1.
Copts
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The Copts are an ethno-religious group that primarily inhabit the area of modern Egypt, where they are the largest Christian denomination. Copts are also the largest Christian adherent group in Sudan and Libya, historically, they spoke the Coptic language, a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that was spoken during the Roman era. The Coptic language is a focus of Coptology and remains in liturgical use, Copts in Sudan constitute the largest Christian community in Sudan, accounting for an estimated 1% of the Sudanese population. Copts in Libya constitute the largest Christian community in Libya, accounting for an estimated 1% of the Libyan population, most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. The Coptic Catholic Church, which is an Eastern Catholic church in communion with the Catholic Church. The Coptic word is in turn an adaptation of the Greek term for the people of Egypt. The Greek term for Egypt, Aigýptos, is derived from the Egyptian language. This Mycenaean form is likely from Middle Egyptian ḥwt-k3-ptḥ, literally Estate of the Spirit of Ptah, the term is thus ultimately derived from the Greek designation of the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt. After the Muslim conquest of Egypt, it restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion. In Coptic Egyptian, the Copts referred to themselves as ni rem en kīmi en khristianos, which literally means Christian people of Egypt or Christian Egyptians. The Coptic name for Egyptians, rem en kīmi, is realized in the Fayyumic dialect as lem en kēmi, or rem en khēmi in the Bohairic dialect, cf. Egyptian rmṯ n kmt, Demotic rmt n kmỉ. The Arabic word qibṭ has also connected to the Greek name of the town of Coptos. It is possible that this association has contributed to making Copt the settled form of the name, in the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term qubṭ in the historical sense. The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East, although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 10–20% of the population, though estimates vary. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church whose founder was the first in a chain of patriarchs. The main body for 16 centuries has been out of communion with both the Roman Catholic Church and the various Eastern orthodox churches, the legacy that Saint Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa, the Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest catechetical school in the world, however, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects, science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there
2.
Coptic architecture
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Coptic architecture is the architecture of the Copts, who form the majority of Christians in Egypt. Coptic churches range from great cathedrals such as Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral to the smallest churches in rural villages, many ancient monasteries like Monastery of Saint Anthony also exist. Ancient churches like the Hanging Church in Coptic Cairo carry important historical value to the Coptic Orthodox Church, others see the earliest Coptic churches as progressing, like those of the Byzantine and Roman churches, from the Graeco-Roman basilica. The ruins of the Cathedral at Hermopolis Magna are the survival of the single brief period when the Coptic Church represented the official religion of the state in Egypt. Thus, from its early beginnings Coptic architecture fused indigenous Egyptian building traditions, the fertile styles of neighbouring Christian Syria had a greatly increased influence after the 6th century, including the use of stone tympani. Over a period of two years, Coptic architecture incorporated native Egyptian, Graeco-Roman, Byzantine and Western European styles. This can be explained by the fact that the early Muslim rulers of Egypt, much like the Ptolemaic and Byzantine rulers before them, in later centuries, Coptic art and architecture also incorporated motifs inspired by Islamic styles. The Coptic Church broke from the other Eastern Orthodox Churches in 451 AD, Coptic architecture therefore lacked the lavish patronage of rulers and the Court, which was directly responsible for most of the important buildings of Byzantine and medieval Catholic architecture. Most buildings are small, conservative in design, and remain closer to vernacular styles, well before the break of 451, Egyptian Christianity had pioneered monasticism, with many communities being established in deliberately remote positions, especially in Southern Egypt. Many very early wall-paintings also survive, even the ruins of monasteries in many places have survived in a good enough condition to impress the visitor and inform the art historian. Early Coptic architecture is therefore of importance in the study of Early Christian architecture in general. However the existence of three altars in the sanctuary, sometimes in separate apses, is typically and distinctively Coptic, the altars themselves are always free-standing. Especially between the Muslim conquest and the 19th century, the facade of Coptic urban churches is usually plain and discreet. Equally the monasteries were often enclosed with high walls to defend them from desert raiders during the Middle Ages. However, internally the churches can be decorated, although monumental sculpture of holy figures is avoided as in Orthodoxy. Many Coptic monasteries and churches scattered throughout Egypt are built of mudbrick on the basilica plan inherited from Graeco-Roman architectural styles and they usually have heavy walls and columns, architraves and barrel-vaulted roofs, and end in a tripartite apse, but many variant plans exist. Domes are small compared to Byzantine churches, and from the 10th-century naves are often roofed with domed cupolas, the dome raised on a circular supporting wall, which is so characteristic of later Byzantine architecture, is rarely used. Massive timber is used across the nave, sometimes to support a flat roof
3.
