1.
Communism
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communism
–
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communism
Communism
–
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communism
–
A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
2.
Community
–
A community is a small or large social unit who have something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity. Often - but not always - communities share a sense of place that is situated in a geographical area. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, people tend to define those social ties as important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions like family, home, work, government, society, or humanity, at large. The word community derives from the Old French comuneté, which comes from the Latin communitas community, human communities may share intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Community studies is an academic field drawing on both sociology and anthropology and the research methods of ethnography and participant observation in the study of community. In academic settings around the world, community studies is variously a sub-discipline of anthropology or sociology and it is often interdisciplinary and geared toward practical applications rather than purely theoretical perspectives. Community studies is sometimes combined with other fields, i. e. Urban and Community Studies, Health and Community Studies, or Family, while studies of the Internet are now widespread across academic disciplines, there is a growing collaboration among these investigations. On the research side, Internet studies intersects with studies of cyberculture, human–computer interaction, Urban sociologists contest the significance of place in shaping community. The anonymity and impersonal characterizing life in modern city spaces tend to be devoid of the collective connectedness associated with the idea of community”. The philosophy of science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences, such as sociology, anthropology. Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant, a variety of methods are involved in cultural anthropological, including participant observation, interviews, and surveys. The term civilization later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with forming an umbrella term. Anthropologists have argued that culture is human nature, and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, since humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, people living in different places or different circumstances develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local and the global. Colonialism and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with primitive others, the umbrella term socio-cultural anthropology draws upon both cultural and social anthropology traditions. In archaeological studies of communities the term community is used in two ways, paralleling usage in other areas. The first is a definition of community as a place where people used to live
Community
–
A
community of interest gathers at
Stonehenge, England, for the summer solstice.
Community
–
To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a
sense of community?
Community
–
Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557
Community
–
The anti-war
affinity group "Collateral Damage"
protesting the
Iraq war
3.
Computational sociology
–
Computational sociology is a branch of sociology that uses computationally intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena. It involves the understanding of social agents, the interaction among these agents, in relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of social complexity. Social complexity concepts such as systems, non-linear interconnection among macro and micro process. A practical and well-known example is the construction of a model in the form of an artificial society. However, these models did not permit individuals to interact or adapt and were not intended for basic theoretical research. This cellular automata paradigm gave rise to a wave of social simulation emphasizing agent-based modeling. Like micro-simulations, these models emphasized bottom-up designs but adopted four key assumptions that diverged from microsimulation, autonomy, interdependency, simple rules, agent-based models are less concerned with predictive accuracy and instead emphasize theoretical development. The automatic parsing of textual corpora has enabled the extraction of actors and their networks on a vast scale. Content analysis has been a part of social sciences and media studies for a long time. The automation of content analysis has allowed a big data revolution to take place in field, with studies in social media. Gender bias, readability, content similarity, reader preferences, in 2008, Yukihiko Yoshida did a study called Leni Riefenstahl and German expressionism, research in Visual Cultural Studies using the trans-disciplinary semantic spaces of specialized dictionaries. The analysis of vast quantities of historical newspaper content has been pioneered by Dzogang et al. which showed how periodic structures can be discovered in historical newspapers. A similar analysis was performed on social media, again revealing strongly periodic structures, the most relevant journal of the discipline is the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation. of Michigan, Minor in Complex Systems Systems Sciences Programs List, Portland State. List of other related programs. Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, Center for Complex Systems Research, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA. Center for Social Complexity, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, Center for Social Dynamics and Complexity, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA. Center of the Study of Complex Systems, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, human Complex Systems, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Institute for Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, Boston, MA, Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
Computational sociology
–
Historical map of research paradigms and associated scientists in
sociology and complexity science.
4.
Cultural anthropology
–
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant, a variety of methods are involved in cultural anthropological, including participant observation, interviews, and surveys. The term civilization later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with forming an umbrella term. Anthropologists have argued that culture is human nature, and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, since humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, people living in different places or different circumstances develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local and the global. Colonialism and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with primitive others, the umbrella term socio-cultural anthropology draws upon both cultural and social anthropology traditions. Anthropology is with the lives of people within different parts of the world, particularly in relation to the discourse of beliefs, in addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought. Other ethnologists argued that different groups had the capability of creating similar beliefs, Morgan, in particular, acknowledged that certain forms of society and culture could not possibly have arisen before others. For example, industrial farming could not have been invented before simple farming, Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized. Some 20th-century ethnologists, like Julian Steward, have argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments. But these ethnographers also pointed out the superficiality of such similarities. They noted that even traits that spread through diffusion often were given different meanings, others, such as Claude Lévi-Strauss, have argued that apparently similar patterns of development reflect fundamental similarities in the structure of human thought. Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as axiomatic in anthropological research by Franz Boas, Boas first articulated the idea in 1887. civilization is not something absolute, but. is relative, and. Our ideas and conceptions are only so far as our civilization goes. Although, Boas did not coin the term, it became common among anthropologists after Boas death in 1942, to express their synthesis of a number of ideas Boas had developed. Boas believed that the sweep of cultures, to be found in connection with any sub-species, is so vast, Cultural relativism involves specific epistemological and methodological claims. Whether or not these claims require a specific ethical stance is a matter of debate and this principle should not be confused with moral relativism. Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western ethnocentrism, ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that ones peoples arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful
Cultural anthropology
–
Edward Burnett Tylor
Cultural anthropology
–
In the
unilineal evolution model at left, all cultures progress through set stages, while in the
multilineal evolution model at right, distinctive culture histories are emphasized.
