1.
Software
–
Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that consists of data or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs, computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be used on its own. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit, a machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also cause something to appear on a display of the computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to jump to a different instruction, the majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two, an outline for what would have been the first piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century, for the planned Analytical Engine. However, neither the Analytical Engine nor any software for it were ever created, the first theory about software—prior to creation of computers as we know them today—was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. This eventually led to the creation of the academic fields of computer science and software engineering. Computer science is more theoretical, whereas software engineering focuses on practical concerns. However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it—programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers—did not yet exist, the first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to reprogram them. On virtually all platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad categories. There are many different types of software, because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so large—see list of software. System software includes, Operating systems, which are collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs on top of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system bundled with additional software so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system. Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer, utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and care of their computers
Software
2.
Computer hardware
–
Computer hardware is the collection of physical components that constitute a computer system. By contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware, hardware is directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, the template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann architecture, detailed in a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a stored-program computer in which an instruction fetch and this is referred to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the system. For the third year, U. S. business-to-business channel sales increased. The impressive growth was the fastest sales increase since the end of the recession, sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth quarter with a 6.9 percent increase over the fourth quarter of 2012. There are a number of different types of system in use today. The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility, laptops are generally very similar, although they may use lower-power or reduced size components, thus lower performance. The computer case is a plastic or metal enclosure that houses most of the components, a case can be either big or small, but the form factor of motherboard for which it is designed matters more. A power supply unit converts alternating current electric power to low-voltage DC power for the components of the computer. Laptops are capable of running from a battery, normally for a period of hours. The motherboard is the component of a computer. It is usually cooled by a heatsink and fan, or water-cooling system, most newer CPUs include an on-die Graphics Processing Unit. The clock speed of CPUs governs how fast it executes instructions, many modern computers have the option to overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for improved cooling. The chipset, which includes the bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and the other components of the system, including main memory. Random-Access Memory, which stores the code and data that are being accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up memory, RAM usually comes on DIMMs in the sizes 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much larger. Read-Only Memory, which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution, the BIOS includes boot firmware and power management firmware
Computer hardware
–
PDP-11 CPU board.
Computer hardware
–
Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has its own cooling fan.
Computer hardware
–
An
IBM System z9 mainframe.
3.
Operating system
–
An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
Operating system
–
OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning in 1966, including computers used by the
Apollo program.
Operating system
Operating system
–
The
first server for the
World Wide Web ran on NeXTSTEP, based on BSD
4.
Web browser
–
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
Web browser
–
Marc Andreessen, inventor of Netscape
Web browser
–
Usage share of web browsers according to
StatCounter
Web browser
–
Some home media devices now include web browsers, like this
LG Smart TV. The browser is controlled using an on-screen keyboard and LG's "Magic Motion" remote.
5.
Computer architecture
–
In computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer, in other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation. The first documented computer architecture was in the correspondence between Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace, describing the analytical engine, johnson had the opportunity to write a proprietary research communication about the Stretch, an IBM-developed supercomputer for Los Alamos National Laboratory. Brooks went on to develop the IBM System/360 line of computers. Later, computer users came to use the term in many less-explicit ways, the earliest computer architectures were designed on paper and then directly built into the final hardware form. The discipline of architecture has three main subcategories, Instruction Set Architecture, or ISA. The ISA defines the code that a processor reads and acts upon as well as the word size, memory address modes, processor registers. Microarchitecture, or computer organization describes how a processor will implement the ISA. The size of a computers CPU cache for instance, is an issue that generally has nothing to do with the ISA, system Design includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system. These include, Data processing other than the CPU, such as memory access Other issues such as virtualization, multiprocessing. There are other types of computer architecture, E. g. the C, C++, or Java standards define different Programmer Visible Macroarchitecture. UISA —a group of machines with different hardware level microarchitectures may share a common microcode architecture, pin Architecture, The hardware functions that a microprocessor should provide to a hardware platform, e. g. the x86 pins A20M, FERR/IGNNE or FLUSH. Also, messages that the processor should emit so that external caches can be invalidated, pin architecture functions are more flexible than ISA functions because external hardware can adapt to new encodings, or change from a pin to a message. The term architecture fits, because the functions must be provided for compatible systems, the purpose is to design a computer that maximizes performance while keeping power consumption in check, costs low relative to the amount of expected performance, and is also very reliable. For this, many aspects are to be considered which includes Instruction Set Design, Functional Organization, Logic Design, the implementation involves Integrated Circuit Design, Packaging, Power, and Cooling. Optimization of the design requires familiarity with Compilers, Operating Systems to Logic Design, an instruction set architecture is the interface between the computers software and hardware and also can be viewed as the programmers view of the machine. Computers do not understand high level languages such as Java, C++, a processor only understands instructions encoded in some numerical fashion, usually as binary numbers. Software tools, such as compilers, translate those high level languages into instructions that the processor can understand, besides instructions, the ISA defines items in the computer that are available to a program—e. g
Computer architecture
–
Pipelined implementation of
MIPS architecture.
Pipelining is a key concept in computer architecture.
6.
Software development process
–
In software engineering, a software development methodology is splitting of software development work into distinct phases containing activities with the intent of better planning and management. It is often considered a subset of the development life cycle. The methodology may include the pre-definition of specific deliverables and artifacts that are created and completed by a team to develop or maintain an application. For example, there are many software development processes that fit the spiral life-cycle model. A variety of such frameworks have evolved over the years, each with its own recognized strengths, one software development methodology framework is not necessarily suitable for use by all projects. Each of the available methodology frameworks are best suited to specific kinds of projects, based on technical, organizational, project. Software development organizations implement process methodologies to ease the process of development, sometimes, contractors may require methodologies employed, an example is the U. S. defense industry, which requires a rating based on process models to obtain contracts. The international standard for describing the method of selecting, implementing and monitoring the life cycle for software is ISO/IEC12207, a decades-long goal has been to find repeatable, predictable processes that improve productivity and quality. Some try to systematize or formalize the seemingly unruly task of designing software, others apply project management techniques to designing software. Organizations may create a Software Engineering Process Group, which is the point for process improvement. These details are not dictated by the choice of model or general methodology. The software development methodology framework didnt emerge until the 1960s, according to Elliott the systems development life cycle can be considered to be the oldest formalized methodology framework for building information systems. The main target of this framework in the 1960s was to develop large scale functional business systems in an age of large scale business conglomerates. Information systems activities revolved around heavy data processing and number crunching routines, in some cases a sponsor or maintenance organization distributes an official set of documents that describe the process. Specific examples include, 1970s Structured programming since 1969 Cap Gemini SDM, originally from PANDATA, several software development approaches have been used since the origin of information technology, in two main categories. Typically an approach or a combination of approaches is chosen by management or a development team, Royce in 1970 although Royce did not use the term waterfall in this article. The basic principles are, Project is divided into phases, with some overlap. Emphasis is on planning, time schedules, target dates, budgets, written documentation is an explicit deliverable of each phase
Software development process
–
Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model
Software development process
–
The activities of the software development process represented in the
waterfall model. There are several other models to represent this process.
7.
File (computing)
–
A computer file is a computer resource for recording data discretely in a computer storage device. Just as words can be written to paper, so can information be written to a computer file, there are different types of computer files, designed for different purposes. A file may be designed to store a picture, a message, a video. Some types of files can store different several types of information at once, by using computer programs, a person can open, read, change, and close a computer file. Computer files may be reopened, modified, and copied a number of times. Typically, computer files are organised in a system, which keeps track of where the files are. The word file derives from the Latin filum, such a file now exists in a memory tube developed at RCA Laboratories. Electronically it retains figures fed into calculating machines, holds them in storage while it memorizes new ones - speeds intelligent solutions through mazes of mathematics, in 1952, file denoted, inter alia, information stored on punched cards. In early use, the hardware, rather than the contents stored on it, was denominated a file. For example, the IBM350 disk drives were denominated disk files, although the contemporary register file demonstrates the early concept of files, its use has greatly decreased. On most modern operating systems, files are organized into one-dimensional arrays of bytes, for example, the bytes of a plain text file are associated with either ASCII or UTF-8 characters, while the bytes of image, video, and audio files are interpreted otherwise. Most file types also allocate a few bytes for metadata, which allows a file to some basic information about itself. Some file systems can store arbitrary file-specific data outside of the file format, on other file systems this can be done via sidecar files or software-specific databases. All those methods, however, are susceptible to loss of metadata than are container. At any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, in most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. Many older operating systems kept track only of the number of blocks or tracks occupied by a file on a storage device. In such systems, software employed other methods to track the exact byte count, the general definition of a file does not require that its size have any real meaning, however, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage. A special case is a zero byte file, these files can be newly created files that have not yet had any data written to them, or may serve as some kind of flag in the file system, or are accidents
File (computing)
–
A
punched card file
File (computing)
–
The twin
disk files of an
IBM 305 system
8.
Embedded system
–
An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a device often including hardware. Embedded systems control many devices in use today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are manufactured as components of embedded systems, examples of properties of typically embedded computers when compared with general-purpose counterparts are low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges, and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited processing resources, which make them more difficult to program. For example, intelligent techniques can be designed to power consumption of embedded systems. Modern embedded systems are based on microcontrollers, but ordinary microprocessors are also common. In either case, the processor used may be ranging from general purpose to those specialised in certain class of computations. A common standard class of dedicated processors is the signal processor. Since the embedded system is dedicated to tasks, design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale, complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure. One of the very first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance Computer, an early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits. Since these early applications in the 1960s, embedded systems have come down in price and there has been a rise in processing power. An early microprocessor for example, the Intel 4004, was designed for calculators and other systems but still required external memory. By the early 1980s, memory, input and output system components had been integrated into the chip as the processor forming a microcontroller. Microcontrollers find applications where a computer would be too costly. A comparatively low-cost microcontroller may be programmed to fulfill the role as a large number of separate components
Embedded system
–
Picture of the internals of an
ADSL modem /
router. A modern example of an embedded system. Labelled parts include a
microprocessor (4),
RAM (6), and
flash memory (7).
Embedded system
–
Embedded Computer Sub-Assembly for Accupoll Electronic Voting Machine
Embedded system
–
Gumstix Overo COM, a tiny,
OMAP -based embedded
computer-on-module with
Wifi and
Bluetooth.
Embedded system
–
e-con Systems eSOM270 & eSOM300 Computer on Modules
9.
Excel macro
–
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet developed by Microsoft for Windows, macOS, Android and iOS. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a programming language called Visual Basic for Applications. It has been a widely applied spreadsheet for these platforms, especially since version 5 in 1993. Excel forms part of Microsoft Office, Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets, using a grid of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter-named columns to organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied functions to answer statistical, engineering, in addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited three-dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on various factors for different perspectives, Excel was not designed to be used as a database. Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in which Excel starts, the Windows version of Excel supports programming through Microsofts Visual Basic for Applications, which is a dialect of Visual Basic. Programming with VBA allows spreadsheet manipulation that is awkward or impossible with standard spreadsheet techniques, programmers may write code directly using the Visual Basic Editor, which includes a window for writing code, debugging code, and code module organization environment. A common and easy way to generate VBA code is by using the Macro Recorder, the Macro Recorder records actions of the user and generates VBA code in the form of a macro. These actions can then be repeated automatically by running the macro, the macros can also be linked to different trigger types like keyboard shortcuts, a command button or a graphic. The actions in the macro can be executed from these types or from the generic toolbar options. The VBA code of the macro can also be edited in the VBE, advanced users can employ user prompts to create an interactive program, or react to events such as sheets being loaded or changed. Macro Recorded code may not be compatible between Excel versions, some code that is used in Excel 2010 can not be used in Excel 2003. Making a Macro that changes the colors and making changes to other aspects of cells may not be backward compatible. User-created VBA subroutines execute these actions and operate like macros generated using the macro recorder, from its first version Excel supported end user programming of macros and user defined functions.0. Beginning with version 5.0 Excel recorded macros in VBA by default, after version 5.0 that option was discontinued. All versions of Excel, including Excel 2010 are capable of running an XLM macro, Excel supports charts, graphs, or histograms generated from specified groups of cells. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet and these displays are dynamically updated if the content of cells change
Excel macro
–
Microsoft Excel
10.