Coptic art
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Coptic art is a term used either for the art of Egypt produced in the early Christian era or for the art produced by the Coptic Christians themselves. Coptic art is most well known for its wall-paintings, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, the artwork is often functional, as little distinction was drawn between artistry and craftsmanship, and includes tunics and tombstones as well as portraits of saints. The Coptic Museum in Coptic Cairo houses some of the worlds most important examples of Coptic art, Coptic art displays a mix of native Egyptian and Hellenistic influences. Subjects and symbols were taken from both Greek and Egyptian mythology, sometimes altered to fit Christian beliefs, persia and Syria also influenced Coptic art, though to a lesser extent, leaving images such as the peacock and the griffin. Coptic icons have their origin in the Hellenistic art of Egyptian Late Antiquity, the faces of El Fayum are examples of the Coptic art in the 2nd century AD showing the Greek and Roman influence on the Coptic art but with some distinctive features related to Egyptian art. The Arabic conquest of Egypt allowed the Coptic art to influence the Islamic art, beginning in the 4th century, churches painted their walls and made icons to reflect an authentic expression of their faith. One of the most famous artists was Yuhanna al-Armani whose works were noted for using more developed techniques, some forms of the Coptic cross are known as the Ethiopian cross and many Churches in Ethiopia show the influence of the Coptic art. Menas flasks are very cheap terracotta bottles bought by pilgrims to Abu Mina, the clay was impressed before firing with blocks with images of the saint. A remarkable number of Coptic textiles survive today, due to the Coptic custom of burying them with the dead, the textiles are commonly linen or wool and use the colors red, blue, yellow, green, purple, black and brown. The dyes were derived from madder, indigo, woad, saffron, the shell. The first looms used were horizontal low-warp, vertical high-warp looms were introduced later, the basic garment was the tunic, which would become the dalmatic. Some tunics were woven in one piece and they were decorated by clavi, a stylistic import from Rome. The early Coptic textiles still produced pictures and decoration incorporating Egyptian, shrouds, for example, might incorporate classical elements were painted in the form of an Egyptian sarcophagus and include representations of Egyptian gods to protect the dead. Later coptic textiles showed the influence of Byzantium and later, Islamic art, modern Coptic art is also known as the Neo-Coptic school. In recent centuries icons have been the means of expression. Coptic icons are more concerned religious truth and beauty than with realism, as in the Byzantine and related traditions, the figures are depicted frontally, looking straight at the viewer. Today, Coptic icons are not only in churches, but also in homes. They may also be purchased from Coptic gift shops throughout Egypt, in 1952, architect and coptic Christian Ramses Wissa Wassef founded the Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Center in Giza, Egypt
4.
Coptic cross
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The term Coptic cross may refer to a number of Christian cross variants associated in some way with Coptic Christians. Coptic crosses are often shown with arms dividing into three points each (also called Ethiopian cross or Axum cross, Liungman shows a cross fleury. Bertran de la Farge identifies a cross crosslet as croix copte and cites it as a predecessor of the Occitan cross somewhere in the marquisate of Provence, probably Venasque. Old Coptic crosses often incorporate a circle, as in the form called a Coptic cross by Rudolf Koch in his The Book of Signs, sometimes the arms of the cross extend through the circle, as in the Celtic cross. The circle cross was used by the early Gnostic sects. The form used in the Coptic Church and defined as the Coptic cross is made up of two lines of equal length that intersect at the middle at right angles. At each angle are three points, representing the Trinity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, all together, the cross has 12 points symbolizing the Apostles whose mission it was to spread the Gospel message throughout the world. The Coptic cross is used in the Coptic church and the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches. Many Copts have the cross tattooed on the inside of their right arm, the Coptic cross in its modern and ancient forms is considered a sign of faith and pride to the Copts The Ethiopians Christians wear it as a symbol of faith. One of the forms of the Coptic cross, which is referred to as the Ethiopian Coptic cross was worn by Stevie Ray Vaughan, keith Richards also wears an Ethiopian Coptic Cross
5.
Coptic flag
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The Coptic flag was created in 2005 by Coptic activists in different countries to represent the Coptic communities both in Egypt and in the Coptic diaspora. It is not recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic flag has been officially recognized and adopted by the New Zealand Coptic Association and the Free Copts. Copts voice opposition to aspects of Egypts political life. One of these is the present-day Egyptian flag, which most Copts feel does not represent their Egyptian identity, in this respect, taking into consideration that Copts are especially unlikely to consider themselves as Arab, the current Egyptian flag alienates the Egyptian Christian minority in its homeland. The Coptic flag arose from the conviction that any group has a right to represent itself through an emblem or a flag in its larger society. It is in line with such as the flag of the Muslim Brotherhood. The Coptic flag came about as a compromise, one represents the Copts and highlights their non-Arab. Some Copts have begun using the new flag alongside the official Egyptian flag, the Coptic Flag consists of two main components, a blue cross and a colorful coat of arms. The cross represents Christianity, the Copts religion, the blue color stems from the Egyptian sky and water. It also reminds the Copts of their persecution, when some Muslim rulers forced their ancestors to wear crosses around their necks until their necks became blue. The top of the coat of arms is decorated with Coptic crosses intertwined with lotus flowers, Coptic crosses are made of four arms equal in length, each of which is crossed by a shorter arm. They are different from the Latin cross that possesses three short arms and a longer arm, the lotus flower, also known as the Egyptian White Water-lily, is one of ancient Egypts most highly regarded flowers. It used to represent creation and resurrection, for it disappears under water after sunset, then resurfaces, the black background behind the ornaments is a symbol of Kimi or Kemet, the Egyptian name of Egypt, which means the Black Land. Ancient Egyptians gave their country this name since the waters of the Nile used to bring black soil during the season and deposit it on the banks of the Nile. Beneath these ornaments is a line in the middle of the coat of arms. Around it are two lines that symbolize the Eastern and Western Deserts of Egypt. These two lines are in turn flanked by two lines that represent the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea that enclose Egypt. Finally, these lines are separated by red lines symbolizing the blood of the Coptic martyrs, the Coptic Flag, Meanings and Colors The Coptic Flag
6.