Cultural anthropology
–
Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"
Cultural anthropology
–
Margaret Mead (1901-1978)
5.
Philosophy of social science
–
The philosophy of social science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences, such as sociology, anthropology, and political science. Comte first described the perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy. These texts were followed by the 1848 work, A General View of Positivism, the first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence, whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science. For him, the sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging. His View of Positivism would therefore set-out to define, in more detail, Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general law of three stages. The idea bears some similarity to Marxs view that society would progress toward a communist peak. This is perhaps unsurprising as both were influenced by the early Utopian socialist, Henri de Saint-Simon, who was at one time Comtes teacher. Both Comte and Marx intended to develop, scientifically, a new secular ideology in the wake of European secularisation, the early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte. Writing after various developments in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms. The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the work of Émile Durkheim, Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In the same year he argued, in The Rules of Sociological Method, what has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism. Durkheims seminal monograph Suicide, a study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations. Among most social scientists and historians, orthodox positivism has long fallen out of favor. Today, practitioners of both social and physical sciences recognize the distorting effect of bias and structural limitations. Positivism has also been espoused by technocrats who believe in the inevitability of progress through science. The philosopher-sociologist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are more typically cited as the fathers of contemporary social science. In psychology, an approach has historically been favoured in behaviourism. In any discipline, there always be a number of underlying philosophical predispositions in the projects of scientists
Philosophy of social science
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
6.
Rural sociology
–
It is an active field in much of the world, originating in the United States in the 1910s with close ties to the national Department of Agriculture and land-grant university colleges of agriculture. The sociology of food and agriculture is one focus of rural sociology, many rural sociologists work in the areas of development studies, community studies, community development, and environmental studies. Much of the research involves the Third World, Rural sociology was the first and for a time the largest branch of American sociology. Histories of the field were popular in the 1950s and 1960s, czechoslovakia opened three research centers, and others opened in Romania and Yugoslavia. The mission statements of university departments of sociology have expanded to include more topics. The University of Wisconsin set up one of the first departments of rural sociology and it has now dropped the term rural and changed its name to the Department of Community and Environmental Sociology. Similarly, the Rural Sociology Program at the University of Kentucky has evolved into the, Department of Community and Leadership Development, while transferring the graduate program in rural sociology to the Sociology Department. Cornell Universitys department of sociology has also changed its name to the department of Development Sociology. It publishes the quarterly journal Rural Sociology. The full run of issues is online from 1936-89 through Cornell University Librarys program of putting online core historical resources in rural sociology. The European Society for Rural Sociology was founded in 1957 and it published the International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food. The International Association for Society and Natural Resources publishes the Journal of Society, the Growth of a Science, A Half-Century of Rural Sociological Research in the United States. The End of Rural Society and the Future of Rural Sociology, the Encyclopedia of Rural America, The Land and People, 1341pp Hanson, Victor Davis. The Other Greeks, The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization excerpt and text search Nelson, Rural Sociology, Its Origins and Growth in the United States. Encyclopaedia of Urban & Rural Sociology, Social & Psychological Behaviour Smith, the Institutional and Intellectual Origins of Rural Sociology online Sorokin, Pitirim A. Carle Zimmerman and Charles Galpin. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, classic sociological study, complete text online free European Society for Rural Sociology Rural Sociological Society Rural Sociology back issues, 1938-1989
Rural sociology
–
Fields
7.