Microsoft Office
–
Microsoft Office is an office suite of applications, servers, and services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced by Bill Gates on 1 August 1988, initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a spell checker, OLE data integration. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for software under the Office Business Applications brand. On 10 July 2012, Softpedia reported that Office is used by over a billion people worldwide, Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and computing environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the version, available for PCs running the Windows. The most current desktop version is Office 2016 for Windows and macOS, released on 22 September 2015 and 9 July 2015, more recently, Microsoft developed Office Mobile, which are free-to-use versions of Office applications for mobile devices. Microsoft also produces and runs Office Online, a version of core Office apps. Microsoft Word is a word processor available for Windows and macOS, Word is also included in some editions of the now discontinued Microsoft Works. The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population, Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though none was required. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package, Word for Mac was released in 1985. Word for Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word and its proprietary Doc format is a de facto standard, although Word 2007 deprecated this format in favor of Office Open XML, which was later standardized by Ecma International as an open format. Support for Portable Document Format and OpenDocument was first introduced in Word for Windows with Service Pack 2 for Word 2007, Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, and eventually outsold it. It is available for the Windows and macOS platforms, Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac OS in 1985, and the first Windows version in November 1987. Microsoft PowerPoint is a program for Windows and macOS. It is used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, and other objects, Microsoft Access is a database management system for Windows that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. Microsoft Access stores data in its own based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications, Microsoft Outlook is a personal information manager
Microsoft Office
–
Microsoft Office 4.0, inside
Windows 3.1
Microsoft Office
–
Microsoft Office 2016 applications, from top left to bottom right:
Word,
Excel,
PowerPoint and
Outlook
11.
Cloud computing
–
Cloud computing is a type of Internet-based computing that provides shared computer processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand. It is a model for enabling ubiquitous, on-demand access to a pool of configurable computing resources. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economy of scale, advocates claim that cloud computing allows companies to avoid up-front infrastructure costs. As well, it enables organizations to focus on their core businesses instead of spending time, Cloud providers typically use a pay as you go model. This will lead to unexpectedly high charges if administrators do not adapt to the pricing model. Companies can scale up as computing needs increase and then scale down again as demands decrease, the origin of the term cloud computing is unclear. In analogy to the usage, the word cloud was used as a metaphor for the Internet. Later it was used to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams, with this simplification, the implication is that the specifics of how the end points of a network are connected are not relevant for the purposes of understanding the diagram. The cloud symbol was used to represent networks of computing equipment in the original ARPANET by as early as 1977, the term cloud has been used to refer to platforms for distributed computing. No one had conceived that before, references to cloud computing in its modern sense appeared as early as 1996, with the earliest known mention in a Compaq internal document. The popularization of the term can be traced to 2006 when Amazon. com introduced its Elastic Compute Cloud, during the 1960s, the initial concepts of time-sharing became popularized via RJE, this terminology was mostly associated with large vendors such as IBM and DEC. Full time-sharing solutions were available by the early 1970s on such platforms as Multics, Cambridge CTSS, yet, the data center model where users submitted jobs to operators to run on IBM mainframes was overwhelmingly predominant. By switching traffic as they saw fit to balance server use and they began to use the cloud symbol to denote the demarcation point between what the provider was responsible for and what users were responsible for. Cloud computing extended this boundary to all servers as well as the network infrastructure. As computers became more diffused, scientists and technologists explored ways to make large-scale computing power available to users through time-sharing. They experimented with algorithms to optimize the infrastructure, platform, and applications to prioritize CPUs, since 2000, cloud computing has come into existence. Will result in growth in IT products in some areas. In August 2006 Amazon introduced its Elastic Compute Cloud, Microsoft Azure was announced as Azure in October 2008 and was released on 1 February 2010 as Windows Azure, before being renamed to Microsoft Azure on 25 March 2014
Cloud computing
–
Cloud computing metaphor: For a user, the network elements representing the provider-rendered services are invisible, as if obscured by a cloud.
12.
Twitter
–
Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
Twitter
–
A blueprint sketch, c. 2006, by
Jack Dorsey, envisioning an
SMS -based
social network.
Twitter
–
Twitter's homepage as of August 2015 (only in select countries)
Twitter
–
Jack Dorsey, a co-founder and the chairman of Twitter, in 2009
Twitter
–
Twitter's San Francisco, California headquarters, as seen from a corner on Market Street
13.
Facebook
–
Facebook is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California. Facebook gradually added support for students at other universities. Since 2006, anyone age 13 and older has been allowed to become a user of Facebook, though variations exist in the minimum age requirement. The Facebook name comes from the face book directories often given to United States university students, Facebook may be accessed by a large range of desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones over the Internet and mobile networks. After registering to use the site, users can create a user profile indicating their name, occupation, schools attended and so on. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups organized by workplace, school, hobbies or other topics, in groups, editors can pin posts to top. Additionally, users can complain about or block unpleasant people, because of the large volume of data that users submit to the service, Facebook has come under scrutiny for its privacy policies. Facebook makes most of its revenue from advertisements which appear onscreen, Facebook, Inc. held its initial public offering in February 2012, and began selling stock to the public three months later, reaching an original peak market capitalization of $104 billion. On July 13,2015, Facebook became the fastest company in the Standard & Poors 500 Index to reach a market cap of $250 billion, Facebook has more than 1.86 billion monthly active users as of December 31,2016. As of April 2016, Facebook was the most popular social networking site in the world, Facebook classifies users from the ages of 13 to 18 as minors and therefore sets their profiles to share content with friends only. Zuckerberg wrote a program called Facemash on October 28,2003 while attending Harvard University as a sophomore, to accomplish this, Zuckerberg hacked into protected areas of Harvards computer network and copied private dormitory ID images. Facemash attracted 450 visitors and 22,000 photo-views in its first four hours online, the site was quickly forwarded to several campus group list-servers, but was shut down a few days later by the Harvard administration. Zuckerberg faced expulsion and was charged by the administration with breach of security, violating copyrights, Zuckerberg expanded on this initial project that semester by creating a social study tool ahead of an art history final exam. He uploaded 500 Augustan images to a website, each of which was featured with a corresponding comments section and he shared the site with his classmates, and people started sharing notes. The following semester, Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website in January 2004 and he said that he was inspired by an editorial about the Facemash incident in The Harvard Crimson. On February 4,2004, Zuckerberg launched Thefacebook, originally located at thefacebook. com. com and they claimed that he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The three complained to The Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an investigation and they later filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg, subsequently settling in 2008 for 1.2 million shares. Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard College, within the first month, eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris Hughes joined Zuckerberg to help promote the website
Facebook
–
Facebook login/signup screen
Facebook
–
Mark Zuckerberg, co-creator of Facebook, in his
Harvard dorm room, 2005.
Facebook
–
Facebook headquarters entrance sign at 1 Hacker Way,
Menlo Park, California
Facebook
–
Billboard on the
Thomson Reuters building welcomes Facebook to NASDAQ, 2012
14.
Java virtual machine
–
A Java virtual machine is an abstract computing machine that enables a computer to run a Java program. There are three notions of the JVM, specification, implementation, and instance, the specification is a document that formally describes what is required of a JVM implementation. Having a single specification ensures all implementations are interoperable, a JVM implementation is a computer program that meets the requirements of the JVM specification. An instance of a JVM is a running in a process that executes a computer program compiled into Java bytecode. Java Runtime Environment is a package that contains what is required to run a Java program. It includes a Java Virtual Machine implementation together with an implementation of the Java Class Library, the Oracle Corporation, which owns the Java trademark, distributes a Java Runtime environment with their Java Virtual Machine called HotSpot. Java Development Kit is a superset of a JRE and contains tools for Java programmers, the Java Development Kit is provided free of charge either by Oracle Corporation directly, or by the OpenJDK open source project, which is governed by Oracle. The Java virtual machine is an abstract computer defined by a specification, the main reason for this omission is to not unnecessarily constrain implementers. Any Java application can be run only inside some concrete implementation of the specification of the Java virtual machine. Starting with Java Platform, Standard Edition 5.0, changes to the JVM specification have been developed under the Java Community Process as JSR924. As of 2006, changes to specification to support changes proposed to the file format are being done as a maintenance release of JSR924. Oracle provides tests that verify the operation of implementations of the Java Virtual Machine. One of Oracles JVMs is named HotSpot, the other, inherited from BEA Systems is JRockit, clean-room Java implementations include Kaffe and IBM J9. Oracle owns the Java trademark and may allow its use to certify implementation suites as fully compatible with Oracles specification, one of the organizational units of JVM byte code is a class. A class loader implementation must be able to recognize and load anything that conforms to the Java class file format, any implementation is free to recognize other binary forms besides class files, but it must recognize class files. Initialization, invokes Java code that initializes class variables to their proper starting values, in general, there are two types of class loader, bootstrap class loader and user defined class loader. Every Java virtual machine implementation must have a class loader. The Java virtual machine specification doesnt specify how a class loader should locate classes, the JVM has instructions for the following groups of tasks, The aim is binary compatibility
Java virtual machine
–
Overview of a Java virtual machine (JVM) architecture based on The Java Virtual Machine Specification Java SE 7 Edition
15.
Common Language Runtime
–
The Common Language Runtime, the virtual machine component of Microsofts. NET framework, manages the execution of. NET programs. A process known as just-in-time compilation converts compiled code into machine instructions which the computers CPU then executes, the CLR provides additional services including memory management, type safety, exception handling, garbage collection, security and thread management. All programs written for the. NET framework, regardless of programming language, are executed by the CLR, all versions of the. NET framework include CLR. CLR implements the Virtual Execution System as defined in the Common Language Infrastructure standard, a public standard defines the Common Language Infrastructure specification. The runtime provides the features, The ability to easily use components developed in other languages. Extensible types provided by a class library, Language features such as inheritance, interfaces, and overloading for object-oriented programming. Support for threads that allows creation of multithreaded, scalable applications, use of delegates instead of function pointers for increased type safety and security. For more information about delegates, see Common Type System
Common Language Runtime
–
The CLR converts CIL (
Common Intermediate Language) to native code.
16.
List of operating systems
–
This is a list of operating systems. Computer operating systems can be categorized by technology, ownership, licensing, working state, usage, in practice, many of these groupings may overlap. Criteria for inclusion is notability, as shown either through an existing Wikipedia article or citation to a reliable source, arthur ARX MOS RISC iX RISC OS AmigaOS AmigaOS1. 0-3. Atari DOS Atari TOS Atari MultiTOS XTS-400 BeOS BeIA BeOS r5.0,3.0,3.2,4.0, capable of up to 8 simultaneous users. DOS Intel 808x/80x86-based, Disk Operating Systems for desktop systems, capable of up to 32 users per node. Supported a sophisticated network of nodes that were often purpose-built, announced on July 7,2009, Chrome OS is currently publicly available and was released summer 2011. The Chrome OS source code was released on November 19,2009, Chromium OS is an open source operating system development version of Google Chrome OS. Both operating systems are based on the Linux kernel, Android is an operating system for mobile devices. It consists of Android Runtime with Linux, with its Linux kernel modified to add drivers for mobile device hardware, INTEGRITY Reliable Operating system INTEGRITY-178B A DO-178B certified version of INTEGRITY. It is open source and runs natively on x86 platforms, NetWare network operating system providing high-performance network services. Has been superseded by Open Enterprise Server line, which can be based on NetWare or Linux to provide the same set of services, UnixWare Novell SuperNOS, a never released merge of NetWare and UnixWare Novell Corsair Novell Exposé Open Enterprise Server, the successor to NetWare. Derived from AT&T System V Release 3. x, based on AT&T System V Release 4. 2MP UnixWare 7, eventually renamed as LS-DOS or LDOS. NewDos/80, A third-party OS for Tandys TRS-80 personal computers, deskMate, Operating system Edos – enhanced version of IBMs DOS/360 operating system for System/360 and System/370 IBM mainframes TI-RTOS Kernel, Real-time operating system for TIs embedded devices. TRON T-Kernel Unisys MCP Unisys OS2200 operating system EXEC I EXEC II EXEC8 Ran on 1100 series, vS/9, successor to RCA TSOS WPS Wang Word Processing System. Combined the WPS and VP/MVP systems, Wang VS Operating System – used on the VS line of minicomputer systems. MC-68K multiuser O/S for their proprietary microcomputers, used mainly for CBT systems VxWorks Small footprint, scalable, Lisp Machines, Inc. used an operating system written in MITs Lisp Machine Lisp. Symbolics Genera written in a dialect of the Lisp programming language called ZetaLisp. Genera was ported to a machine for the DEC Alpha line of computers
List of operating systems
–
Android 4.0.1 on the
Galaxy Nexus
17.