Coptic history
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Many of the historic items related to Coptic Christianity are on display in many museums around the world and a large number is in the Coptic Museum in Coptic Cairo. The Egyptian Church, which is now more than nineteen centuries old, regards itself as the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border. The first Christians in Egypt were mainly Alexandrian Jews such as Theophilus, when the Church of Alexandria was founded by Saint Mark during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, a great multitude of native Egyptians embraced the Christian faith. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, the Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. St. Jerome records that the Christian School of Alexandria was founded by St. Mark himself, origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the Bible in addition to his famous Hexapla. Many scholars such as Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects, science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, by the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. A great number of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations to this day, countless pilgrims have visited the Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead, as a consequence of this, he denied the title Mother of God to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be Mother of Christ Christotokos. When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark, Pope Saint Cyril I of Alexandria acted quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, when he would not, the Synod of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. Pope Cyril I of Alexandria, supported by the entire See and this epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy, The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril. In these anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius, for example, Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema. Nestorius however, still would not repent and so led to the convening of the First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus. The First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus confirmed the teachings of Saint Athanasius and it also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is One Nature for God the Word Incarnate. Glory to you O our Master and King, Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins
7.
Coptic monasticism
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St. Anthonys Monastery is now the oldest monastery in the world. Institutional Christian monasticism seems to have begun in the deserts in AD 4th century Egypt as a kind of living martyrdom. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the changes in the church that had been brought about by Constantines acceptance of Christianity as the main Roman religion. This ended the position of Christians as a group that believed itself to be the godly elite. In response a new more advanced form of dedication was developed to preserve a nucleus of the dedicated, the end of persecution also meant that martyrdom was no longer an option to prove ones piety. Instead the long-term martyrdom of the ascetic became common, many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. Pachomius spent most of his time at his Pabau monastery, from his initial monastery, demand quickly grew and, by the time of his death in 345, one count estimates there were 3000 monasteries dotting Egypt from north to south. Within a generation after his death, this grew to 7000 and then moved out of Egypt into Palestine. By the end of the century, there were hundreds of monasteries. Countless pilgrims have visited the Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, all of the Coptic bishops are chosen from monks, although this was not necessary traditionally. There are currently 33 monasteries in Egypt and in the lands of the immigration with a total of more than 1,000 monks, the largest monasteries, and most famous, are at Wadi Natrun, about 60 miles northwest of Cairo. They are the four of the ancient fortified self-sufficient monasteries which have survived out of many that were in the Wadi Natroun valley. Coptic Monasteries List of Coptic Monasteries Members of the covenant Desert Fathers The Daughters of St. Mary Gruber, sacrifice In the Desert, A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism
8.
Coptic nationalism
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Coptic nationalism refers to the nationalism of Copts. Questions of Egyptian identity rose to prominence in Egypt in the 1920s and 1930s as Egyptians sought independence from British occupation, the Pharaonist movement, or Pharaonism, looks to Egypts pre-Islamic past and argued that Egypt was part of a larger Mediterranean civilization. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism, which states that Coptic culture is derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a heritage in Egyptian history. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, most scholars today see Pharaonism as a late development shaped primarily by western Orientalism, and doubt its validity. Coptic identity as it stands now saw its roots in the 1950s with the rise of pan-Arabism under Nasser. A Coptic flag was created in 2005 by a Coptic activist group called The Free Copts as a flag representing Copts, Coptic identity. The Coptic Flag consists of two components, a blue cross and a colorful coat of arms. The cross represents Christianity, the Copts religion, the blue color stems from the Egyptian sky and water. It also reminds the Copts of their persecution, when some of Muslim rulers forced their ancestors to wear crosses around their necks until their necks became blue. The top of the coat of arms is decorated with Coptic crosses intertwined with lotus flowers, Coptic crosses are made of four arms equal in length, each of which is crossed by a shorter arm. The lotus flower, also known as the Egyptian White Water-lily, has been a symbol of creation since Ancient Egyptian times, remains of the flower were found in the burial tomb of Pharaoh Ramesses II. Hence, its use on the flag represents the desire of all Coptic people to overthrow the Arab Islamic government, the black background behind the ornaments is a symbol of Kimi or Kemet, the Egyptian name of Egypt, which means the Black Land. Beneath these ornaments is a line in the middle of the coat of arms. Around it are two lines that symbolize the Eastern and Western Deserts of Egypt. These two lines are in turn flanked by two lines that represent the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea that enclose Egypt. Finally, these lines are separated by red lines symbolizing Coptic blood, Pharaonism Coptic diaspora Coptic identity Shatzmiller, Maya. Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies, the Battle for the Arab Spring, Revolution, Counter-Revolution and the Making of a New Era
9.
Copts in Egypt
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Copts in Egypt refers to Coptic people born in or residing in Egypt. Coptic people are the largest ethno-religious minority in Egypt, under Muslim rule, the ethnic Copts were cut off from the main stream of Christianity, and were compelled to adhere to the Pact of Umar covenant, thus assigned to Dhimmi status. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century and he abolished the Jizya and allowed ethnic Copts to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs, khedive Ismail Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights, some ethnic Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910, some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa, Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid. In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup détat against King Farouk, Nassers mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The ethnic Copts were severely affected by Nassers nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population, many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism, which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a heritage in Egyptian history. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, however, some Western scholars today argue that Pharaonism was a late development shaped primarily by Orientalism, and doubt its validity. Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory, Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup détat led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and these restrictions do not apply for building mosques. The Coptic community has been targeted by hate crimes resulting in Copts being victims of murder by Islamic extremists, the most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh,440 kilometres south of Cairo, in 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria, killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as psychologically disturbed by the Ministry of Interior, in May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against ethnic Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept reconciliation with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, Boutros Boutros-Ghali is a Copt who served as Egypts foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat
10.