Social geography
–
Though the term itself has a tradition of more than 100 years, there is no consensus on its explicit content. The different conceptions of social geography have also been overlapping with other sub-fields of geography and, to a lesser extent, sociology. In the 1970s, the focus of debate within American human geography lay on political processes, while in the 1990s. Both times, as Neil Smith noted, these approaches claimed authority over the social, the term social geography originates from France, where it was used both by geographer Élisée Reclus and by sociologists of the Le Play School, perhaps independently from each other. In fact, the first proven occurrence of the term derives from a review of Reclus Nouvelle géographie universelle from 1884, written by Paul de Rousiers, a member of the Le Play School. Reclus himself used the expression in several letters, the first one dating from 1895, one of his students, Camille Vallaux, wrote the two-volume book Géographie sociale, published in 1908 and 1911. Jean Brunhes, one of Vidals most influential disciples, included a level of interactions among groups into his fourfold structure of human geography. Until the Second World War, no more theoretical framework for social geography was developed, though, Le Plays work, however, was taken up in Britain by Patrick Geddes and Andrew John Herbertson. Percy M. Roxby, a student of Herbertson, in 1930 identified social geography as one of human geographys four main branches. Harlan H. Barrows, a geographer at the University of Chicago, another pre-war concept that combined elements of sociology and geography was the one established by Dutch sociologist Sebald Rudolf Steinmetz and his Amsterdam School of Sociography. However, it lacked a definitive subject, being a combination of geography and ethnography created as the more concrete counterpart to the rather theoretical sociology. In contrast, the Utrecht School of Social geography, which emerged in the early 1930s, in the German-language geography, this focus on the connection between social groups and the landscape was further developed by Hans Bobek and Wolfgang Hartke after the Second World War. For Bobek, groups of Lebensformen —influenced by social factors—that formed the landscape, were at the center of his social geographical analysis, in a similar approach, Hartke considered the landscape a source for indices or traces of certain social groups behaviour. The best-known example of perspective was the concept of Sozialbrache. Though the French Géographie Sociale had been an influence especially on Hartkes ideas. That task was carried out by Pierre George and Maximilien Sorre, then a Marxist, Georges stance was dominated by a socio-economic rationale, but without the structuralist interpretations found in the works of some the French sociologists of the time. However, it was another French Marxist, the sociologist Henri Lefebvre and he had written on that and related topics since the 1930s, but fully expounded it in La Production de LEspace as late as 1974. Sorre developed a schema of society related to the idea of habitat
Social geography
–
Sub-fields
8.
Social philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition
Social philosophy
–
Plato (left) and
Aristotle (right), from a detail of
The School of Athens, a fresco by
Raphael. Plato's
Republic and Aristotle's
Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.
Social philosophy
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
Social philosophy
–
Eugène Delacroix's
Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.
9.
Social sciences
–
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
Social sciences
–
Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in
Chichicastenango Market,
Guatemala.
Social sciences
–
A depiction of world's oldest university, the
University of Bologna, in Italy
Social sciences
–
This article is about the science studying social groups. For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see
Social studies.
Social sciences
–
A trial at a criminal court, the
Old Bailey in
London
10.
Sociocultural evolution
–
Sociocultural evolution, sociocultural evolutionism or cultural evolution are theories of cultural and social evolution that describe how cultures and societies change over time. Sociocultural evolution is the process by which structural reorganization is affected through time, another attempt, on a less systematic scale, originated with the world-systems approach. More recent approaches focus on changes specific to individual societies and reject the idea that cultures differ primarily according to how far one is on the linear scale of social progress. Most modern archaeologists and cultural anthropologists work within the frameworks of neoevolutionism, sociobiology, anthropologists and sociologists often assume that human beings have natural social tendencies and that particular human social behaviours have non-genetic causes and dynamics. Societies exist in social environments and adapt themselves to these environments. It is thus inevitable that all societies change, specific theories of social or cultural evolution often attempt to explain differences between coeval societies, by positing that different societies have reached different stages of development. Most 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches aimed to provide models for the evolution of humankind as a single entity, however, most 20th-century approaches, such as multilineal evolution, focused on changes specific to individual societies. Most archaeologists work within the framework of multilineal evolution, other contemporary approaches to social change include neoevolutionism, sociobiology, dual inheritance theory, modernisation theory and postindustrial theory. In his seminal 1976 book The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins wrote that there are examples of cultural evolution in birds and monkeys. It is our own species that shows what cultural evolution can do. Enlightenment and later thinkers often speculated that societies progressed through stages, in other words, while expecting humankind to show increasing development, theorists looked for what determined the course of human history. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, for example, saw social development as an inevitable process and it was assumed that societies start out primitive, perhaps in a state of nature, and could progress toward something resembling industrial Europe. In relation to Scotlands union with England in 1707, several Scottish thinkers pondered the relationship between progress and the affluence brought about by increased trade with England and they understood the changes Scotland was undergoing as involving transition from an agricultural to a mercantile society. Philosophical concepts of progress, such as that of Hegel, developed as well during this period, in France, authors such as Claude Adrien Helvétius and other philosophes were influenced by the Scottish tradition. Later thinkers such as Comte de Saint-Simon developed these ideas, Auguste Comte in particular presented a coherent view of social progress and a new discipline to study it, sociology. These developments took place in a context of wider processes, similarly, effective colonial administration required some degree of understanding of other cultures. Modern civilization, appeared the result of steady progress from a state of barbarism, the second process was the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism, which together allowed and promoted continual revolutions in the means of production. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution reflected a belief that the changes in Europe brought by the Industrial Revolution and these theories had a common factor, they all agreed that the history of humanity is pursuing a certain fixed path, most likely that of social progress
Sociocultural evolution
–
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Sociocultural evolution
–
In the
unilineal-evolution model at left, all cultures progress through set stages, while the
multilineal-evolution model at right emphasizes distinctive culture histories
Sociocultural evolution
–
Herbert Spencer
Sociocultural evolution
–
Lewis H. Morgan
11.