AmigaOS
–
AmigaOS is a family of proprietary native operating systems of the Amiga and AmigaOne personal computers. It was developed first by Commodore International and introduced with the launch of the first Amiga, early versions of AmigaOS required the Motorola 68000 series of 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors. Later versions were developed by Haage & Partner and then Hyperion Entertainment, a PowerPC microprocessor is required for the most recent release, AmigaOS4. AmigaOS is a operating system based on a preemptive multitasking kernel. It includes an abstraction of the Amigas hardware, an operating system called AmigaDOS, a windowing system API called Intuition. The Amiga intellectual property is fragmented between Amiga Inc, the copyrights for works created up to 1993 are owned by Cloanto. On December 29,2015, the AmigaOS3.1 source code leaked to the web, AmigaOS is a single-user operating system based on a preemptive multitasking kernel, called Exec. AmigaOS provides an abstraction of the Amigas hardware, an operating system called AmigaDOS, a windowing system API called Intuition. A command-line interface, called AmigaShell, is integrated into the system. The CLI and Workbench components share the same privileges, notably, AmigaOS lacks any built-in memory protection. AmigaOS is formed from two parts, namely, a component called Kickstart and a software portion usually referred to as Workbench. Up until AmigaOS3.1, matching versions of Kickstart, however, since AmigaOS3.5, the first release after Commodores demise, only the software component has been updated and the role of Kickstart has been diminished somewhat. Firmware updates may still be applied by patching at system boot, Kickstart is the bootstrap firmware, usually stored in ROM. Kickstart contains the code needed to boot standard Amiga hardware and many of the components of AmigaOS. The function of Kickstart is comparable to the BIOS plus the operating system kernel in IBM PC compatibles. However, Kickstart provides more functionality available at boot time than would typically be expected on PC, for example, Kickstart contains many core parts of the Amigas operating system, such as Exec, Intuition, the core of AmigaDOS and functionality to initialize Autoconfig-compliant expansion hardware. Later versions of the Kickstart contained drivers for IDE and SCSI controllers, PC card ports, upon start-up or reset the Kickstart performs a number of diagnostic and system checks and then initializes the Amiga chipset and some core OS components. It will then examine connected boot devices and attempt to boot from the one with the highest boot priority, if no boot device is present a screen will be displayed asking the user to insert a boot disk, typically a floppy disk
AmigaOS
–
Screenshot of AmigaOS 4.1
18.
AmigaOS 4
–
AmigaOS4, is a line of Amiga operating systems which runs on PowerPC microprocessors. It is mainly based on AmigaOS3.1 source code developed by Commodore, the Final Update was released on 24 December 2006 after five years of development by the Belgian company Hyperion Entertainment under license from Amiga, Inc. for AmigaOne registered users. During the five years of development, purchasers of AmigaOne machines could download pre-release versions of AmigaOS4.0 from Hyperions repository as long as these were made available. On 20 December 2006, Amiga, Inc abruptly terminated the contract with Hyperion Entertainment to produce or sell AmigaOS4, nevertheless, AmigaOS4.0 was released commercially for Amigas with PowerUP accelerator cards in November 2007. The Italian computer company ACube Systems has announced Sam440ep and Sam440ep-flex motherboards, also, a third party bootloader, known as the Moana, was released by Acube on torrent sites, it allows installation of the Sam440ep version of OS4 to Mac Mini G4s. However this is unofficial and unsupported as of today, and very incomplete, especially regarding drivers. During the judicial procedure, OS4 was still being developed and distributed, Hyperion has assured the Amiga community that it will continue the development and the distribution of AmigaOS4. x, as it has done since November 2001. AmigaOS4 can be divided into two parts, the Workbench and the Kickstart, the Workbench is the GUI of OS4, a graphical interface file manager and application launcher for the Operating System. The Kickstart contains many of the components of the OS. Prior to version 4 of AmigaOS the Kickstart had been released mostly on a ROM, in OS4 the Kickstart is instead stored on the hard disk. It consists mainly of, ExecSG, a multitasking kernel. ExecSG was licensed to Hyperion Entertainment by Thomas and Hans-Jörg Frieden, AmigaDOS and AmigaShell, the AmigaDOS is the disk operating system for the OS, whereas the Shell is the integrated Command Line Interface. The CLI and the GUI complement each other and share the same privileges, Petunia, a Motorola 68020 processor emulator with dynamic recompilation, also called just-in-time compilation, for PowerPC based Amigas. It gives OS4 backward compatibility to some extent, it only run system friendly AmigaOS3. x programs. For the programs that Petunia cant handle, such as most bang the hardware Amiga games and demos, there have been many different versions of the AmigaOS operating system during its three decades of history. The first AmigaOS was introduced in 1985 and developed by Commodore International, the first versions of AmigaOS are here indicated with the name of their original disks to preserve original custom. Workbench 2.0 improvements introduced a lot of major advances to the GUI of Amiga operating system, the blue and orange colour scheme was replaced with a grey and light blue with 3D aspect in the border of the windows. The Workbench was no longer tied to the 640×256 or 640×200 display modes, for the first time, a standardised look and feel was added
AmigaOS 4
–
AmigaOne X1000 running AmigaOS 4.1
AmigaOS 4
–
A screenshot of AmigaOS 4.1 Update 2.
19.
FreeBSD
–
FreeBSD is a free and open source Unix-like operating system descended from Research Unix via the Berkeley Software Distribution. Although for legal reasons FreeBSD cannot use the Unix trademark, it is a descendant of BSD. FreeBSD has similarities with Linux, with two differences in scope and licensing, FreeBSD maintains a complete operating system, i. e. The FreeBSD project includes a security team overseeing all software shipped in the base distribution, a wide range of additional third-party applications may be installed using the pkgng package management system or the FreeBSD Ports, or by directly compiling source code. FreeBSDs roots go back to the University of California, Berkeley, the university acquired a UNIX source license from AT&T. The BSD project was founded in 1976 by Bill Joy, but since BSD contained code from AT&T Unix, all recipients had to get a license from AT&T first in order to use BSD. In June 1989, Networking Release 1 or simply Net-1 – the first public version of BSD – was released, after releasing Net-1, Keith Bostic, a developer of BSD, suggested replacing all AT&T code with freely-redistributable code under the original BSD license. Work on replacing AT&T code began and, after 18 months, however, six files containing AT&T code remained in the kernel. The BSD developers decided to release the Networking Release 2 without those six files and they released 386BSD via an anonymous FTP server. The first version of FreeBSD was released on November 1993, in the early days of the projects inception, a company named Walnut Creek CDROM, upon the suggestion of the two FreeBSD developers, agreed to release the operating system on CD-ROM. By 1997, FreeBSD was Walnut Creeks most successful product, the company itself later renamed to The FreeBSD Mall and later iXSystems. Today, FreeBSD is used by many IT companies such as IBM, Nokia, Juniper Networks, certain parts of Apples Mac OS X operating system are based on FreeBSD. The PlayStation 3 operating system also borrows certain components from FreeBSD, netflix, WhatsApp, and FlightAware are also examples of big, successful and heavily network-oriented companies which are running FreeBSD. 386BSD and FreeBSD were both derived from 1992s BSD release, in January 1992, BSDi started to release BSD/386, later called BSD/OS, an operating system similar to FreeBSD and based on 1992s BSD release. AT&T filed a lawsuit against BSDi and alleged distribution of AT&T source code in violation of license agreements, the lawsuit was settled out of court and the exact terms were not all disclosed. The only one that became public was that BSDi would migrate their source base to the newer 4. 4BSD-Lite sources, Although not involved in the litigation, it was suggested to FreeBSD that they should also move to 4. 4BSD-Lite. FreeBSD2.0, which was released on November 1994, was the first version of FreeBSD without any code from AT&T, Desktop Although FreeBSD does not install the X Window System by default, it is available in the FreeBSD ports collection. A number of Desktop environments such as GNOME, KDE and Xfce, embedded systems Although it explicitly focuses on the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms, FreeBSD also supports others such as ARM, PowerPC and MIPS to a lesser degree
FreeBSD
–
FreeBSD's mascot is the generic
BSD Daemon, also known as Beastie
FreeBSD
–
FreeBSD 10
bootloader with
ASCII art logo
20.
NetBSD
–
NetBSD is a free and open source Unix-like operating system that descends from Berkeley Software Distribution, a Research Unix derivative developed at the University of California, Berkeley. It was the second open-source BSD descendant formally released after it forked from the 386BSD branch of the BSD source-code repository. It continues to be developed and is available for many platforms, including large-scale server systems, desktop systems, and handheld devices. The NetBSD project focuses on code clarity, careful design, netBSDs source code is openly available and permissively licensed. The NetBSD project began as a result of frustration within the 386BSD developer community with the pace and they aimed to produce a unified, multi-platform, production-quality, BSD-based operating system. The name NetBSD was suggested by de Raadt, based on the importance and growth of such as the Internet at that time. The NetBSD source code repository was established on 21 March 1993 and this was derived from 386BSD0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. The first multi-platform release, NetBSD1.0, was made in October 1994, also in 1994, for disputed reasons, one of the founders, Theo de Raadt, was removed from the project. He later founded a new project, OpenBSD, from a version of NetBSD1.0 near the end of 1995. In 1998, NetBSD1.3 introduced the pkgsrc packages collection, until 2004, NetBSD1. x releases were made at roughly annual intervals, with minor patch releases in between. The previous minor releases are now divided into two categories, x. y stable maintenance releases and x. y. z releases containing only security, as the projects motto suggests, NetBSD has been ported to a large number of 32- and 64-bit architectures. These range from VAX minicomputers to Pocket PC PDAs, as of 2009, NetBSD supports 57 hardware platforms. The kernel and userland for these platforms are all built from a central unified source-code tree managed by CVS, currently, unlike other kernels such as μClinux, the NetBSD kernel requires the presence of an MMU in any given target architecture. NetBSDs portability is aided by the use of hardware abstraction layer interfaces for low-level hardware access such as bus input/output or DMA, using this portability layer, device drivers can be split into machine-independent and machine-dependent components. This makes a single driver easily usable on several platforms by hiding hardware access details, and reduces the work to port it to a new system. This permits a device driver for a PCI card to work without modifications, whether its in a PCI slot on an IA-32, Alpha, PowerPC, SPARC. Also, a driver for a specific device can operate via several different buses, like ISA, PCI. In comparison, Linux device driver code often must be reworked for each new architecture, as a consequence, in porting efforts by NetBSD and Linux developers, NetBSD has taken much less time to port to new hardware
NetBSD
–
NetBSD was used in
NASA 's SAMS-II Project of measuring the microgravity environment on the
International Space Station, and for investigations of
TCP for use in
satellite networks.
NetBSD
–
NetBSD
21.
OpenBSD
–
OpenBSD is a free and open source Unix-like computer operating system descended from Berkeley Software Distribution, a Research Unix derivative developed at the University of California, Berkeley. In late 1995, Theo de Raadt forked it from NetBSD, besides the operating system as a whole, the project maintains portable versions of many subsystems, most notably OpenSSH, which are available as packages in other operating systems. The project is known for its developers insistence on open-source code, good documentation, code correctness and it has strict policies on licensing, preferring the ISC license and other variants of the Simplified BSD License. Many of its security features are optional or absent in other operating systems and its developers frequently audit the source tree for software bugs and security holes. De Raadt coordinates the project from his home in Calgary, Alberta and its logo and mascot is a pufferfish named Puffy. In December 1994, NetBSD co-founder Theo de Raadt was asked to resign from his position as a developer and member of the NetBSD core team. The reason for this is not wholly clear, although there are claims that it was due to personality clashes within the NetBSD project, in October 1995, de Raadt founded OpenBSD, a new project forked from NetBSD1.0. The initial release, OpenBSD1.2, was made in July 1996, since then, the project has followed a schedule of a release every six months, each of which is supported for one year. Just how widely OpenBSD is used is hard to determine as its developers do not publish or collect usage statistics. OpenBSDs security enhancements, built-in cryptography, and the pf packet filter suit it for use in the security industry, such as on firewalls, intrusion-detection systems, and VPN gateways. Proprietary systems from several manufacturers are based on OpenBSD, including devices from Armorlogic, Calyptix Security, GeNUA, RTMX, later versions of Microsofts Services for UNIX, an extension to the Windows operating system providing Unix-like functionality, use large amounts of OpenBSD code. OpenBSD ships with the X Window System and is suitable for use on the desktop, packages are available for popular applications, including desktop environments such as GNOME, KDE, and Xfce, and web browsers such as Firefox and Chromium. The project also includes three window managers in the distribution, cwm, FVWM, and twm. OpenBSD used to include a fork of Apache 1.3, in the 5.6 release, Nginx was replaced with httpd, an HTTP server with FastCGI and Transport Layer Security support. As of May 2016, Apache and Nginx are still available as ports, development is continuous, and team management is open and tiered. Snapshot releases are available at frequent intervals. Maintenance patches for supported releases may be applied manually or by updating the system against the branch of the CVS repository for that release. The standard OpenBSD kernel, as maintained by the project, is recommended for end users
OpenBSD
–
OpenBSD developers at c2k1
hackathon at
MIT
OpenBSD
–
"Free, Functional & Secure"
22.