Copts in Sudan
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Copts in Sudan may refer to people born in or residing in Sudan of full or partial Coptic origin. Sudan has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Coptic immigrants from Egypt, Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid, Atbara, Dongola, Khartoum, Omdurman, Port Sudan, and Wad Medani. They number up to 500,000, or slightly over 1% of the Sudanese population, due to their advanced education, their role in the life of the country has been more significant than their numbers suggest. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam, resulting in their emigration, modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century, as a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam, and intermarry with the native Sudanese. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority, however, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule. Gaafar Nimeirys introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of treatment of Copts. After the overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the service and judiciary. In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways was executed for possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, a Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers, as the civil war raged throughout the 1990s, the government focused its religious fervour on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south, today, the Coptic Church in Sudan is officially registered with the government, and is exempt from property tax. Bishop Karas, a Coptic Orthodox bishop born in Sudan, raouf Musad, a playwright, journalist and novelist born in Sudan. Coptic diaspora Christianity in Sudan Copts in Egypt Copts in Libya
11.
Copts in Libya
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Copts are an ethnoreligious group that form the largest Christian group in Libya, the Coptic Orthodox Church in the country having an estimated 60,000 adherents. The Coptic Church is known to have roots in Libya long before the Arabs advanced westward from Egypt into Libya. A part of the community is made up of immigrants from Egypt, the Coptic population is estimated to number 60,000. The Copts are the largest Christian denomination, followed by c.40,000 Roman Catholics and they are present in all three major regions. Synesius was consecrated by Theophilus of Alexandria in 410, since the Council of Nicaea in 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria, in accordance with the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers. The Pope of Alexandria to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction, the Coptic congregations in several countries were under the ancient Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis, which was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church for centuries until the 13th century. This was also a part of the restructuring of the Church as a whole and they are currently three Coptic Orthodox Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, Libya, one in Benghazi, Libya, and one in Misrata, Libya. In February 2014, seven Coptic Christians were dragged out of their houses in the middle of the night, then executed on a beach, a group of Copts were kidnapped on separate occasions in December 2014 and January 2015, then executed by the ISIL. A video of the execution of 21 men, in which threats are made to the nation of the cross, was released to the internet on 15 February 2015, Coptic diaspora Christianity in Libya Copts in Egypt Copts in Sudan Jason Morgan, Toyin Falola, Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi. Early Libyan Christianity, Uncovering a North African Tradition, Libyan studies, select papers of the late R. G. Goodchild. Goodchild, Richard G. Byzantines, Berbers and Arabs in 7th-century Libya, the plight of Christians in post-Gaddafi Libya, as it was under the dictatorship, continuing insecurity for a religious minority, North Africa-issue in focus
12.
Coptic Americans
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Coptic Americans are American citizens of Coptic descent or persons of Coptic descent residing in the United States of America. Estimates for the number of ethnic Copts in the US range from 700,000 to more than 1 million, the immigration of the Copts to the United States of America started as early as the late 1940s. After 1952, the rate of Coptic immigration from Egypt to the United States increased, the first Coptic church in the United States is St. Marks Coptic Orthodox Church, which was established in the late 1960s in Jersey City, there are many Coptic Orthodox churches and congregations in the United States. Estimated numbers of adherents, based on membership, was between 350,000 and 420,000. Based on the estimates of certain Coptic organizations, the number was between 700,000 and one million in the year 2002, currently, there are over 200 parishes in the United States that serve the expanding Coptic Orthodox population. The church has a population when compared to other smaller Christian bodies, yet is one of the least known Christian churches
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Coptic Orthodox Church in the United States
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This article is about Coptic Orthodoxy in the United States. For a list of Coptic parishes in the US, see list of Coptic Orthodox Churches in the United States The immigration of the Copts to the United States of America started as early as the late 1940s. After 1952, the rate of Coptic immigration from Egypt to the United States increased, the first Coptic church in the United States is St. Marks Coptic Orthodox Church, which was established in the late 1960s in Jersey City, there are many Coptic Orthodox churches and Congregations in the United States. Estimated numbers of adherents, based on membership, was between 350,000 and 420,000. Based on the estimates of certain Coptic organizations, the number was between 700,000 and one million in 2002, currently, there are over 200 parishes in the United States that serve the expanding Coptic Orthodox population. The Church does have a population when compared to other smaller Christian bodies, yet is among one of the least known Christian Churches. Youssef, Bishop of the Southern Diocese & Abbot of the Monastery of Most Holy Virgin Mary & Saint Moses the Strong in Corpus Christi, Karas, General Bishop & Patriarchal Exarch in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, Archdiocese of North America. David, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of New York and New England, Michael, Suffragan Bishop of the Holy Suffragan Diocese of Alexandria and all Virginia, United States, assistant to the Pope. Peter, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of South Carolina, North Carolina, Kyrillos, General Bishop & assistant to HE Metropolitan Serapion in the Holy Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, & Hawaii. Abraham, General Bishop & assistant to HE Metropolitan Serapion in the Holy Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, for the Eritrean Orthodox Church congregation, Macarius, Bishop of the Eritrean Church in the USA. Member of the Eritrean Holy Synod. G, Bishop Karas, General Bishop & Patriarchal Exarch