Urban planning
–
Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
Urban planning
–
Urban planning designs settlements, from the smallest towns to the largest cities. Shown here is
Hong Kong from Western District overlooking
Kowloon, across
Victoria Harbour.
12.
Collectivism
–
Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism, collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic and educational systems. Horizontal collectivism is based on the assumption that individual is more or less equal. Horizontal collectivists tend to favor democratic decision-making, while vertical collectivists believe in a strict chain of command. Horizontal collectivism stresses common goals, interdependence and sociability, vertical collectivism stresses the integrity of the in-group, expects individuals to sacrifice themselves for the in-group if necessary, and promotes competition between different in-groups. For example, worker cooperatives operate on a basis but require the direct input of each individual member. Theoretically, collectivism goes beyond considering the individual as the prime mover of society, in doing so it recognizes society as a collection of individuals and so remains with the understanding that any collective organization is fundamentally composed of individuals. Depending on how conscious a collectivity is of this reality determines how genuinely it maintains respect for individuality, on the other hand, individualism which encourages individuality at the expense of others cannot be considered collectivist, nor even individualist, since individualism is not the same as egotism. Research has proposed that collectivism and individualism came about through an evolutionary adaptation, some societies are on the whole more collectivist and some on the whole more individualist. Harmony within these groups is considered paramount, for example, it may be considered inappropriate for a member of an in-group to openly criticize another in public. There are two objections to collectivism from the ideas of individualism. One is that collectivism stifles individuality and diversity by insisting upon a social identity. The other is that collectivism is linked to statism and the diminution of freedom when political authority is used to advance collectivist goals, criticism of collectivism comes from liberal individualists, such as classical liberals, libertarians, Objectivists, and individualist anarchists. A notable modern criticism of economic collectivism is the one put forward by Friedrich Hayek in his book The Road to Serfdom, published in 1944. Ludwig von Mises wrote, On the other hand the application of the ideas of collectivism cannot result in anything but social disintegration. Many socialists, particularly libertarian socialists, individualist anarchists, and De Leonists criticise the concept of collectivism, some anti-collectivists often argue that all authoritarian and totalitarian societies are collectivist in nature. Yet in the subsequent sentence he also warns of the tyranny of private ownership over the means of production and that a return to free competition means for the great mass of people a tyranny probably worse, because more irresponsible, than that of the state. Marxists criticize this use of the term collectivism, on the grounds that all societies are based on class interests, the liberal ideal of the free individual is seen from a Marxist perspective as a smokescreen for the collective interests of the capitalist class
Collectivism
–
Sociology
13.
Community service
–
Community service is a non-paying job performed by someone or a group of people for the benefit of the public or its institutions. Performing community service is not the same as volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis and it may be performed for a variety of reasons, It may be required by a government as a part of citizenship requirements, generally in lieu of military service. It may be required as a substitution of, or in addition to and it may be mandated by schools to meet the requirements of a class, such as in the case of service-learning or to meet the requirements of graduation. In the UK, it has made a condition of the receipt of certain benefits. In Sweden its a suspended sentence called samhällstjänst, some educational jurisdictions in the United States require students to perform community service hours to graduate from high school. In some high schools in Washington, for example, students must finish 200 hours of community service to get a diploma, if a student in high school is taking an AVID course, community service is often needed. Whether American public schools could require volunteer hours for high school graduation was challenged in Immediato v. Rye Neck School District, many other high schools do not require community service hours for graduation, but still see an impressive number of students get involved in their community. For example, in Palo Alto, California, students at Palo Alto High School log about 45,000 hours of community service every year. As a result, the schools College and Career Center awards about 250–300 students the Presidents Volunteer Service Award every year for their hard work, though not technically considered a requirement, many colleges include community service as an unofficial requirement for acceptance. However, some colleges prefer work experience over community service, some schools also offer unique “community service” courses, awarding credit to students who complete a certain number of community service hours. Some academic honor societies, along with some fraternities and sororities in North America, require community service to join, many student organizations exist for the purpose of community service, the largest of which is Alpha Phi Omega. Community service projects are also done by sororities and fraternities, beginning in the 1980s, colleges began using service-learning as a pedagogy. A partnership of college began in 1985 with the initiative of boosting community service in their colleges. This alliance called Campus Compact, led the way for other schools to adopt service-learning courses and activities. Service-learning courses vary widely in time span, quality, and in the balance of “service”, reflection is simply a scheduled consideration of one’s own experiences and thoughts. This can take many forms, including journals, blogs, service-learning courses present learning the material in context, meaning that students often learn effectively and tend to apply what was learned. As the book Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning, thus, students are interested and motivated to learn the materials to resolve their questions. Community service learning strives to connect or re-connect students with serving their community after they finish their course and it creates a bridge for the lack of community service found among college-age people in the United States
Community service
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Community service work detail for 35th District Court,
Northville, Michigan
14.