Linux
–
Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
Linux
–
Linus Torvalds, principal author of the
Linux kernel
Linux
–
Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution
Linux
–
5.25-inch
floppy discs holding a very early version of Linux
Linux
–
Nexus 5 running
Android
23.
Microsoft Windows
–
Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
Microsoft Windows
–
Screenshot of
Windows 10, showing the
Action Center and
Start Menu
24.
OpenVMS
–
OpenVMS is a computer operating system for use in general-purpose computing. It is the successor to the VMS Operating System, that was produced by Digital Equipment Corporation, in the 1990s, it was used for the successor series of DEC Alpha systems. OpenVMS also runs on the HP Itanium-based families of computers, as of 2015, a port to the X86-64 architecture is underway. The name VMS is derived from virtual memory system, according to one of its architectural features. OpenVMS is a operating system, but source code listings are available for purchase. OpenVMS is a multi-user, multiprocessing virtual memory-based operating system designed for use in time sharing, batch processing, when process priorities are suitably adjusted, it may approach real-time operating system characteristics. The system offers high availability through clustering and the ability to distribute the system over multiple physical machines and this allows the system to be tolerant against disasters that may disable individual data-processing facilities. OpenVMS contains a user interface, a feature that was not available on the original VAX-11/VMS system. Versions of VMS running on DEC Alpha workstations in the 1990s supported OpenGL, customers using OpenVMS include banks and financial services, hospitals and healthcare, network information services, and large-scale industrial manufacturers of various products. As of mid-2014, Hewlett Packard licensed the development of OpenVMS exclusively to VMS Software Inc, VMS Software will be responsible for developing OpenVMS, supporting existing hardware and providing roadmap to clients. The company has a team of developers that originally developed the software during DECs ownership. In April 1975, Digital Equipment Corporation embarked on a project, code named Star. A companion software project, code named Starlet, was started in June 1975 to develop a new operating system, based on RSX-11M. These two projects were integrated from the beginning. Gordon Bell was the VP lead on the VAX hardware and its architecture, the Star and Starlet projects culminated in the VAX 11/780 computer and the VAX-11/VMS operating system. The Starlet name survived in VMS as a name of several of the system libraries, including STARLET. OLB. Over the years the name of the product has changed, in 1980 it was renamed, with version 2.0 release, to VAX/VMS. g. The smallest MicroVAX2000 had a 40MB RD32 hard disk and a maximum of 6MB of RAM, microVMS kits were released for VAX/VMS4.4 to 4.7 on TK50 tapes and RX50 floppy disks, but discontinued with VAX/VMS5.0
OpenVMS
–
New logo Old logo
OpenVMS
–
VAXstation 4000 model 96 running OpenVMS 6.1 and DECwindows
25.
Classic Mac OS
–
The Macintosh platform, which was introduced in the classic Mac OS, is credited with having popularized the early GUI concept. Mac OS was preinstalled on every Macintosh computer that was made during the era it was developed, Apple released the original Macintosh on January 24,1984. The operating system integral to the Macintosh was originally named System Software, or simply System, Apple rebranded the system as Mac OS in 1996, starting officially with version 7.6, due in part to its Macintosh clone program. That program ended after the release of Mac OS8 in 1997, the last major release of the system was Mac OS9 in 1999. Mac OS is characterized by its monolithic system, from its original release through System 4, it ran only one application at a time. Even so, it was noted for its ease of use, Mac OS gained cooperative multitasking with System 5, which ran on the Macintosh SE and Macintosh II. Mac OS X was renamed OS X in 2012 and macOS in 2016, the final updates to Mac OS9 released in 2001 provided interoperability with Mac OS X. The name Classic that now signifies the historical Mac OS as a whole is a reference to the Classic Environment, the Macintosh project started in late 1978 with Jef Raskin, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. In September 1979, Raskin began looking for an engineer who could put together a prototype, bill Atkinson, a member of the Apple Lisa team, introduced Raskin to Burrell Smith, a service technician who had been hired earlier that year. Apples original concept for the Macintosh deliberately sought to minimize the users awareness of the operating system. Many basic tasks that had required more operating system knowledge on other systems could then be accomplished by mouse gestures and this would differentiate it from its contemporaries such as MS-DOS, which use a command-line interface consisting of tersely abbreviated textual commands. In January 1981, Steve Jobs completely took over the Macintosh project, Jobs and a number of Apple engineers visited Xerox PARC in December 1979, three months after the Lisa and Macintosh projects had begun. Unlike the IBM PC, which uses 8 kB of system ROM for power-on self-test and basic input/output system, much of the original Mac ROM was coded by Andy Hertzfeld, a member of the original Macintosh team. He was able to conserve precious ROM space by writing routines in assembly language code optimized with hacks, in addition to the ROM, he also coded the kernel, the Macintosh Toolbox, and some of the desktop accessories. The icons of the system, which represent folders and application software, were designed by Susan Kare. Bruce Horn and Steve Capps wrote the Macintosh Finder, as well as a number of Macintosh system utilities, Apple was very aggressive in advertising their new machine. After it was created, the company bought all 39 pages of advertisement space in the 1984 November/December edition of Newsweek magazine, Apple was so successful in its marketing for the Macintosh that it quickly outsold its more sophisticated predecessor, the Lisa. Apple quickly developed a product named MacWorks, which allowed the Lisa to emulate Macintosh system software through System 3, many of Lisas operating system advances would not appear in the Macintosh operating system until System 7 or later
Classic Mac OS
–
Mac OS
26.
MacOS
–
Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface
MacOS
–
Mac OS
27.
OS/2
–
OS/2 is a series of computer operating systems, initially created by Microsoft and IBM, then later developed by IBM exclusively. The name stands for Operating System/2, because it was introduced as part of the generation change release as IBMs Personal System/2 line of second-generation personal computers. The first version of OS/2 was released in December 1987 and newer versions were released until December 2001, OS/2 was intended as a protected mode successor of PC DOS. Because of this heritage, OS/2 shares similarities with Unix, Xenix, IBM discontinued its support for OS/2 on 31 December 2006. Since then, it has been updated, maintained and marketed under the name eComStation, in 2015 it was announced that a new OEM distribution of OS/2 would be released that was to be called ArcaOS. The development of OS/2 began when IBM and Microsoft signed the Joint Development Agreement in August 1985 and it was code-named CP/DOS and it took two years for the first product to be delivered. OS/21.0 was announced in April 1987 and released in December, the original release is textmode-only, and a GUI was introduced with OS/21.1 about a year later. OS/2 features an API for controlling the display and handling keyboard. In addition, development tools include a subset of the video, a task-switcher named Program Selector is available through the Ctrl-Esc hotkey combination, allowing the user to select among multitasked text-mode sessions. Communications and database-oriented extensions were delivered in 1988, as part of OS/21.0 Extended Edition, SNA, X. 25/APPC/LU6.2, LAN Manager, Query Manager, SQL. The promised graphical user interface, Presentation Manager, was introduced with OS/21.1 in October,1988 and it had a similar user interface to Windows 2.1, which was released in May of that year. The Extended Edition of 1.1, sold only through IBM sales channels, introduced distributed database support to IBM database systems, in 1989, Version 1.2 introduced Installable Filesystems and notably the HPFS filesystem. HPFS provided a number of improvements over the older FAT file system, including long filenames, in addition, extended attributes were also added to the FAT file system. The Extended Edition of 1.2 introduced TCP/IP and Ethernet support, OS/2 and Windows-related books of the late 1980s acknowledged the existence of both systems and promoted OS/2 as the system for the future. The collaboration between IBM and Microsoft unravelled in 1990, between the releases of Windows 3.0 and OS/21.3, during this time, Windows 3.0 became a tremendous success, selling millions of copies in its first year. Much of its success was because Windows 3.0 was bundled with most new computers, OS/2, on the other hand, was available only as an expensive stand-alone software package. In addition, OS/2 lacked device drivers for many devices such as printers. Windows, on the hand, supported a much larger variety of hardware
OS/2
–
Installation Disk A of Microsoft OS/2 1.3 (3.5" floppy disk)
OS/2
–
OS/2 Warp 4 desktop. This version was released on 25 September 1996.
OS/2
–
An
ATM in Australia running OS/2 Warp
28.
Solaris (operating system)
–
Solaris is a Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems. It superseded their earlier SunOS in 1993, Oracle Solaris, so named as of 2010, has been owned by Oracle Corporation since the Sun acquisition by Oracle in January 2010. Solaris is known for its scalability, especially on SPARC systems, Solaris supports SPARC-based and x86-based workstations and servers from Oracle and other vendors, with efforts underway to port to additional platforms. Solaris is registered as compliant with the Single Unix Specification, historically, Solaris was developed as proprietary software. In June 2005, Sun Microsystems released most of the codebase under the CDDL license, with OpenSolaris, Sun wanted to build a developer and user community around the software. After the acquisition of Sun Microsystems in January 2010, Oracle decided to discontinue the OpenSolaris distribution, in August 2010, Oracle discontinued providing public updates to the source code of the Solaris kernel, effectively turning Solaris 11 back into a closed source proprietary operating system. Following that, in 2011 the Solaris 11 kernel source code leaked to BitTorrent, however, through the Oracle Technology Network, industry partners can still gain access to the in-development Solaris source code. Source code for the source components of Solaris 11 is available for download from Oracle. In 1987, AT&T Corporation and Sun announced that they were collaborating on a project to merge the most popular Unix variants on the market at that time, BSD, System V and this became Unix System V Release 4. On September 4,1991, Sun announced that it would replace its existing BSD-derived Unix, SunOS4 and this was identified internally as SunOS5, but a new marketing name was introduced at the same time, Solaris 2. The justification for this new overbrand was that it encompassed not only SunOS, but also the OpenWindows graphical user interface and Open Network Computing functionality. Although SunOS4.1. x micro releases were retroactively named Solaris 1 by Sun, for releases based on SunOS5, the SunOS minor version is included in the Solaris release number. For example, Solaris 2.4 incorporates SunOS5.4. After Solaris 2.6, the 2. was dropped from the name, so Solaris 7 incorporates SunOS5.7. Although SunSoft stated in its initial Solaris 2 press release their intent to support both SPARC and x86 systems, the first two Solaris 2 releases,2.0 and 2.1, were SPARC-only. An x86 version of Solaris 2.1 was released in June 1993, about 6 months after the SPARC version, as a desktop and it included the Wabi emulator to support Windows applications. At the time, Sun also offered the Interactive Unix system that it had acquired from Interactive Systems Corporation, in 1994, Sun released Solaris 2.4, supporting both SPARC and x86 systems from a unified source code base. Solaris uses a code base for the platforms it supports, SPARC
Solaris (operating system)
–
olvwm with
OpenWindows on Solaris
Solaris (operating system)
–
Solaris
29.