in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, Archdiocese of North America. H. G. Bishop Michael, Suffragan Bishop of the Holy Suffragan Diocese of Alexandria and all Virginia of the Archdiocese of North America, in the Archdiocese of North America, there are over 200 Coptic Orthodox Churches. E. Metropolitan Serapion who is the first Metropolitan of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, H. G Bishop Kyrillos, General Bishop of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California and Hawaii. H. G. Bishop Abraham, General Bishop of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, the Diocese has around 40 churches, a theological school and a charity organization called Saint Verena Charity, named after the Coptic Saint Verena). The Diocese serves about 41 churches and has 17 Hegumen and 40 Presbyters, the Diocese of Los Angeles is based at 3803 W. Mission Blvd. H. G. Bishop Youssef is the Bishop of the Diocese of Southern United States and also is the Abbot of the Monastery of Most Holy Virgin Mary & Saint Moses the Strong in Corpus Christi, Texas. As of May 2016 there were 39 Churches and 29 Communities in this diocese along with a convent in Dawsonville, Georgia, the diocese is headquartered in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex suburb of Colleyville, Texas
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Coptic Canadians
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Copts in Canada are Canadian citizens of Coptic descent or persons of Coptic descent residing in Canada. According to the 2011 Census there were 3,570 Canadians who claimed Coptic ancestry, an additional 73,250 Canadians claimed Egyptian ancestry, and some of these are believed to be Copts. Toronto and the metropolitan region have the largest concentration of Copts in Canada. The immigration of the Copts to Canada might have started as early as the late 1950s, due to an increasing amount of discrimination towards Copts in Egypt in the 1970s, many decided to emigrate in order to escape the rising racial tensions. Canada has been receiving a number of these immigrants. In 1964, St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church was established in Toronto, in 2002, a survey showed 22 Coptic Orthodox parishes in Canada, indicating growth. In 2011, there were five Coptic Orthodox churches in Montreal
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Coptic Orthodox Church in Africa
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This article, dealing with the Coptic Orthodox Church in Africa, is about the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria in African countries other than Egypt. The Apostolic Throne of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is based in the ancient Alexandria, Egypt, the jurisdiction of the Church of Alexandria extended, as per Canon law of the First and Second Ecumenical Councils, to the Province of Egypt, Nubia and Pentapolis. Later on in expanded south to all of what is now known as the Sudan. Since the demise of the Latin North African Archiepiscopate of Carthage in the 8th century, by 1929, the Alexandrine Throne allowed the Ethiopian clergy to participate in the governing of their own Church, and the first native Ethiopian archbishop was enthroned in 1930. In 1959, an agreement was reached between the Ethiopian Holy Synod and the Alexandrine Throne to have their own Patriarch-Catholicos in a transitional period. The first Prelate, Abuna Basilius I, Patriarch-Catholicos of Addis Ababa and all Ethiopia, was ordained and enthroned in 1959, the Patriarchate of Ethiopia is now vacant with the death in August 2012 of its 5th Patriarch, Abuna Paulos I. This is after the Patriarchates of Abuna Theophilus I, Abuna Tekle Haimanot I, whose own Prelate, Abuna Philipos I, Patriarch of Asmara and of all Eritrea, was ordained and enthroned in May 1998, by Pope Shenouda III Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria. This made the new Patriarchate of Asmara and of all Eritrea a hierarchically and jurisdictionally independent “Autocephalous Patriarchate”, the Current Prelate, Abuna Antonius I, is the third Patriarch of Asmara and all Eritrea, who succeeded Yacob I the second Patriarch of Asmara and all Eritrea. However, he was deposed non-canonically in January 2006, and replaced by Abuna Discoros I and this action is however not approved by the Alexandrine Throne and is still under debate. Prior to gainy autonomy in 1994 and then autocephaly in 1998, it constituted a major archdiocese within the Patriarchate of Addis Ababa and all Ethiopia. In other words, the Patriarchate of Addis Ababa and all Ethiopia, elia, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Khartoum and All the South of the Sudan. The number of Coptic Sudanese is estimated around 200,000, synesius was raised to the episcopate by Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, in 410 A. D. Since the Council of Nicaea in 325 A. D. Cyrenaica had been recognized as a province of the See of Alexandria. Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction and this was part of the restructuring of the Church as a whole. Although The Coptic Orthodox Church had a bishop for missionary affairs in Africa in the 1950s this was not continued after the death of that bishop. In the 1990s and as the area had expanded, Pope Shenouda III consecrated Paul as General Bishop for Evangelism and Mission and Patriarchal Exarch in East. Bishop Paul was originally a deacon then a celibate priest, he was tonsured as a hieromonk before he was consecrated as a bishop. Both bishops were physicians before becoming full-time clergymen
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Coptic Orthodox Church in Europe
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Currently there are many Metropolitans and Bishops serving in Europe. Bishops in Austria, Gabriel, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Vienna, There is a Coptic Orthodox Church in Leuven, Onze-Lieve-Vrouw-Middelareskerk, it got special police protection in January 2011 in the wake of anti-Coptic attacks in Egypt. There are a few hundreds Copts in Belgium, Saint Mary & Saint Mark Coptic Orthodox Church. The French Coptic Orthodox Church has a Diocesan Bishop as well as about 11-12 Priests and several Deacons in about 12-15 parishes and missions across France. Athanasios, Diocesan Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Marseille and Primate of the Holy Metropolis of Toulon and of all France, marc, Auxiliary Bishop to Metropolitan Athanasios The Church is integrated within the Church of Alexandria, but is considered autonomous in matter of governance. Bishops, Damian, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Höxter-Brenkenhausen, michail, Bishop & Abbot of the Monastery of Saint Anthony the Great in Kroeffelbach, Germany. Currently, there are a few thousand Orthodox Copts in Germany, the church is located in Budapest and address is,1185 Budapest, Selmecbánya utca 68. Bishops, Barnaba, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Torino, Rome, kyrillos, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Milano and Northern Italy & Abbot of the Monastery of Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite in Milano. There is a large Coptic Orthodox community in the Netherlands, mainly in the major cities, currently, they have Churches in Amsterdam, Assen, Eindhoven, Enschede, The Hague, Kapelle, Leeuwarden, Utrecht and Velsen-Noord. Saint Mary and Archangel Michael Alicante, Spain There are also many Coptic communities around Spain including Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, virgin Mary and Saint Paul church in Stockholm, Sweden, served by Father Bakhomios Demetry and Father Markos Wanis. This church was established by Pope Shenuda III in the year 1993, - Bishop Anthony, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of Ireland, Scotland & North East England, United Kingdom. Bishop Angaelos, General Bishop & Patriarchal Exarch for the Youth Ministry at the Patriarchal Center, Eritrean church, Bishop Markos, Bishop of the Eritrean Church in the United Kingdom. Member of the Eritrean Holy Synod