Group (sociology)
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In the social sciences, a social group has been defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists disagree however, and are wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or objective similarity, instead, researchers within the social identity tradition generally define it as a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties, for example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. A social group exhibits some degree of cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, kinship ties being a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. In a similar vein, some consider the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction. According to Dunbars number, on average, people cannot maintain stable relationships with more than 150 individuals. Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif proposed to define a unit as a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to, Common motives and goals An accepted division of labor. It succeeds at providing the researcher with the required to answer three important questions, How is a group formed. How does one describe those social interactions occur on the way to forming a group. The attention of those who use, participate in, or study groups has focused on functioning groups, on larger organizations, or on the decisions made in these organizations. Much less attention has been paid to the ubiquitous and universal social behaviors that do not clearly demonstrate one or more of the five necessary elements described by Sherif. The primary goal of members was to defend gang territory. There remains in the media and urban law enforcement agencies an avid interest in gangs. However, these studies and the continued interest have not improved the capacity to influence behavior or to reduce gang related violence. The relevant literature on animal social behaviors, such as work on territory, also, they have been largely neglected by policy makers, sociologists and anthropologists. Of course, while this is true, it is likely that the study of the social behaviors of other animals might shed light on the evolutionary roots of social behavior in people. Territorial and dominance behaviors in humans are so universal and commonplace that they are taken for granted
Group (sociology)
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Sociology
15.
Organization
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An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means organ, a hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers, such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs. Organizations may also operate in secret and/or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are used in athletic contests, book awards. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury, in the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables. Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions, condorcets jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote. The problem is that if the member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice. Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in discussions without reaching decisions. Bad parts of the organization starve, everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on in ecology and it is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous. The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this article from The Guardian. This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies, one hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts, projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema. As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines. A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization, so one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle, a book that introduced hierarchiology, the broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, From a functional perspective, from an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context
Organization
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Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, 1864.
Organization
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Structure of the
United Nations.
16.
Social capital
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It is generally seen as a form of capital that produces public goods for a common good. During the 1990s and 2000s the concept has become popular in a wide range of social science disciplines. The term social capital was in intermittent use from about 1890, in the first half of the 19th century, Alexis de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital. He observed that Americans were prone to meeting at as many gatherings as possible to all possible issues of state, economics. The high levels of transparency caused greater participation from the people, the French writer highlighted also that the level of social participation in American society was directly linked to the equality of conditions. John Dewey used the term in his monograph entitled School and Society in 1900, jane Jacobs used the term early in the 1960s. Although she did not explicitly define the social capital, her usage referred to the value of networks. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu used the term in 1972 in his Outline of a Theory of Practice, and clarified the term some years later in contrast to cultural, economic, and symbolic capital. Sociologists James Coleman, and Barry Wellman & Scot Wortley adopted Glenn Lourys 1977 definition in developing and popularising the concept, john Dewey may have made the first direct mainstream use of social capital in The School and Society in 1899, though he did not offer a definition. The power of community governance has been stressed by many philosophers from antiquity to the 18th century, from Aristotle to Thomas Aquinas and Edmund Burke. This vision was criticised at the end of the 18th century, with the development of the idea of Homo Economicus. The debate of community versus modernization of society and individualism has been the most discussed topic among the fathers of sociology and they were convinced that industrialisation and urbanization were transforming social relationship in an irreversible way. They observed a breakdown of traditional bonds and the development of anomie. After Tönnies and Webers works, reflection on social links in modern society continued with interesting contributions in the 1950s and in the 1960s and they proposed themes similar to those of the founding fathers, with a more pessimistic emphasis on the development of society. All these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social concept in the following decades. He also transforms social capital from a resource possessed by individuals to an attribute of collectives, focusing on norms, mahyar Arefi identifies consensus building as a direct positive indicator of social capital. Consensus implies shared interest and agreement among various actors and stakeholders to induce collective action, collective action is thus an indicator of increased social capital. First, social capital is not equally available to all, in much the way that other forms of capital are differently available
Social capital
–
Sociology
17.
Socialization
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In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained, Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology. Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive, Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children. Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled moral—as regards the society where it occurs, individual views are influenced by the societys consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or normal. Genetic studies have shown that a persons environment interacts with his or her genotype to influence behavioral outcomes, notions of society and the state of nature have existed for centuries. In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for socialism, in particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of association, the term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after World War II, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of Talcott Parsons. Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong, the first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the stage is characterized by an acceptance of societys conventions concerning right and wrong. Finally, the post-conventional stage occurs if a person moves beyond societys norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions, erikson explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt, in stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority, in the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is young people gain insight to life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference, in the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair. George Herbert Mead developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individuals self-concept, meads central concept is the self, It is composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others, understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the others point of view
Socialization
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Group Socialization.
Socialization
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Organizational Socialization Chart
18.