Tru64 UNIX
–
Tru64 UNIX is a discontinued 64-bit UNIX operating system for the Alpha instruction set architecture, currently owned by Hewlett-Packard. Previously, Tru64 UNIX was a product of Compaq, and before that, Digital Equipment Corporation, as its original name suggests, Tru64 UNIX is based on the OSF/1 operating system. DECs previous UNIX product was known as Ultrix and was based on BSD and it is unusual among commercial UNIX implementations, as it is built on top of the Mach kernel developed at Carnegie Mellon University. Tru64 UNIX required the SRM boot firmware found on Alpha-based computer systems, in 1988, during the so-called Unix wars, DEC joined with IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and others to form the Open Software Foundation to develop a version of Unix. The fact that OSF/1 was one of the first operating systems to use the Mach kernel is cited as support of this assertion and it also incorporated a large part of the BSD kernel to provide UNIX API. Back at the time of its proliferation, OSF/1 was the third major flavor of UNIX together with System V and BSD. DECs original release of OSF/1 was in January 1992 for their line of MIPS-based DECstation workstations, DEC ported OSF/1 to their new Alpha AXP platform, and this was the first version of what is most commonly referred to as OSF/1. DEC OSF/1 AXP Release 1.2 was shipped on March 1993, OSF/1 AXP was a full 64-bit operating system and the native UNIX implementation for the Alpha architecture. From OSF/1 AXP V2.0 onwards, UNIX System V compatibility was also integrated into the system, HP also released a port of OSF/1 to the early HP 9000/700 workstations based on the PA-RISC1.1 architecture. This was withdrawn soon afterwards due to lack of software and hardware support compared to competing operating systems, apple Computer intended to base A/UX4.0 for their PowerPC-based Macintoshes on OSF/1, but the project was cancelled. IBM used OSF/1 as the basis of the AIX/ESA operating system for System/370, OSF/1 was also ported by Kendall Square Research to their proprietary processor architecture used in the KSR1 supercomputer. In 1994, after AT&T had sold UNIX System V to Novell and the rival Unix International consortium had disbanded, OSF/1 AD was a distributed version of OSF/1 developed for massively parallel supercomputers by Locus Computing Corporation. Variants of OSF/1 AD were used on such systems, including the Intel Paragon XP/S and ASCI Red, Convex Exemplar SPP-1200. In 1995, starting with release 3.2, DEC renamed OSF/1 AXP to Digital UNIX to reflect its conformance with the X/Open Single UNIX Specification. After Compaqs purchase of DEC in early 1998, with the release of version 4. 0F, Digital UNIX was renamed to Tru64 UNIX to emphasise its 64-bit-clean nature, in April 1999, Compaq announced that Tru64 UNIX5.0 successfully ran on Intels IA-64 simulator. However, this port was cancelled a few months later, a Chinese version of Tru64 UNIX named COSIX was jointly developed by Compaq and China National Computer Software & Technology Service Corporation. From release V5.0 Tru64 UNIX offered a facility named TruCluster Server. TruCluster utilised a cluster-wide filesystem visible to each member, plus member specific storage
Tru64 UNIX
–
A Digital UNIX key chain. The other side says, "CALIFORNIA - Y W8 4 HP - The Migration State"
Tru64 UNIX
–
Digital Unix distribution media
30.
VM (operating system)
–
VM is a family of IBM virtual machine operating systems used on IBM mainframes System/370, System/390, zSeries, System z and compatible systems, including the Hercules emulator for personal computers. The first version, released in 1972, was VM/370, or officially Virtual Machine Facility/370 and this was a System/370 reimplementation of earlier CP/CMS operating system. The current version, z/VM, is widely used as one of the main full virtualization solutions for the mainframe market. The heart of the VM architecture is a program or hypervisor called VM-CP. It runs on the hardware, and creates the virtual machine environment. VM-CP provides full virtualization of the physical machine – including all I/O and it performs the systems resource-sharing, including device management, dispatching, virtual storage management, and other traditional operating system tasks. Each VM user is provided with a virtual machine having its own address space, virtual devices, etc. A given VM mainframe typically runs hundreds or thousands of virtual machine instances, VM-CP began life as CP-370, a reimplementation of CP-67, itself a reimplementation of CP-40. Running within each virtual machine is another, guest operating system, most virtual machines run CMS, a lightweight, single-user operating system. Its interactive environment is comparable to that of a single-user PC, including a system, programming services, device access. IBMs mainstream operating systems can be loaded and run without modification, most mainframe operating systems terminate a normal application which tries to usurp the operating systems privileges. A second level instance of VM can be fully virtualized inside a virtual machine and this is how VM development and testing is done. (A second-level VM can potentially implement a different virtualization of the hardware and this technique was used to develop S/370 software before S/370 hardware was available, and it has continued to play a role in new hardware development at IBM. The literature cites practical examples of five levels deep. Levels of VM below the top are also treated as applications, a copy of the mainframe version of AIX or Linux. In the mainframe environment, these systems often run under VM. Several non-CMS systems run within VM-CP virtual machines, providing services to CMS users such as spooling, interprocess communications and they operate behind the scenes, extending the services available to CMS without adding to the VM-CP control program. By running in virtual machines, they receive the same security and reliability protections as other VM users
VM (operating system)
–
z/VM
31.
QNX
–
QNX is a commercial Unix-like real-time operating system, aimed primarily at the embedded systems market. The product was developed in the early 1980s by Canadian company Quantum Software Systems, later renamed QNX Software Systems. QNX was one of the first commercially successful microkernel operating systems and is used in a variety of devices including cars and mobile phones. As a microkernel-based OS, QNX is based on the idea of running most of the system kernel in the form of a number of small tasks. This differs from the traditional monolithic kernel, in which the operating system kernel is a single very large program composed of a huge number of parts with special abilities. In the case of QNX, the use of a microkernel allows users to turn off any functionality they do not require without having to change the OS itself, instead, the system is quite small, with earlier versions fitting on a single floppy disk. QNX Neutrino has been ported to a number of platforms and now runs on any modern CPU that is used in the embedded market. This includes the PowerPC, x86 family, MIPS, SH-4, QNX offers a license for non-commercial and academic users. The BlackBerry PlayBook tablet computer designed by BlackBerry uses a version of QNX as the operating system. Devices from BlackBerry running the BlackBerry 10 operating system are based on QNX. Both were convinced there was a commercial need for such a system, in 1982, the first version of QUNIX was released for the Intel 8088 CPU. In 1984 Quantum Software Systems renamed QUNIX to QNX in an effort to avoid any trademark infringement challenges, over the years QNX was used mostly for larger projects, as its 44k kernel was too large to fit inside the single-chip computers of the era. The system garnered a reputation for reliability and found itself in use running machinery in a number of industrial applications. In the late-1980s, Quantum realized that the market was moving towards the POSIX model. During this time Patrick Hayden, while working as an intern, along with Robin Burgener and this patented concept was developed into the embeddable GUI named the QNX Photon microGUI. QNX also provided a version of the X Window System and this resulted in QNX Neutrino, released in 2001. Along with the Neutrino kernel, QNX Software Systems became a member of the Eclipse consortium. The company released a suite of Eclipse plug-ins packaged with the Eclipse workbench in 2002 under the name QNX Momentics Tool Suite, in 2004, the company announced it had been sold to Harman International Industries
QNX
–
The default desktop in QNX 6.4.1
32.
Android (operating system)
–
Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
Android (operating system)
–
Eric Schmidt,
Andy Rubin and
Hugo Barra at a 2012 press conference announcing Google's Nexus 7 tablet
Android (operating system)
–
Android green figure, next to its original packaging
Android (operating system)
–
Android-x86 running on an ASUS
EeePC netbook; Android has been unofficially ported to traditional PCs for use as a desktop operating system.
Android (operating system)
–
Ouya, a
video game console which runs Android.
33.
Bada
–
Bada is a discontinued operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics and its name is derived from 바다, meaning ocean or sea in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones, to foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsungs Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy, on 25 February 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to Tizen instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014, after the announcement, the Wave S8500 was first shown at Mobile World Congress 2010 in Barcelona in February 2010. At that time, applications running on the first Bada phone were demonstrated, after the launch, companies such as Twitter, EA, Capcom, Gameloft and Blockbuster showed their support for the Bada platform. In May 2010, Samsung released a beta of their Bada software development kit to attract developers, Samsung also began the Bada Developer Challenge with a total prize of $2,700,000. In August 2010, Samsung released version 1.0 of the SDK, in August 2011, Samsung released version 2.0 of the SDK. This new version provides many enhancements over its predecessors, the first Bada-based phone was the Samsung Wave S8500, released in April 2010, which sold one million handsets in its first four weeks on the market. The Samsung S8500 Wave was launched with version 1.0 of the Bada operating system, soon after the launch, Samsung released version 1.0.2, which included minor fixes for European users. The latest version 1.2 was released with the Samsung S8530 Wave II phone, the alpha-version of Bada 2.0 was introduced on February 15,2011, with the Samsung S8530 Wave II handset. Samsung Apps has over 2400 applications and this store is also available for Android and Samsung feature phones. Samsung is to remove the Bada brand and market the new OS, Tizen, with its own apps, the new store has around 1000 applications for Tizen. According to copyrights displayed by Samsung Wave S8500, it uses code from FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD, despite numerous suggestions, there is no known Bada device to date that is running the Linux kernel. Similarly, there is no evidence that Bada uses the same or similar graphics stack as the Tizen OS, the device layer provides core functions such as graphics, protocols, telephony and security. The service layer provides more service-centric features such as SMS, mapping and in-app-purchasing, to provide such features there is a so-called Bada Server. The top layer, the framework provides an application programming interface in C++ for application developers to use.0. Both the WebKit and Flash can be embedded inside native Bada applications, Bada supports OpenGL ES2.0 3D graphics API and offers interactive mapping with point of interest features, which can also be embedded inside native applications
Bada
–
Bada 2.0 Home screen
Bada
–
Picture being taken using the Samsung Wave 525 running on Bada 1.0
34.
BlackBerry OS
–
BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by BlackBerry Limited for its BlackBerry line of smartphone handheld devices. The BlackBerry platform is perhaps best known for its support for corporate email, through Java Micro Edition MIDP1.0 and, more recently. The operating system also supports WAP1.2, updates to the operating system may be automatically available from wireless carriers that support the BlackBerry over the air software loading service. Third-party developers can write software using the available BlackBerry API classes, research from June 2011, indicated that approximately 45% of mobile developers were using the platform at the time of publication. BlackBerry OS was discontinued after the release of BlackBerry 10, however, the latest devices, the BlackBerry Priv and the BlackBerry DTEK50, use the Android operating system. The BlackBerry 9720 runs a version of BlackBerry OS7, the following is a list of fonts that were included in some versions of BlackBerry, BBAlphaSans and BBAlphaSerif are based on the free software DejaVu fonts. On September 27,2010, BlackBerry Ltd. announced a new unrelated QNX-based platform, BlackBerry Tablet OS, BlackBerry BlackBerry 10 Comparison of mobile operating systems Index of articles related to BlackBerry OS Usage share of operating systems Official website
BlackBerry OS
–
BlackBerry OS
35.
Firefox OS
–
Firefox OS is a discontinued open-source operating system – made for smartphones, tablet computers and smart TVs – designed by Mozilla and external contributors. It is based on the engine of the Firefox web browser, Gecko. It was first commercially released in 2013, Firefox OS was designed to provide a complete, community-based alternative operating system, for running web applications directly or those installed from an application marketplace. The applications use open standards and approaches such as JavaScript and HTML5, in December 2015 Mozilla announced it would stop development of new Firefox OS smartphones, and in September 2016 announced the end of development. Firefox OS was publicly demonstrated in February 2012, on Android-compatible smartphones, by December 16,2014, Firefox OS phones were offered from 14 operators in 28 countries throughout the world. On December 8,2015, Mozilla announced that it would stop sales of Firefox OS smartphones through carriers. Mozilla later announced that Firefox OS smartphones would be discontinued by May 2016, in January 2016, Mozilla announced that Firefox OS would power Panasonics UHD TVs. In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, on July 25,2011, Andreas Gal, Director of Research at Mozilla Corporation, announced the Boot to Gecko Project on the mozilla. dev. platform mailing list. This led to much blog coverage, in 2012, Andreas Gal expanded on Mozillas aims. Gal also said that because the stack is entirely HTML5. This assumption is employed in Mozillas WebAPI and these are intended W3C standards that attempt to bridge the capability gap that currently exists between native frameworks and web applications. In July 2012, Boot to Gecko was rebranded as Firefox OS, after Mozillas well-known desktop browser, Firefox, in September 2012, analysts Strategy Analysts forecast that Firefox OS would account for 1% of the global smartphone market in 2013 – its first year of commercial availability. In February 2013, Mozilla announced plans for global commercial roll-out of Firefox OS, Mozilla has also announced that LG Electronics, ZTE, Huawei and TCL Corporation have committed to making Firefox OS devices. Async Pan and Zoom, included in version 1.3, work is currently being done to optimize Firefox OS to run a 128 MB platform with version 1. 3T. A128 MB device is out that seems to use that version, in 2015, Mozilla ported Firefox OS to MIPS32 to work in a sub-$100 tablet. Mozilla has also begun the development of Smart Feature Phones In 2014, Gal announced a change in course, implementation of DRM in the Firefox browser began with version 38. In August 2015, attempts by Matchstick TV to add DRM caused the demise of Matchstick, at Mobile World Congress 2012, Mozilla and Telefónica announced that the Spanish telecommunications provider intended to deliver open Web devices in 2012, based on HTML5 and these APIs. Mozilla also announced support for the project from Adobe and Qualcomm, Mozilla demonstrated a sneak preview of the software and apps running on Samsung Galaxy S II phones
Firefox OS
–
Jan Jongboom at the Simonyi Conference - 2014
Firefox OS
–
Firefox OS
36.