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Coptic diaspora
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The Coptic diaspora consists of Copts who live outside of their primary area of residence within parts of present-day Egypt, Libya and Sudan. The number of Copts outside Egypt has sharply increased since the 1960s, the largest Coptic diaspora populations are in the United States, in Canada and in Australia, but Copts have a presence in many other countries. Copts in Egypt make up about 5-20% of the population, Copts in Sudan make up about half a million or 1% of Sudanese population. There are about 60,000 Copts in Libya, making up the majority of that countrys Christian community, there are about 60,000 Copts in Libya, 1% of Libyan population, making up the majority of that countrys Christian community. Outside of the traditional Coptic areas in Egypt, Sudan and Libya, smaller communities of Copts exist in Australia and in Canada. Smaller communities exist in Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, in 2009 one scholar placed the total Coptic population of North America at more than 500,000. There is also a Coptic presence in Lebanon and Jordan, and well as the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, there is also a Coptic presence in the sub-Saharan African countries of Zambia, Kenya, Zaire, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa. The Coptic diaspora began primarily in the 1950s and was driven by the result of growing Islamization in Egypt, after Gamal Abdel Nasser rose to power, economic and social conditions deteriorated and many wealthier Egyptians, especially Copts, emigrated to Europe and the United States. Emigration of Egyptian Copts increased under Anwar al-Sadat and under Hosni Mubarak, many Copts are university graduates in the professions, such as medicine and engineering
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Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
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The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is the largest Christian Church in Egypt, Northeast Africa and the Middle East. According to tradition, the Church was established by Saint Mark, the head of the Church and the See of Alexandria is the Patriarch of Alexandria on the Holy See of Saint Mark, who also carries the title of Coptic Pope. The See of Alexandria is titular, and today the Coptic Pope presides from Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in the Abbassia District in Cairo. The precise Christological differences that caused the split with the Coptic Christians are still disputed, highly technical, the foundational roots of the Coptic Church are based in Egypt, but it has a worldwide following. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, the first Christians in Egypt were common people who spoke Egyptian Coptic. There were also Alexandrian Jews such as Theophilus, whom Saint Luke the Evangelist addresses in the chapter of his gospel. When the church was founded by Saint Mark during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, in the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local languages, namely Coptic. The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world, St. Jerome records that the Christian School of Alexandria was founded by Saint Mark himself. Origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the Bible in addition to his famous Hexapla, many scholars such as Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly with its scholars. The scope of this school was not limited to subjects, science, mathematics. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read, the Theological college of the catechetical school was re-established in 1893. Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, by the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. A great number of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations to this day, countless pilgrims have visited the Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead, as a consequence of this, he denied the title Mother of God to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be Mother of Christ Christotokos. When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark, Pope Saint Cyril I of Alexandria acted quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, when he would not, the Synod of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. Pope Cyril I of Alexandria, supported by the entire See and this epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy, The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril. In these anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius, for example, Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema
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Protestantism in Egypt
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The Evangelical Church of Egypt has approximately 250,000 members in Egypt. The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East has between 10,000 and 15,000 members in Egypt, there exists a Coptic Evangelical Organization for Social Services
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Egyptian language
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The language spoken in ancient Egypt was a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. The earliest known complete sentence in the Egyptian language has been dated to about 2690 BCE, making it one of the oldest recorded languages known. Egyptian was spoken until the seventeenth century in the form of Coptic. The national language of modern Egypt is Egyptian Arabic, which gradually replaced Coptic as the language of life in the centuries after the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Coptic is still used as the language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It has several hundred fluent speakers today, the Egyptian language belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. Of the other Afroasiatic branches, Egyptian shows its greatest affinities with Semitic, in Egyptian, the Proto-Afroasiatic voiced consonants */d z ð/ developed into pharyngeal ⟨ꜥ⟩ /ʕ/, e. g. Eg. Afroasiatic */l/ merged with Egyptian ⟨n⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨ꜣ⟩, and ⟨j⟩ in the dialect on which the language was based. Original */k g ḳ/ palatalize to ⟨ṯ j ḏ⟩ in some environments and are preserved as ⟨k g q⟩ in others, Egyptian has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian probably is more archaic in this