Solidarity (sociology)
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Solidarity is unity which produces or is based on unities of interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies. It refers to the ties in a society that bind people together as one, the term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences as well as in philosophy or in Catholic social teaching. What forms the basis of solidarity varies between societies, in simple societies it may be mainly based on kinship and shared values. In more complex societies there are various theories as to what contributes to a sense of social solidarity, according to Émile Durkheim, the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the mechanical and organic solidarity as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional and small scale societies, in simpler societies, solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work, definition, it is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. Organic here is referring to the interdependence of the component parts, thus social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts. A connection between the biological and the social was of importance for the idea of solidarity as expressed by the anarchist ideologist. According to him, mutual aid, or cooperation, within a species has been an important factor in the evolution of social institutions. Solidarity is essential for mutual aid, supportive activity towards other people does not result from the expectation of reward, Solidarity is an emerging concept in contemporary philosophy – it is subject to ongoing studies in various subfields of ethics and political philosophy. One notable approach in bioethics is to identify solidarity primarily as a three-tiered practice enacted at the interpersonal, communal, Solidarity is an integral element of Catholic social teaching. According to Pope Francis, No one can remain insensitive to the inequalities that persist in the world. The Brazilian people, particularly the humblest among you, can offer the world a lesson in solidarity. 774, ISBN 0-00-470804-0 Ankerl, Guy, Toward a Social Contract on Worldwide Scale, geneva, ILO,1980, ISBN 92-9014-165-4 Media related to Solidarity at Wikimedia Commons
Solidarity (sociology)
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Tributes to the victims of
Charlie Hebdo shooting at the
Royal Villa of Monza,
Italy, on 10 January 2015
Solidarity (sociology)
–
Sociology
19.
Community organizing
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Community organizing is a process where people who live in proximity to each other come together into an organization that acts in their shared self-interest. Community organizing has as a goal the generation of durable power for an organization representing the community. In the ideal, for example, this can get community-organizing groups a place at the table before important decisions are made, Community organizers work with and develop new local leaders, facilitating coalitions and assisting in the development of campaigns. Thus, community organizing is focused on more than just resolving specific issues. In fact, specific issues are often vehicles for other organizational agendas as much as they are ends in themselves, Organizing seeks to broadly empower community members, with the end goal of distributing power more equally throughout the community. The four basic types of community organizing are grassroots or door-knocking organizing, faith-based community organizing, broad-based, FBCOs and many grassroots organizing models are built on the work of Saul Alinsky, discussed below, from the 1930s into the 1970s. Grassroots organizing builds community groups from scratch, developing new leadership where none existed and it is a values based process where people are brought together to act in the interest of their communities and the common good. Networks of community organizations that employ this method and support local organizing groups include National Peoples Action, door knocking grassroots organizations like ACORN organize poor and working-class members recruiting members one by one in the community. Because they go door-to-door, they are able to reach beyond established organizations, ACORN tended to stress the importance of constant action in order to maintain the commitment of a less rooted group of participants. ACORN had a reputation of being more forceful than faith-based groups, the door-knocking approach is more time-intensive than the organization of organizations approach of FBCOs and requires more organizers who, partly as a result, can be lower paid with more turnover. Unlike existing FBCO national umbrella and other organizations, ACORN maintained a centralized national agenda. Because ACORN was a 5014 organization under the tax code, it was able to directly in election activities. Progressive and centrist FBCO organizations join together around basic values derived from aspects of their faith instead of around strict dogmas. There are now at least 180 FBCOs in the US as well as in South Africa, England, Germany, in the United States starting in 2001, the Bush Administration launched a department to promote community organizing that included faith-based organizing as well other community groups. FBCOs tend to have mostly middle-class participants because the involved are generally mainline Protestant. Holiness, Pentecostal, and other related denominations churches with mostly poor and working-class members tend not to join FBCOs because of their focus on faith over works, among other issues. FBCOs have increasingly expanded outside impoverished areas into churches where middle-class professionals predominate in an effort to expand their power to contest inequality, FBCOs focus on the long-term development of a culture and common language of organizing and on the development of relational ties between members. They are more stable during fallow periods than grassroots groups because of the existence of member churches
Community organizing
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Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now protest (Richir).
Community organizing
–
PICO Housing Pledge, by Alburn Binkley.
20.