IOS
–
IOS is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware. It is the system that presently powers many of the companys mobile devices, including the iPhone, iPad. It is the second most popular operating system globally after Android. IPad tablets are also the second most popular, by sales, originally unveiled in 2007 for the iPhone, iOS has been extended to support other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch and the iPad. As of January 2017, Apples App Store contains more than 2.2 million iOS applications,1 million of which are native for iPads and these mobile apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times. The iOS user interface is based upon direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures, interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Internal accelerometers are used by applications to respond to shaking the device or rotating it in three dimensions. Apple has been praised for incorporating thorough accessibility functions into iOS, enabling users with vision. Major versions of iOS are released annually, the current version, iOS10, was released on September 13,2016. In iOS, there are four layers, the Core OS, Core Services, Media. In 2005, when Steve Jobs began planning the iPhone, he had a choice to either shrink the Mac, forstall was also responsible for creating a software development kit for programmers to build iPhone apps, as well as an App Store within iTunes. The operating system was unveiled with the iPhone at the Macworld Conference & Expo on January 9,2007, and released in June of that year. At the time of its unveiling in January, Steve Jobs claimed, iPhone runs OS X and runs applications, but at the time of the iPhones release. Initially, third-party native applications were not supported, Steve Jobs reasoning was that developers could build web applications through the Safari web browser that would behave like native apps on the iPhone. In October 2007, Apple announced that a native Software Development Kit was under development, on March 6,2008, Apple held a press event, announcing the iPhone SDK. The iOS App Store was opened on July 10,2008 with an initial 500 applications available.2 million in January 2017, as of March 2016,1 million apps are natively compatible with the iPad tablet computer. These apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times, App intelligence firm Sensor Tower has estimated that the App Store will reach 5 million apps by the year 2020. On September 5,2007, Apple released the iPod Touch, Apple also sold more than one million iPhones during the 2007 holiday season
IOS
37.
Palm OS
–
Palm OS is a discontinued mobile operating system initially developed by Palm, Inc. for personal digital assistants in 1996. Palm OS was designed for ease of use with a graphical user interface. It is provided with a suite of applications for personal information management. Later versions of the OS have been extended to support smartphones, several other licensees have manufactured devices powered by Palm OS. Following Palms purchase of the Palm trademark, the licensed version from ACCESS was renamed Garnet OS. In 2007, ACCESS introduced the successor to Garnet OS, called Access Linux Platform and in 2009, Palm OS was originally developed under the direction of Jeff Hawkins at Palm Computing, Inc. Palm was later acquired by U. S. Robotics Corp. which in turn was bought by 3Com. In January 2002, Palm set up a wholly owned subsidiary to develop and license Palm OS, PalmSource was then spun off from Palm as an independent company on October 28,2003. Palm became a licensee of Palm OS, no longer in control of the operating system. In September 2005, PalmSource announced that it was being acquired by ACCESS, in December 2006, Palm gained perpetual rights to the Palm OS source code from ACCESS. With this Palm can modify the operating system as needed without paying further royalties to ACCESS. Together with the May 2005 acquisition of rights to the Palm brand name. As a consequence, on January 25,2007, ACCESS announced a change to their current Palm OS operating system. Palm OS is a mobile operating system. Palm OS versions earlier than 5.0 run on Motorola/Freescale DragonBall processors, from version 5.0 onwards, Palm OS runs on ARM architecture-based processors. Included with the OS is also a set of standard applications, manufacturers are free to implement different features of the OS in their devices or even add new features. This version history describes the officially licensed version from Palm/PalmSource/ACCESS, all versions prior to Palm OS5 are based on top of the AMX68000 kernel licensed from KADAK Products Ltd. While this kernel is capable of multitasking, the terms
Palm OS
–
Palm m505, running Palm OS 4.0
Palm OS
–
Calculator as seen on Palm OS 4.1
38.
Symbian
–
Symbian is a discontinued mobile operating system and computing platform designed for smartphones. Symbian was originally developed as a closed-source OS for PDAs in 1998 by Symbian Ltd, Symbian OS was a descendant of Psions EPOC, and runs exclusively on ARM processors, although an unreleased x86 port existed. Symbian was used by major mobile phone brands, like Samsung, Motorola, Sony Ericsson. Symbian OS was essentially a system and required an additional user interface to form a complete operating system. Symbian OS became prominent from the S60 platform built by Nokia, first released in 2002, Symbian eventually became the most widely used smart mobile operating system. UIQ was another Symbian user interface used by Motorola and Sony Ericsson. Applications of these interfaces were not compatible with other, despite each being built atop Symbian OS. Nokia was the majority shareholder in Symbian Ltd. and purchased the entire share in 2008, the non-profit Symbian Foundation was then created to make a royalty-free successor to Symbian OS - seeking to unify the platform, S60 became the Foundations favoured UI and UIQ stopped development. Symbian^1 was created as a result in 2009, Symbian^2 was only used by carrier NTT DoCoMo, one of the members of the Foundation, for the Japanese market. Symbian^3 was released as in 2010, by time it became fully open source. Symbian^3 received the Anna and Belle updates in 2011, the Symbian Foundation disintegrated in late 2010 and Nokia took back control of the OS development. Two months later, Nokia moved the OS to closed licensing, and later outsourced Symbian development to Accenture. Although support was promised until 2016, there was little development from Accenture, in January 2014, Nokia stopped accepting new or changed Symbian software from developers. The Nokia 808 PureView was officially the last Symbian smartphone from Nokia, however NTT DoCoMo continued releasing OPP devices in Japan, which still act as middleware on top of Symbian. Phones running this include the F-07F（Japanese：--） from Fujitsu and SH-07F（Japanese：--） from Sharp in 2014, Symbian originated from EPOC32, an operating system created by Psion in the 1990s. In June 1998, Psion Software became Symbian Ltd. a major joint venture between Psion and phone manufacturers Ericsson, Motorola, and Nokia, afterwards, different software platforms were created for Symbian, backed by different groups of mobile phone manufacturers. They include S60, UIQ and MOAP, with no major competition in the smartphone OS then, Symbian reached as high as 67% of the global smartphone market share in 2006. All of this discouraged third-party developers, and served to cause the native app ecosystem for Symbian not to evolve to a scale later reached by Apples App Store or Androids Google Play
Symbian
–
Main menu of the original S60v3
Symbian
–
Symbian
Symbian
–
Main menu of Symbian S60v5
Symbian
–
Symbian v9.3 with a S60v3 interface, on a
Nokia 6710
39.
Tizen
–
Tizen is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and the GNU C Library implementing the Linux API. Its purpose is to offer a consistent user experience across devices, Tizen is a project within the Linux Foundation and is governed by a Technical Steering Group. The Tizen Association was formed to guide the industry role of Tizen, including gathering, identifying and facilitating service models. Members of the Tizen Association represent major sectors of the mobility industry, while the Tizen Association decides what needs to be done in Tizen, the Technical Steering Group determines what code is actually incorporated into the operating system to accomplish those goals. Tizen roots back to the Samsung Linux Platform and the LiMo Project, Samsung became the only Tizen member incorporating and developing the operating system, increasingly distributing it to its products and planning to use it as its flagship operating system. The Samsung Gear 2 smartwatch, released in April 2014, uses Tizen, Samsung released the Tizen-based Samsung Z1 smartphone to the Indian market in January 2015. It was followed by the Samsung Z3 in October, Tizen provides application development tools based on the JavaScript libraries jQuery and jQuery Mobile. Since version 2.0, a C++ native application framework is also available, the software development kit allows developers to use HTML5 and related web technologies to write applications that run on supported devices. OFono is the telephony stack Smack is utilized to sandbox HTML5 web applications, windowing system The X Window System with the Enlightenment Foundation Libraries is used. Wayland, Tizen up to 2. x supports Wayland in in-vehicle infotainment setups, the group closed in September 2013 and work was moved to the Web and Mobile Interest Group, which was closed in November 2015. HTML5 applications run on Tizen, Android, Firefox OS, Ubuntu Touch, Windows Phone, in late January 2013, Tizen 2.0 scored highest at the time in an HTML5 test of any browsers. As the old HTML5 tests were phased out on November 13,2013, however, as of December 2013 desktop browsers had regained the advantage, and results for Tizen 2.2 on a Samsung device score highest overall in mobile, with a score of 497 points. Tizen IVI is a system from the Automotive Grade Linux Workgroup. Applications based on Qt, GTK+ and EFL frameworks can run on Tizen IVI, in May 2013, a community port of Qt to Tizen focused on delivering native GUI controls and integration of Qt with Tizen OS features for smartphones. Based on the Qt port to Tizen, Tizen and mer can interchange code, tizens open governance model was created through public input, suggestions, criticism, or participation, of Tizen 2.0. By early 2014 cross-licensing among hardware manufacturers was happening more broadly, extending open source software and patenting the extension is an option that most open source licenses do not restrict. The operating system consists of open source components. Flora is not approved by the Open Source Initiative, therefore, it is unclear whether developers can legally use the native application framework and its graphical components to make GPL applications
Tizen
40.
WebOS
–
WebOS, also known as Open WebOS or LG WebOS, is a Linux kernel-based multitask operating system for smart devices such as Smart TVs and it has been used as a mobile operating system. Initially developed by Palm, HP made the open source. The operating system was sold to LG Electronics. HP still held patents related to WebOS. In January 2014, Qualcomm announced that it had acquired technology patents from HP, various versions of WebOS have been featured on several devices, including Pre, Pixi, and Veer smartphones, TouchPad tablet, LG Smart TVs since 2015. Palm launched WebOS, then called Palm WebOS, in January 2009 as the successor to Palm OS, the first WebOS device was the original Palm Pre, released by Sprint in June 2009. Upgraded Plus versions of both Pre and Pixi were released on Verizon and AT&T, in April 2010 HP acquired Palm, WebOS was described by Leo Apotheker as a key asset and motivation for the purchase. The $1.2 billion acquisition finalized in June, HP indicated its intention to develop the WebOS platform for use in multiple new products, including smartphones, tablets, and printers. In February 2011, HP announced that it would use WebOS as the platform for all its devices. HP announced several WebOS devices, including the HP Veer and HP Pre 3 smartphones, running WebOS2.2, and the HP TouchPad, a tablet computer released in July 2011 that runs WebOS3.0. In March 2011 HP announced plans for a version of WebOS by the end of 2011 to run within Windows, and to be installed on all HP desktop and notebook computers in 2012. Neither ever materialized, although work had begun on an x86 port around this time involving a team in Fort Collins, Colorado and it remained unclear whether HP would consider licensing WebOS software to other manufacturers. When HP reduced the price of the Touchpad to $99, the inventory quickly sold out. Notably, these US Pre 3 units, having been released through unofficial channels, the last HP WebOS version,3.0.5, was released on 12 January 2012. In August 2012, code specific to the devices was released as WebOS Community Edition. Open WebOS includes open source libraries designed to target a range of hardware. HP renamed its WebOS unit as Gram, in February 2012 HP released Isis, a new web browser for Open WebOS. The HP App Catalog was an app store for apps for the devices running WebOS
WebOS
–
WebOS running on an LG
Smart TV
WebOS
–
The
HP Touchpad tablet runs WebOS. The 'card' multitasking UI is shown.
