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Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
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X-ray
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X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
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British National Formulary
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Though it is a national formulary, it nevertheless also includes entries for some medicines which are not available under the NHS, and must be prescribed and/or purchased privately. A symbol clearly denotes such drugs in their entry and it is used by pharmacists and doctors, and by other prescribing healthcare professionals, as a reference for correct dosage, indication, interactions and side effects of drugs. The British Pharmacopoeia specifies quality standards for the making of drugs listed in the BNF, many individuals and organisations contribute towards the preparation of the BNF. It is jointly authored by the British Medical Association and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society, and is published by the BMJ Group. It is published under the authority of a Joint Formulary Committee, information on drugs is drawn from the manufacturers product literature, medical and pharmaceutical literature, regulatory authorities and professional bodies. Advice is constructed from clinical literature, and reflects, as far as possible, the BNF also takes account of authoritative national guidelines and emerging safety concerns. In addition, the Joint Formulary Committee takes advice on all areas from expert clinicians. It was first published in 1949 as the National Formulary, with updated versions appearing every three years until 1976, the fifth version in 1957 saw its name change to The British National Formulary. A new look version was released in 1981, a study in Northern Ireland looking at prescribing in 1965, reported that the BNF was likely able to serve the requirements of prescribers in general practice, while also achieving a cost saving. By 2003, issue 46 of the BNF contained 3000 interactions or groups of interactions, a new edition of the BNF book is published twice-yearly, in March and September. As of September 2016, the current edition is 72, which was published in September 2016 and it is a customary tradition that the colour of each new edition is radically different from the previous. The BNF is presently available as a book, a website, the book is available for purchase, and the September edition is distributed to healthcare professionals in the UK at no direct cost to them. NHS workers and healthcare professionals in the HINARI group of developing nations are entitled to access via MedicinesComplete following registration. Other visitors can subscribe to the BNF on MedicinesComplete, healthcare organisations can also subscribe to a customisable BNF via their corporate online intranet. In June 2012, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence released applications for offline access to the BNF on iOS, an NHS Athens log-in is required to use this application, and monthly content updates are available, over an internet connection. The British National Formulary for Children book, first published September 2005, is published yearly, the British National Formulary is divided into various sections, with the main sections on drugs and preparations being organised by body system
4.
Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals
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It has been published in 2008. It is a simple and efficient classification of pharmaco-therapeutic referrals between physicians and pharmacists permitting a common inter-professional language and it is adapted to any type of referrals among health professionals, and to increase its specificity it can be combined with ATC codes, ICD-10, and ICPC-2 PLUS. The terminology used follows the rules of ICPC-2, each rubric consists in an alphanumeric code and each title of the rubric is expressed and explained by, – A series of terms related with the title of the rubric. – A definition expressing the meaning of the rubric – A list of criteria and another list with exclusion criteria to select. – Some example to illustrate every term, effectiveness / Efficiency, unspecified E1. Prescription and dispensing conditions E3, active substance / excipient E4. Pharmaceutical form / how supplied E5, information / Health education, unspecified I1. Situation / reason for encounter I2, treatment based on symptoms and/or signs N2. Treatment based on socio–economic-work issues N3, treatment based on public health issues N4. Complementary test for treatment control N7, ISBN 978-84-691-8426-4 Álvarez de Toledo Saavedra F, Fernández de Cano Martín N, coordinadores. Álvarez de Toledo Saavedra F, Fernández de Cano Martín N, aranaz JM, Aibar C, Vitaller J, Mira JJ, Orozco D, Terol E, Agra Y. Estudio sobre la seguridad de los pacientes en atención primaria de salud, Madrid, Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo,2008. Aranaz JM, Aibar C, Vitaller J, Ruiz P. Estudio Nacional sobre los Efectos Adversos ligados a la Hospitalización, Madrid, Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo,2006. Criterios de derivación del farmacéutico al médico general/familia, ante mediciones esporádicas de presión arterial, consenso entre la Sociedad Valenciana de Hipertensión y Riesgo Vascular y la Sociedad de Farmacia Comunitaria de la Comunidad Valenciana. The European study of referrals from primary to secondary care, exeter, Royal College of General Practitioners,1992. Madrid, MSC, RANF, CGCOF, SEFAP, SEFAC, SEFH, FPCE, García Olmos L. Análisis de la demanda derivada en las consultas de medicina general en España. Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,1993, garjón Parra J, Gorricho Mendívil J. Seguridad del paciente, cuidado con los errores de medicación. Boletín de Información Farmacoterapéutica de Navarra,2010,18 Gérvas J. Introducción a las classificaciones en Atención Primaria, con una valoración técnica de los Consensos de Granada