Positive rights
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Negative and positive rights are rights that respectively oblige either action or inaction. These obligations may be of either a legal or moral character, the notion of positive and negative rights may also be applied to liberty rights. To take an example involving two parties in a court of law, Adrian has a right to x against Clay if. In contrast, Adrian has a right to x against Clay if. In the three generations account of human rights, negative rights are associated with the first generation of rights, while positive rights are associated with the second. Some philosophers disagree that the negative-positive rights distinction is useful or valid, as such, negative rights exist unless someone acts to negate them. A positive right is a right to be subjected to an action of another person or group, in other words, for a positive right to be exercised, someone elses actions must be added to the equation. In theory, a negative right forbids others from acting against the right holder, in the framework of the Kantian categorical imperative, negative rights can be associated with perfect duties while positive rights can be connected to imperfect duties. Belief in a distinction between positive and negative rights is usually maintained, or emphasized, by libertarians, who believe that rights do not exist until they are created by contract. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights lists both positive and negative rights, the constitutions of most liberal democracies guarantee negative rights, but not all include positive rights. Rights are often spoken of as inalienable and sometimes even absolute, thus, even if the right not to be killed is inalienable, the corresponding obligation on others to refrain from killing is generally understood to have at least one exception, self-defense. Likewise a shopkeeper or other passerby may also meet this burden of proof when tackling the thief, but if any of those individuals pulled a gun and shot the thief for stealing, most modern societies would not accept that the burden of proof had been met. Most modern societies insist that other, very serious ethical questions need come into play before stealing could justify killing, but as we see with the police officer, exercising a duty may violate negative obligations. For this reason, in ethics positive obligations are almost never considered prima facie, the greatest negative obligation may have just one exception—one higher obligation of self-defense—but even the greatest positive obligations generally require more complex ethical analysis. For example, one could easily justify failing to help, not just one and this consideration has led ethicists to agree in a general way that positive obligations are usually junior to negative obligations because they are not reliably prima facie. Some critics of positive rights implicitly suggest that positive obligations are not reliably prima facie they must always be agreed to through contract. He says that the question between what one has a right to do and who if anybody enforces it are separate issues, therefore, he says the distinction between negative and positive is quite robust. Libertarians hold that positive rights, which would include a right to be protected, however, those who hold this view do not mean that police, for example, are not obligated to protect the rights of citizens
Positive rights
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A right to adequate nutrition requires duties to avoid stealing, but also duties to act in ways that protect or repair the delivery of the supplies. The right cannot be fully guaranteed by only positive, or else only negative duties; it needs both.
21.
Benjamin Barber
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Benjamin R. Barber is an American political theorist and author perhaps best known for his 1995 bestseller, Jihad vs. McWorld and 2013s If Mayors Ruled the World. From 2007–2012, he was a Distinguished Senior Fellow at Demos, as a political theorist, Barber argues for a renewed focus on civil society and engaged citizenship as tools for building effective democracy, particularly in the post-Cold War world. His current work examines the failure of nation-states to address global problems, benjamin Barber has been a Senior Fellow at the USC Center on Public Diplomacy since 2005. Barber was an adviser to President Bill Clinton and a foreign policy adviser to Howard Deans 2004 Presidential campaign. He has advised political parties and political leaders in the U. K. Germany, Austria, Denmark, Finland and Italy on civic education and participatory institutions. Barber has met with and worked alongside civil society and government leaders in Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, China, Barber was educated at Grinnell College and Harvard University, after earning certificates at Albert Schweitzer College and the London School of Economics. Barbers father, Philip W. Barber, directed the New York City unit of the Federal Theatre Project, which produced plays including Macbeth and his mother, Doris Frankel, was a playwright and wrote for television. Barber himself has also active as a playwright, lyricist. Barbers honors include a knighthood from the French Government, the Berlin Prize of the American Academy in Berlin, Project Veritas which now works with the alt-right media outlet Breitbart News filmed Barber without his knowledge
Benjamin Barber
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Barber in 2010
22.
Gad Barzilai
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Gad Barzilai is a full professor of law, political science and international studies, famous for his work on the politics of law, comparative law and politics, human rights and communities. Barzilai published heretofore 18 books and 173 articles in major academic refereed journals and he has been a full professor of law, societies and justice, and international studies at University of Washington, and the University of Haifa Faculty of Law. Gad Barzilai has served as the Dean of the Faculty of Law and he was a professor of political science and law at Tel Aviv University where he served as its co-founder and co-director of the Law, Society and Politics Graduate Program. Barzilai was born on January 11,1958 in Tel Aviv to parents who had survived the Holocaust, after completing his PhD and LLB he studied quantitative research methods at University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and completed a post doctorate at Yale University. Later he continued to teach at Yale University before deciding to return to Israel and he served as a professor at Tel Aviv University in the political science department and the law school. In 2012 he was elected and serves as the Dean of the Faculty of Law at University of Haifa, Barzilai was the co-founder and co-chair of the Israeli Association of Law and Society. He is a member of the Law and Society Association, American Journal of Political Science, Association of Israel Studies, Israel Studies Forum. He is active in international, Israeli and Israeli-Palestinian human rights organizations and has advised senior politicians and NGOs on issues of law, Barzilai was elected in 2011 as the President of the Association for Israel Studies and served as its President. Gad Barzilai is best known for his analysis of law as a dimension in political power. His work emphasizes the importance of pluralism, political elite, critical communitarianism, cultural relativism and political power in local, state. Barzilai has published books and articles on these issues. Gad Barzilai was named in the WorldWideLearn
Gad Barzilai
–
Gad Barzilai, 2012
23.