41.
Windows Mobile
–
Windows Mobile is a family of mobile operating systems developed by Microsoft for smartphones and Pocket PCs. Its origins dated back to Windows CE in 1996, though Windows Mobile itself first appeared in 2000 as PocketPC2000 and it was renamed Windows Mobile in 2003, at which point it came in several versions and was aimed at business and enterprise consumers. By 2007, it was the most popular software in the U. S. In February 2010, facing competition from rival OSs including iOS and Android, as a result, Windows Mobile has been deprecated. Windows Phone is incompatible with Windows Mobile devices and software, the last version of Windows Mobile, released after the announcement of Windows Phone, was 6.5.5. After this, Microsoft ceased development on Windows Mobile, in order to concentrate on Windows Phone, similarly to its desktop counterpart, it comes bundled with a set of applications that perform basic tasks. Internet Explorer Mobile is the web browser, and Windows Media Player is the default media player used for playing digital media. The mobile version of Microsoft Office, is the office suite. Internet Connection Sharing, supported on compatible devices, allows the phone to share its Internet connection with computers via USB, Windows Mobile supports virtual private networking over PPTP protocol. Most devices with mobile connectivity also have a Radio Interface Layer, the Radio Interface Layer provides the system interface between the Cell Core layer within the Windows Mobile OS and the radio protocol stack used by the wireless modem hardware. This allows OEMs to integrate a variety of modems into their equipment, the user interface changed dramatically between versions, only retaining similar functionality. The Today Screen, later called the Home Screen, shows the current date, owner information, upcoming appointments, e-mails, the taskbar display the current time as well as the volume level. Devices with a cellular radio also show the strength on said taskbar. Windows Mobile is based on the Windows CE kernel and first appeared as the Pocket PC2000 operating system and it includes a suite of basic applications developed with the Microsoft Windows API, and is designed to have features and appearance somewhat similar to desktop versions of Windows. It allowed third party developers to develop software for Windows Mobile with no restrictions imposed by Microsoft, software applications were purchasable from Windows Marketplace for Mobile during the services lifespan. Most early Windows Mobile devices came with a stylus, which can be used to enter commands by tapping it on the screen, the primary touch input technology behind most devices were resistive touchscreens which often required a stylus for input. Later devices used capacitive sensing which does not require a stylus, along with touchscreens, a large variety of form factors existed for the platform. Some devices featured slideout keyboards, while others featured minimal face buttons, Microsofts work on handheld portable devices began with research projects in 1990, with the work on Windows CE beginning in 1992
Windows Mobile
–
A
Ford Territory with Windows Mobile advertising seen in
Auckland, New Zealand in 2008.
Windows Mobile
–
Windows Mobile 6.5.3 screenshot
42.
Windows Phone
–
Windows Phone is a family of mobile operating systems developed by Microsoft for smartphones as the replacement successor to Windows Mobile and Zune. Windows Phone features a new user interface derived from Metro design language, unlike Windows Mobile, it is primarily aimed at the consumer market rather than the enterprise market. It was first launched in October 2010 with Windows Phone 7, Windows Phone 8.1 is the latest public release of the operating system, released to manufacturing on April 14,2014. Work on a major Windows Mobile update may have begun as early as 2004 under the codename Photon, but work moved slowly, in 2008, Microsoft reorganized the Windows Mobile group and started work on a new mobile operating system. The product was to be released in 2009 as Windows Phone, one result was that the new OS would not be compatible with Windows Mobile applications. Lieberman said that Microsoft was attempting to look at the phone market in a new way. The event focused largely on setting up a new global mobile ecosystem, suggesting competition with Android, Elop stated the reason for choosing Windows Phone over Android, saying, the single most important word is differentiation. Entering the Android environment late, we knew we would have a hard time differentiating, while Nokia would have had more long-term creative control with Android, Elop enjoyed familiarity with his past company where he had been a top executive. Jo Harlow, whom Elop tapped to run Nokias smartphone business, rearranged her team to match the structure led by Microsofts VP of Windows Phone, Myerson was quoted as saying, I can trust her with what she tells me. She uses that same direct and genuine communication to motivate her team, the first Nokia Lumia Windows Phones, the Lumia 800 and Lumia 710, were announced in October 2011 at Nokia World 2011. At the Consumer Electronics Show in 2012 Nokia announced the Lumia 900, featuring a 4. 3-inch AMOLED ClearBlack display, the Lumia 900 was one of the first Windows Phones to support LTE and was released on AT&T on April 8. An international version launched in Q22012, with a UK launch in May 2012, the Lumia 610 was the first Nokia Windows Phone to run the Tango Variant and was aimed at emerging markets. On September 2,2013, Microsoft announced a deal to acquire Nokias mobile phone division outright, Microsoft managers revealed that the acquisition was made because Nokia was driving the development of the Windows Phone platform to better match their products. The merger was completed after regulatory approval in all markets in April 2014. As a result, Nokias hardware division is now a subsidiary of Microsoft operating under the name Microsoft Mobile, in February 2014, Nokia released the Nokia X series of smartphones, using a version of Android forked from the Android Open Source Project. Windows Phone 7 was announced at Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, on February 15,2010, in 2011, Microsoft released Windows Phone 7.5 Mango. A minor update released in 2012 known as Tango, along with bug fixes. The update included a start screen, additional color schemes
Windows Phone
–
The Music + Video Hub on Windows Phone.
Windows Phone
–
An example of a custom Start Screen on
Windows Phone 8.1
Windows Phone
–
A test notification of an "update available" pop-up in the Windows Phone emulator.
43.
Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless
–
It is offered in some feature phones but not in smartphones. Developed in 1999, as a platform for applications on CDMA-based mobile phones. Software for Brew MP enabled handsets can be developed in C or C++ using the freely downloadable Brew MP software development kit, Brew is described as a pseudo operating system, but not a true mobile operating system. Brew is not a machine such as Java ME. It has a footprint of about 15,900 K, From Brew 1. x until 2. x. Brew also features direct hardware access, versions before Brew MP ran/relied on REX OS, while Brew MP uses Brew RTOS. Rather than using a code, Brew also relied on its own mobile hardware. Debuted in 2001, it was the very first version of Brew, originally made for the Kyocera QCP-3035 and Sharp Z-800. However, it lacks advanced multimedia features and support for Java ME that were available in subsequent versions and it was the only version of Brew to support monochrome screens as support for monochrome screens were removed in Brew 2.0. Brew 1.1 was the first version of Brew to run Java ME applications and it was available in some Brew-enabled phones in 2002 and early 2003. Released in the mid-2002, it was installed for most of the Brew-enabled in late-2002 until early 2004, includes support for advanced multimedia playbacks, connectivity for EV-DO and Bluetooth support, as well as screen savers and other improvements. It also supports MIDP2.0 on Brew 2.1 and it is backward compatible with Brew 2. x applications, but not with Brew 1. x applications. It is also the first version of Brew to support 3D graphics, hardware 3D graphics is supported if the Brew system detects an OpenGL ES1. 0-based chip. It was installed on most feature phones in the United States and in other countries since 2005 and it is also used for the Zeebo console in Mexico and Brazil. Released in 2007 until 2011, it was installed on very few phones. It has only a few improvements and it was succeeded by Brew MP. It has additional features that were available in Brew MP, such as the support of accelerometer and other changes. Released in 2009, internally known as Brew 5.0, it has new features and certain improvements
Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless
–
Classic Brew
Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless
–
Heavily Branded Brew
44.
Common Language Infrastructure
–
This implies it is platform agnostic. The. NET Framework, Mono, DotGNU and Portable. NET are implementations of the CLI, among other things, the CLI specification describes the following four aspects, The Common Type System A set of data types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages. The Metadata Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language not using. The Common Language Specification A set of rules to which any language targeting the CLI should conform in order to interoperate with other CLS-compliant languages. The CLS rules define a subset of the Common Type System, the Virtual Execution System The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime. All compatible languages compile to Common Intermediate Language, which is a language that is abstracted from the platform hardware. When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the language according to the specific hardware. In August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and others worked to standardize CLI, by December 2001, it was ratified by the ECMA, with ISO standardization following in April 2003. Microsoft and its partners hold patents for CLI, ECMA and ISO require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. It is common for RAND licensing to require some royalty payment, as of January 2013, neither Microsoft nor its partners have identified any patents essential to CLI implementations subject to RAND terms. To implement the CLI standard requires conformance to one of the supported and defined profiles of the standard, the kernel profile is actually a very small set of types to support in comparison to the well known core library of default. NET installations. However, the clause of the CLI allows for extending the supported profile by adding new methods and types to classes. But it does not allow for adding new members to interfaces, in 2012, ECMA and ISO published the new edition of the CLI standard, which is not covered by the Community Promise. NET Framework is Microsofts original commercial implementation of the CLI. Portable. NET, part of the project, is a free software implementation of ECMA-335 by Free Software Foundation. Standard Libraries List of CLI languages Standard ECMA-335, Common Language Infrastructure, ECMA C# and Common Language Infrastructure Standards
Common Language Infrastructure
–
Visual overview of the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)
45.
Mono (software)
–
The logo of Mono is a stylized monkeys face, mono being Spanish for monkey. The stated purpose of Mono is not only to be able to run Microsoft. NET applications cross-platform, but also to bring better development tools to Linux developers. Mono can be run on many systems including Android, most Linux distributions, BSD, macOS, Windows, Solaris, and even some game consoles such as PlayStation 3, Wii. The Mono project has been controversial within the community, as it implements portions of. NET Framework that may be covered by Microsoft patents. Following Microsofts open-sourcing of several core. NET technologies since 2014 and its acquisition of Xamarin in the beginning of 2016, Miguel de Icaza of Ximian believed that. NET had the potential to increase programmer productivity and began investigating whether a Linux version was feasible. Recognizing that their team could not expect to build and support a full product, they launched the Mono open-source project. After three years development, Mono 1.0 was released on June 30,2004, Mono evolved from its initial focus of a developer platform for Linux desktop applications to supporting a wide range of architectures and operating systems - including embedded systems. After Novell was acquired by Attachmate in April 2011, Attachmate announced hundreds of layoffs for the Novell workforce, on May 16, Miguel de Icaza announced in his blog that Mono would continue to be supported by Xamarin, a company he founded after being laid off from Novell. The original Mono team had moved to the new company. Xamarin planned to keep working on Mono and had planned to rewrite the commercial. NET stacks for iOS and Android from scratch, because Novell still owned MonoTouch and Mono for Android at the time. This version provides the core API of the. NET Framework and support for Visual Basic. NET and C# versions 2.0,3.0, LINQ to Objects, XML, and SQL are part of the distribution. C#6.0 is now the default mode of operation for the C# compiler, Windows Forms 2.0 is also supported, but not actively developed, and as such its support on Mono is incomplete. Version 4.0 is the first version that incorporates Microsoft original source code that was released by Microsoft as part of the. NET Core project. Monos aim is to full support for the features in. NET4.5 except Windows Presentation Foundation, Windows Workflow Foundation. Some missing parts of the. NET Framework are under development in an experimental Mono subproject called Olive, the Mono project has also created a Visual Basic. NET compiler and a runtime designed for running VB. NET applications. It is currently being developed by Rolf Bjarne Kvinge, an open-source implementation of Microsoft Silverlight, called Moonlight, has been included since Mono 1.9. Moonlight 1.0, which supports the Silverlight 1.0 APIs, was released January 20,2009, Moonlight 2.0 supports Silverlight 2.0 and some features of Silverlight 3.0. A preview release of Moonlight 3.0 was announced in February 2010, the Moonlight project was abandoned on May 29,2012
Mono (software)
–
Simplified Mono architecture
46.