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United States National Library of Medicine
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The United States National Library of Medicine, operated by the United States federal government, is the worlds largest medical library. Located in Bethesda, Maryland, the NLM is an institute within the National Institutes of Health, the current director of the NLM is Patricia Flatley Brennan. Since 1879, the National Library of Medicine has published the Index Medicus and these resources are accessible without charge on the internet. S. and international consultants. The Extramural Division provides grants to research in medical information science and to support planning and development of computer. Research, publications, and exhibitions on the history of medicine, in April 2008 the current exhibition Against the Odds, Making a Difference in Global Health was launched. For details of the history of the Library, see Library of the Surgeon Generals Office. The precursor of the National Library of Medicine, established in 1836, was the Library of the Surgeon Generals Office, the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology and its Medical Museum were founded in 1862 as the Army Medical Museum. Throughout their history the Library of the Surgeon Generals Office and the Army Medical Museum often shared quarters, from 1866 to 1887, they were housed in Fords Theatre after production there was stopped, following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. In 1956, the collection was transferred from the control of the U. S. The library moved to its current quarters in Bethesda, Maryland, on the campus of the National Institutes of Health, journalReview. org National Library of Medicine classification system PubMed Miles, Wyndham D. A History of the National Library of Medicine, The Nations Treasury of Medical Knowledge
6.
Cambridge University Press
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Cambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the worlds oldest publishing house and it also holds letters patent as the Queens Printer. The Presss mission is To further the Universitys mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, Cambridge University Press is a department of the University of Cambridge and is both an academic and educational publisher. With a global presence, publishing hubs, and offices in more than 40 countries. Its publishing includes journals, monographs, reference works, textbooks. Cambridge University Press is an enterprise that transfers part of its annual surplus back to the university. Cambridge University Press is both the oldest publishing house in the world and the oldest university press and it originated from Letters Patent granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry VIII in 1534, and has been producing books continuously since the first University Press book was printed. Cambridge is one of the two privileged presses, authors published by Cambridge have included John Milton, William Harvey, Isaac Newton, Bertrand Russell, and Stephen Hawking. In 1591, Thomass successor, John Legate, printed the first Cambridge Bible, the London Stationers objected strenuously, claiming that they had the monopoly on Bible printing. The universitys response was to point out the provision in its charter to print all manner of books. In July 1697 the Duke of Somerset made a loan of £200 to the university towards the house and presse and James Halman, Registrary of the University. It was in Bentleys time, in 1698, that a body of scholars was appointed to be responsible to the university for the Presss affairs. The Press Syndicates publishing committee still meets regularly, and its role still includes the review, John Baskerville became University Printer in the mid-eighteenth century. Baskervilles concern was the production of the finest possible books using his own type-design, a technological breakthrough was badly needed, and it came when Lord Stanhope perfected the making of stereotype plates. This involved making a mould of the surface of a page of type. The Press was the first to use this technique, and in 1805 produced the technically successful, under the stewardship of C. J. Clay, who was University Printer from 1854 to 1882, the Press increased the size and scale of its academic and educational publishing operation. An important factor in this increase was the inauguration of its list of schoolbooks, during Clays administration, the Press also undertook a sizable co-publishing venture with Oxford, the Revised Version of the Bible, which was begun in 1870 and completed in 1885. It was Wright who devised the plan for one of the most distinctive Cambridge contributions to publishing—the Cambridge Histories, the Cambridge Modern History was published between 1902 and 1912
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