Robert Neelly Bellah
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Robert Neelly Bellah was an American sociologist, and the Elliott Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Berkeley. He was internationally known for his work related to the sociology of religion, Bellah received a BA in social anthropology from Harvard College in 1950. His undergraduate honors thesis was titled “Apache Kinship Systems, ” and it was later published in 1952. He graduated from Harvard in a joint sociology and Far East languages program, with Talcott Parsons and John Pelzel as his advisors, Bellah first encountered the work of Talcott Parsons as an undergraduate when his senior honors thesis advisor was David Aberle, a former student of Parsons. Parsons was specially interested in Bellahs concept of evolution and the concept of Civil Religion. They remained intellectual friends until Parsons death in 1979 and he received his PhD in 1955. His doctoral dissertation was titled Tokugawa Religion and was an extension of Weber’s Protestant ethic thesis to Japan. While an undergraduate at Harvard, he was a member of the Communist Party USA in 1947–1949 and a chairman of the John Reed Club, a recognized student organization concerned with the study of Marxism. During the summer of 1954, Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Harvard McGeorge Bundy, johnson, threatened to withdraw Bellahs graduate student fellowship if he did not provide the names of his former club associates. Bellah was also interrogated by the Boston office of the FBI with the same purpose, as a result, Bellah and his family spent two years in Canada, where he was awarded a post-doctoral fellowship at the Islamic Institute in McGill University in Montreal. He returned to Harvard after McCarthyism declined due to the death of its main instigator senator Joseph McCarthy, Bellah afterwards wrote. I know from personal experience that Harvard did some terribly wrong things during the McCarthy period and that those things have never been publicly acknowledged. At its worst it came close to psychological terror against almost defenseless individuals, Bellahs magnum opus, Religion in Human Evolution, traces the biological and cultural origins of religion and the interplay between the two. In this field I do not know of an equally ambitious, Bellah was perhaps best known for his work related to American civil religion, a term which he coined in a 1967 article that has since gained widespread attention among scholars. He served in positions at Harvard from 1955 to 1967 when he took the position of Ford Professor of Sociology at the University of California at Berkeley. He spent the remainder of his career at Berkeley and his political views are often classified as communitarian. An academic biography of Robert Bellah, the worlds most widely read sociologist of religion, is currently under way, Bellah was born in Altus, Oklahoma on February 23,1927. His father was an editor and publisher and died when he was 2. His mother Lillian moved the family to Los Angeles, where she had relatives, Bellah attended Los Angeles High School, where he and his future wife, Melanie Hyman, were editors of the student newspaper
Robert Neelly Bellah
–
Robert Neelly Bellah
24.
Alasdair MacIntyre
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Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre is a Scottish philosopher primarily known for his contribution to moral and political philosophy but also known for his work in history of philosophy and theology. During his lengthy career, he also taught at Brandeis University, Duke University, Vanderbilt University. MacIntyres After Virtue is widely recognised as one of the most important works of Anglophone moral and political philosophy in the 20th century, MacIntyre was born on 12 January 1929 in Glasgow, to John and Emily MacIntyre. He was educated at Queen Mary, University of London, and has a Master of Arts from the University of Manchester and he began his teaching career in 1951 at Manchester University. He taught at the University of Leeds, the University of Essex, MacIntyre has been something of an intellectual nomad, having taught at many universities in the US. He has also been a professor at Princeton University, and is a former president of the American Philosophical Association. In 2010, he was awarded the Aquinas Medal by the American Catholic Philosophical Association, from 2000 he was the Rev. John A. OBrien Senior Research Professor in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana USA. He is also Professor Emerit and Emeritus at Duke University, since his retirement from active teaching in 2010, he remains the Senior Distinguished Research Fellow of the Notre Dame Center for Ethics and Culture, where he retains an office. He continues to make presentations, including an annual keynote as part of the Center for Ethics. He has been married 3 times, from 1953 to 1963 he was married to Ann Peri, with whom he had two daughters. From 1963 to 1977 he was married to Susan Willans, with whom he had a son, since 1977 he has been married to philosopher Lynn Joy, who is also on the Philosophy faculty at Notre Dame. MacIntyres approach to moral philosophy has a number of strains that inform it. This peculiarly modern understanding largely concerns MacIntyres approach to moral disputes. e, notions whose value can not be reduced to a common measure. This Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition, he proposes, presents the best theory so far, probably his most widely read work, After Virtue was written when MacIntyre was already in his fifties. Specifically, MacIntyre argues that rival and largely incompatible conceptions of justice are the outcome of rival and these competing forms of practical rationality and their attendant ideas of justice are in turn the result of socially embodied traditions of rational inquiry. As MacIntyre puts it, It is most often to others that we owe our survival and his approach seeks to demonstrate that good judgment emanates from good character. Being a good person is not about seeking to follow formal rules, in elaborating this approach, MacIntyre understands himself to be reworking the Aristotelian idea of an ethical teleology. Before its recent resurgence, virtue ethics in European/American academia had been associated with pre-modern philosophers
Alasdair MacIntyre
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Alasdair MacIntyre in 2009
The dictionary definition of communitarianism at Wiktionary