.NET Framework
–
. NET Framework is a software framework developed by Microsoft that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a class library named Framework Class Library and provides language interoperability across several programming languages. FCL and CLR together constitute. NET Framework, FCL provides user interface, data access, database connectivity, cryptography, web application development, numeric algorithms, and network communications. Programmers produce software by combining their source code with. NET Framework, the framework is intended to be used by most new applications created for the Windows platform. Silverlight was available as a web browser plugin, Microsoft began developing. NET Framework in the late 1990s, originally under the name of Next Generation Windows Services. By late 2000, the first beta versions of. NET1.0 were released, in August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Intel worked to standardize Common Language Infrastructure and C#. By December 2001, both were ratified Ecma International standards, International Organisation for Standardisation followed in April 2003. The current version of ISO standards are ISO-IEC23271,2012, while Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI and C#, ECMA and ISO require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. The firms agreed to meet these terms, and to make the patents available royalty-free, however, this did not apply for the part of. NET Framework not covered by ECMA-ISO standards, which included Windows Forms, ADO. NET, and ASP. NET. Patents that Microsoft holds in these areas may have deterred non-Microsoft implementations of the full framework, on 3 October 2007, Microsoft announced that the source code for. NET Framework 3.5 libraries was to become available under the Microsoft Reference Source License. The source code became available online on 16 January 2008 and included BCL, ASP. NET, ADO. NET, Windows Forms, WPF. Scott Guthrie of Microsoft promised that LINQ, WCF, and WF libraries were being added, in November 2014, Microsoft also produced an update to its patent grants, which further extends the scope beyond its prior pledges. The new grant does maintain the restriction that any implementation must maintain compliance with the mandatory parts of the CLI specification. On 31 March 2016, Microsoft announced at Microsoft Build that they will completely relicense Mono under an MIT License even in scenarios where formerly a commercial license was needed and it was announced that the Mono Project was contributed to the. NET Foundation. These developments followed the acquisition of Xamarin, which began in February 2016 and was finished on 18 March 2016. Microsofts press release highlights that the cross-platform commitment now allows for a fully open-source, however, Microsoft does not plan to release the source for WPF or Windows Forms. By implementing the core aspects of. NET Framework within the scope of CLI, microsofts implementation of CLI is Common Language Runtime. It serves as the engine of. NET Framework
.NET Framework
–
.NET Framework
47.
Silverlight
–
Microsoft Silverlight is a deprecated application framework for writing and running rich Internet applications, similar to Adobe Flash. A plugin for Silverlight is available for some browsers, while early versions of Silverlight focused on streaming media, later versions supported multimedia, graphics, and animation and gave developers support for CLI languages and development tools. Microsoft announced the end of life of Silverlight 5 in 2012, in 2013, Microsoft announced that they had ceased development of Silverlight except for patches and bugfixes. Microsoft has set the end date for Silverlight 5 to be October 2021. Silverlight is no longer supported in Google Chrome since September 2015, since Microsoft Edge does not support plugins, it also does not support Silverlight. Silverlight provides a retained mode graphics system similar to Windows Presentation Foundation, and integrates multimedia, graphics, animations, in Silverlight applications, user interfaces are declared in Extensible Application Markup Language and programmed using a subset of the. NET Framework. XAML can be used for marking up the graphics and animations. Silverlight can also be used to create Windows Sidebar gadgets for Windows Vista, because Windows Media Video 9 is an implementation of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers VC-1 standard, Silverlight also supports VC-1 video. According to the end user license agreement VC-1 and H.264 are only licensed for the personal and non-commercial use of a consumer. Silverlight exposes a Downloader object which can be used to download content, like scripts, media assets, or other data, with version 2, the programming logic can be written in any. NET language, including some derivatives of common dynamic programming languages like IronRuby and IronPython. However, in May 2012, Moonlight was abandoned because of its lack of popularity, according to statowl. com, Microsoft Silverlight had a penetration of 64. 16% on May 2011. Usage on July 2010 was 53. 54%, whereas as of May 2011 market leader Adobe Flash was installed on 95. 26% of browsers, support of these plugins is not mutually exclusive, one system can support all three. Some users complained that Microsoft presented Silverlight repeatedly as a Windows Update even if the user had not it installed before. Over the course of five years Microsoft released five versions with varying platform support, The first version was released in 2007. Silverlight requires an x86 processor with Streaming SIMD Extensions support, supported processors include the Intel Pentium III and up, the AMD Athlon XP and up, and newer AMD Durons. The following table presents an availability and compatibility matrix of Silverlight versions for various operating systems, however, Opera was never officially supported by Silverlight. On Linux and FreeBSD, the functionality is available via Moonlight, Moonlight is available for the major Linux distributions, with support for Firefox, Konqueror, and Opera browsers, provided it was obtained through Novell. Miguel de Icaza has expressed an interest in working with developers from other operating systems, availability of Moonlight version 1.0 for FreeBSD was announced in March 2009, but has since been reported not to actually work
Silverlight
–
Microsoft Silverlight
48.
Adobe Flash
–
Adobe Flash is a multimedia software platform used for production of animations, rich Internet applications, desktop applications, mobile applications and mobile games. Flash displays text, vector graphics and raster graphics to provide animations, video games and it allows streaming of audio and video, and can capture mouse, keyboard, microphone and camera input. Artists may produce Flash graphics and animations using Adobe Animate, Software developers may produce applications and video games using Adobe Flash Builder, FlashDevelop, Flash Catalyst, or any text editor when used with the Apache Flex SDK. End-users can view Flash content via Flash Player, AIR or third-party players such as Scaleform, Adobe Flash Player enables end-users to view Flash content using web browsers. Adobe Flash Lite enabled viewing Flash content on older smartphones, but has discontinued and superseded by Adobe AIR. The ActionScript programming language allows the development of interactive animations, video games, web applications, desktop applications, programmers can implement Flash software using an IDE such as Adobe Animate, Adobe Flash Builder, Adobe Director, FlashDevelop and Powerflasher FDT. Adobe AIR enables full-featured desktop and mobile applications to be developed with Flash, and published for Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, and Wii U. Content-providers frequently used to use Flash to display streaming video, advertising and interactive content on web pages. However, after the 2000s, the usage of Flash on Web sites declined, in the early 2000s, Flash was widely installed on desktop computers, and was commonly used to display interactive web pages, online games, and to playback video and audio content. In 2005, YouTube was founded by former PayPal employees, between 2000 and 2010, numerous businesses used Flash-based websites to launch new products, or to create interactive company portals. Notable users include Nike, Hewlett-Packard, Nokia, General Electric, World Wildlife Fund, HBO, Cartoon Network, after Adobe introduced hardware-accelerated 3D for Flash, Flash websites saw a growth of 3D content for product demonstrations and virtual tours. In 2007, YouTube offered videos in HTML5 format to support the iPhone and iPad, after a controversy with Apple, Adobe stopped developing Flash Player for Mobile, focussing its efforts on Adobe AIR applications and HTML5 animation. In 2015, Google introduced Google Swiffy to convert Flash animation to HTML5, in 2015, YouTube switched to HTML5 technology on all devices, however it will preserve the Flash-based video player for older web browsers. After Flash 5 introduced ActionScript in 2000, developers combined the visual and programming capabilities of Flash to produce interactive experiences, such Web-based applications eventually came to be known as Rich Internet Applications. In 2004, Macromedia Flex was released, and specifically targeted the application development market, Flex introduced new user interface components, advanced data visualization components, data remoting, and a modern IDE. Flex competed with Asynchronous JavaScript and XML and Microsoft Silverlight during its tenure, Flex was upgraded to support integration with remote data sources, using AMF, BlazeDS, Adobe LiveCycle, Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, and others. As of 2015, Flex applications can be published for desktop platforms using Adobe AIR, between 2006 and 2016, the Speedtest. net web service conducted over 9.0 billion speed tests using an RIA built with Adobe Flash. In 2016, the service shifted to HTML5 due to the availability of Adobe Flash Player on PCs
Adobe Flash
–
Software
Adobe Flash
–
Some websites rely heavily on Flash and become unusable without Flash Player, or with Flash blocked
49.
Adobe AIR
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The runtime supports installable applications on Windows, OS X and mobile operating systems like Android, iOS and BlackBerry Tablet OS. It also originally ran on Linux, but support was discontinued as of version 2.6 in 2011, AIR applications have unrestricted access to local storage and file systems, while browser-based applications only have access to individual files selected by users. Adobe AIR internally uses the Flash Player rendering engine and ActionScript 3.0 as the programming language. HTML5 applications may run on the WebKit engine included in AIR, according to Adobe, over 100,000 unique applications were built on AIR, and over 1 billion installations of the same were logged from users across the world, as of May 2014. Adobe AIR was voted as the Best Mobile Application Development product at the Consumer Electronics Show for two consecutive years, using AIR, developers can access the full Adobe Flash functionality, including text, vector graphics, raster graphics, video, audio, camera, and microphone capability. Adobe AIR also includes features such as file system integration, native client extensions, desktop integration. AIR enables applications to work with data in different ways, including using local files, local SQLite databases, developers can access additional functionality by building AIR Native Extensions, which can access full device functionality being programmed in the native language. On desktop platforms, AIR supports, Window management – Opening multiple windows, menu bar – Adding a native menu bar to AIR windows, with sub menus and custom menu items. File management – Discovering drives, files and folders on the PC, creating and deleting files, console applications – Executing native applications with command-line arguments, and receiving feedback via standard I/O & error streams. Multithreading – Managing multiple threads, to execute ActionScript 3 code in the background without freezing the user interface, web browser – View HTML web pages with full CSS and JavaScript support within Flash applications, with the integrated WebKit-based web browser. Clipboard access – Programmatically copy or paste text, bitmaps or files into the system clipboard, drag-and-drop – Allows users to drag text, bitmaps or files into AIR applications. In 2011, the addition of Stage3D to the Flash Player allowed Flash, several third-party frameworks have been developed to build upon the functionality of Stage3D, including the Starling Framework and Away3D. These frameworks are compatible with AIR, and provide vital performance improvements to AIR apps published for mobile devices. AIR apps can be augmented in functionality with the usage of AIR Native Extensions, Native extensions may be developed by anyone using publicly available tools, some are distributed for free or even as open source, while others are sold commercially. Native extensions may be programmed in the language on each platform. AIR is a technology and AIR applications can be repackaged with few or no changes for many popular desktop. Different installation options exist for each platform, AIR applications may be published with or without the AIR runtime. Applications packaged with the AIR runtime are larger in file size, if the runtime is not embedded in the app, it must be installed separately
Adobe AIR
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Software
Adobe AIR
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File formats
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Java (software platform)
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Java is used in a wide variety of computing platforms from embedded devices and mobile phones to enterprise servers and supercomputers. While they are less common than standalone Java applications, Java applets run in secure, sandboxed environments to provide many features of native applications, in addition, several languages have been designed to run natively on the JVM, including Scala, Clojure and Apache Groovy. Java syntax borrows heavily from C and C++, but object-oriented features are modeled after Smalltalk, Java eschews certain low-level constructs such as pointers and has a very simple memory model where every object is allocated on the heap and all variables of object types are references. Memory management is handled through integrated automatic garbage collection performed by the JVM, on November 13,2006, Sun Microsystems made the bulk of its implementation of Java available under the GNU General Public License. The latest version is Java 8, the only supported version as of 2016, Oracle has announced that using older versions of their JVM implementation presents serious risks due to unresolved security issues. The Java platform is a suite of programs that facilitate developing and running programs written in the Java programming language. A Java platform will include an engine, a compiler. Java ME, Specifies several different sets of libraries for devices with limited storage, display and it is often used to develop applications for mobile devices, PDAs, TV set-top boxes, and printers. Java SE, For general-purpose use on desktop PCs, servers, Java EE, Java SE plus various APIs which are useful for multi-tier client–server enterprise applications. The Java platform consists of programs, each of which provides a portion of its overall capabilities. For example, the Java compiler, which converts Java source code into Java bytecode, is provided as part of the Java Development Kit, the Java Runtime Environment, complementing the JVM with a just-in-time compiler, converts intermediate bytecode into native machine code on the fly. The Java platform also includes a set of libraries. The heart of the Java platform is the concept of a machine that executes Java bytecode programs. This bytecode is the same no matter what hardware or operating system the program is running under, there is a JIT compiler within the Java Virtual Machine, or JVM. The JIT compiler translates the Java bytecode into native processor instructions at run-time, the use of bytecode as an intermediate language permits Java programs to run on any platform that has a virtual machine available. Since JRE version 1.2, Suns JVM implementation has included a just-in-time compiler instead of an interpreter, although Java programs are cross-platform or platform independent, the code of the Java Virtual Machines that execute these programs is not. Every supported operating platform has its own JVM, in most modern operating systems, a large body of reusable code is provided to simplify the programmers job. This code is provided as a set of dynamically loadable libraries that applications can call at runtime
Java (software platform)
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Java platforms
Java (software platform)
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The Java technology logo