regard, whereas Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern, scholars group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions, Archaic Egyptian language Old Egyptian language Middle Egyptian language, characterizing Middle Kingdom. Demotic Coptic The earliest Egyptian glyphs date back to around 3300 BC and these early texts are generally lumped together under the general term Archaic Egyptian. They record names, titles and labels, but a few of them show morphological and syntactic features familiar from later, more complete, Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen and dated to around 2690 BCE. It reads, dmḏ. n. f t3wj n z3. f nswt-bjt pr-jb. snj He has united the Two Lands for his son, extensive texts appear from about 2600 BCE. Demotic first appears about 650 BCE and survived as a written language until the fifth century CE and it probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Bohairic Coptic is still used by the Coptic Churches, Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using hieroglyphs and hieratic. Demotic was written using a script derived from hieratic, its appearance is similar to modern Arabic script and is also written from right to left. Coptic is written using the Coptic alphabet, a form of the Greek alphabet with a number of symbols borrowed from Demotic for sounds that did not occur in ancient Greek. Arabic became the language of Egypts political administration soon after the early Muslim conquests in the seventh century, today, Coptic survives as the sacred language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Coptic Catholic Church
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
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Egyptian hieroglyphs were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters, cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts are derived from hieroglyphic writing, the writing system continued to be used throughout the Late Period, as well as the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, with the closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost, and the script remained undeciphered throughout the medieval and early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphs would only be solved in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, the word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός, a compound of ἱερός and γλύφω, supposedly a calque of an Egyptian phrase mdw·w-nṯr gods words. The glyphs themselves were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ γράμματα the sacred engraved letters, the word hieroglyph has become a noun in English, standing for an individual hieroglyphic character. As used in the sentence, the word hieroglyphic is an adjective. Hieroglyphs emerged from the artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c.4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing, proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems develop in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called Scorpion I recovered at Abydos in 1998. The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, by the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000. However, given the lack of evidence, no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt. Since the 1990s, and discoveries such as the Abydos glyphs, as writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic and demotic scripts. These variants were more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental, the Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule, and after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish true Egyptians from some of the foreign conquerors, another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally
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Hieratic
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Hieratic is a cursive writing system used in the provenance of the pharaohs in Egypt and Nubia. It developed alongside cursive hieroglyphs, from which it is separate yet intimately related and it was primarily written in ink with a reed brush on papyrus, allowing scribes to write quickly without resorting to the time-consuming hieroglyphs. In the 2nd century AD, the term hieratic was first used by Saint Clement of Alexandria. It derives from the Greek phrase γράμματα ἱερατικά, as at time, hieratic was used only for religious texts, as had been the case for the previous eight. Hieratic can also be an adjective meaning f or associated with sacred persons or offices, in the Proto-Dynastic Period of Egypt, hieratic first appeared and developed alongside the more formal hieroglyphic script. It is an error to view hieratic as a derivative of hieroglyphic writing, indeed, the earliest texts from Egypt are produced with ink and brush, with no indication their signs are descendants of hieroglyphs. True monumental hieroglyphs carved in stone did not appear until the 1st Dynasty, the two writing systems, therefore, are related, parallel developments, rather than a single linear one. Hieratic was used throughout the period and into the Graeco-Roman Period. Around 660 BC, the Demotic script replaced hieratic in most secular writing, through most of its long history, hieratic was used for writing administrative documents, accounts, legal texts, and letters, as well as mathematical, medical, literary, and religious texts. During the Græco-Roman period, when Demotic had become the chief administrative script, in general, hieratic was much more important than hieroglyphs throughout Egypts history, being the script used in daily life. It was also the system first taught to students, knowledge of hieroglyphs being limited to a small minority who were given additional training. In fact, it is possible to detect errors in hieroglyphic texts that came about due to a misunderstanding of an original hieratic text. Most often, hieratic script was written in ink with a brush on papyrus, wood. Thousands of limestone ostraca have been found at the site of Deir al-Madinah, besides papyrus, stone, ceramic shards, and wood, there are hieratic texts on leather rolls, though few have survived. There are also hieratic texts written on cloth, especially on linen used in mummification, there are some hieratic texts inscribed on stone, a variety known as lapidary hieratic, these are particularly common on stelae from the 22nd Dynasty. During the late 6th Dynasty, hieratic was sometimes incised into mud tablets with a stylus, similar to cuneiform. About five hundred of these tablets have been discovered in the palace at Ayn Asil. At the time the tablets were made, Dakhla was located far from centers of papyrus production and these tablets record inventories, name lists, accounts, and approximately fifty letters
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Demotic (Egyptian)
