VB. NET uses statements to specify actions, the most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, on a single line. As part of evaluation, functions or subroutines may be called. To modify the normal execution of statements, VB. NET provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by several constructs including two conditional execution constructs and three iterative execution constructs, the For … To statement has separate initialisation and testing sections, both of which must be present. The For Each statement steps through each value in a list, in addition, in Visual Basic. NET, There is no unified way of defining blocks of statements. Instead, certain keywords, such as If … Then or Sub are interpreted as starters of sub-blocks of code and have matching termination keywords such as End If or End Sub, statements are terminated either with a colon or with the end of line. Multiple line statements in Visual Basic. NET are enabled with _ at the end of such line. The need for the underscore continuation character was removed in version 10. The equals sign is used in both assigning values to variable and in comparison, round brackets are used with arrays, both to declare them and to get a value at a given index in one of them. Visual Basic. NET uses round brackets to define the parameters of subroutines or functions, the following is a very simple VB. NET program, a version of the classic Hello world example created as a console application, It prints Hello world. Each line serves a purpose, as follows, This is a module definition. Modules serve as containers of code that can be referenced from other parts of a program and it defines a subroutine called Main. Main is the point, where the program begins execution. This line performs the task of writing the output
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F Sharp (programming language)
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F# is a strongly typed, multi-paradigm programming language that encompasses functional, imperative, and object-oriented programming methods. F# is most often used as a cross-platform Common Language Infrastructure language, F# is developed by the F# Software Foundation, Microsoft and open contributors. An open source, cross-platform compiler for F# is available from the F# Software Foundation, F# is also a fully supported language in Visual Studio and Xamarin Studio. Other tools supporting F# development include Mono, MonoDevelop, SharpDevelop, MBrace, plug-ins supporting F# exist for many widely used editors, most notably the Ionide extension for Atom and Visual Studio Code, and integrations for other editors such as Vim, Emacs, and Sublime Text. In the course of its development, the language has gone through several versions, F# uses an open development, the language evolution process is managed by Don Syme from Microsoft Research as the benevolent dictator for life for the language design, together with the F# Software Foundation. Earlier versions of the F# language were designed by Microsoft and Microsoft Research using a development process. F# originates from Microsoft Research, Cambridge, the Visual F# Tools for Visual Studio are developed by Microsoft. The F# Software Foundation developed the F# open-source compiler and tools, F# is a strongly typed functional-first language that uses type inference. The programmer does not need to declare types—the compiler deduces types during compilation, F# also allows explicit type annotations, and requires them in some situations. F# is a language using eager evaluation. Every statement in F#, including if expressions, try expressions, functions and expressions that do not return any value have a return type of unit. F# uses the let keyword for binding values to a name, for example, binds the value 7 to the name x. New types are defined using the type keyword, for functional programming, F# provides tuple, record, discriminated union, list, option, and result types. A tuple represents a set of n values, where n ≥0, the value n is called the arity of the tuple. A 3-tuple would be represented as, where A, B, a tuple can be used to store values only when the number of values is known at design-time and stays constant during execution. A record is a type where the members are named. The with keyword is used to create a copy of a record, as in, a discriminated union type is a type-safe version of C unions. For example, Values of the type can correspond to either union case