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The term was first used by the Greek historian Herodotus to distinguish it from hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts. By convention, the word Demotic is capitalized in order to distinguish it from demotic Greek, the Demotic script was referred to by the Egyptians as sš n šˤ. The script was used for more than a thousand years, and it is written and read from right to left, while earlier hieroglyphics could be written from top to bottom, left to right, or right to left. Early Demotic developed in Lower Egypt during the part of the 25th dynasty. It is generally dated between 650 and 400 BCE, as most texts written in Early Demotic are dated to the 26th dynasty, during this period, Demotic was used only for administrative, legal, and commercial texts, while hieroglyphs and hieratic were reserved for other texts. Middle Demotic is the stage of writing used during the Ptolemaic Period, from the 4th century BCE onward, Demotic held a higher status, as may be seen from its increasing use for literary and religious texts. From the beginning of Roman rule of Egypt, Demotic was progressively less used in public life. In contrast to the way Latin eliminated minority languages in the part of the Empire. After that, Demotic was only used for a few ostraca, subscriptions to Greek texts, mummy labels, and graffiti. The last dated example of the Demotic script is dated to December 11,452 CE, Demotic is a development of Late Egyptian and shares much with the later Coptic phase of the Egyptian language. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those written in the Early Demotic script. The Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799 and it is inscribed with three scripts, classical Greek and both Demotic and hieroglyphic Egyptian. There are 32 lines of Demotic, which is the middle of the three scripts on the stone, the Demotic was deciphered before the hieroglyphs, starting with the efforts of Silvestre de Sacy. Egyptologists, linguists and papyrologists who specialize in the study of the Demotic stage of Egyptian script are known as Demotists, the table below shows some derivative similarities from Hieroglyphic to Demotic to the currently surviving Coptic Egyptian script. Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian Betrò, Maria Carmela, hieroglyphics, The Writings of Ancient Egypt. New York, Milan, Abbeville Press, Arnoldo Mondadori, thus Wrote Onchsheshonqy, An Introductory Grammar of Demotic. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, No.45
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Oriental Orthodoxy
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Oriental Orthodoxy has approximately 84 million adherents worldwide. Oriental Orthodox Churches uphold their own ancient ecclesiastic traditions of apostolic succession and these Churches rejected the definition of the two natures of Christ, known as the Chalcedonian Definition, which was issued by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Eastern Orthodox maintain numerous theological and ecclesiological similarities with the Oriental Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other, but not with the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite the similar name. The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Great Church was based on differences in Christology, the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is God, that is to say, consubstantial with the Father. Later, the ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus, declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being. Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected Nestorianism, the Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct beings, one divine and one human, who happened to inhabit the same body. The Churches that later became Oriental Orthodoxy were firmly anti-Nestorian, and those who opposed Chalcedon saw this as a concession to Nestorianism, or even as a conspiracy to convert the Church to Nestorianism by stealth. As a result, over the decades, they gradually separated from communion with the Great Church. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being Monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism, however, the Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches. They define themselves as Miaphysite instead, holding that Christ has one nature, the schism between the Oriental Orthodox and the rest of Christendom occurred in the 5th century. They would accept only of or from two natures but not in two natures and it is not entirely clear that Nestorius himself was a Nestorian. The Oriental Orthodox churches were often called Monophysite, although they reject this label, as it is associated with Eutychian Monophysitism. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I, Justin ordered the replacement of all non-Chalcedonian bishops, including the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria. The extent of the influence of the Bishop of Rome in this demand has been a matter of debate, Justinian I also attempted to bring those monks who still rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon into communion with the greater church. The exact time of event is unknown, but it is believed to have been between 535 and 548. St Abraham of Farshut was summoned to Constantinople and he chose to bring with him four monks, upon arrival, Justinian summoned them and informed them that they would either accept the decision of the Council or lose their positions. Abraham refused to entertain the idea, theodora tried to persuade Justinian to change his mind, seemingly to no avail. Abraham himself stated in a letter to his monks that he preferred to remain in exile rather than subscribe to a faith which he believed to be contrary to that of Athanasius of Alexandria
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Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
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The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Christian Churches. Ethiopia is the country only after Armenia to have officially proclaimed Christianity as state religion though some argue it may even be the first. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is a member of the World Council of Churches. Tewahedo is a Geez word meaning being made one and this word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in the one perfectly unified Nature of Christ, i. e. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to a Miaphysitic Christological view followed by Cyril of Alexandria, according to these, both natures in Christ are perfectly preserved after the union in mia physis - One Nature, yet, not resulting in a distinct third Nature. Many traditions claim that Christian teachings were introduced to the immediately after Pentecost. John Chrysostom speaks of the Ethiopians present in Jerusalem as being able to understand the preaching of Saint Peter in Acts,2,38, possible missions of some of the Apostles in the lands now called Ethiopia is also reported as early as the 4th century. Ethiopian Church tradition tells that Bartholomew accompanied Matthew in a mission which lasted for at least 3 months, paintings depicting these missions are available in the Church of St. Matthew found in the Province of Pisa, in northern Italy portrayed by Francesco Trevisan and Marco Benefial. The earliest account of an Ethiopian converted to the faith in the New Testament books is a royal official baptized by Philip the Evangelist, then the angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza. So he set out and was on his way when he caught sight of an Ethiopian and this man was a eunuch, a high official of the Kandake Queen of Ethiopia in charge of all her treasure. The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian treasurer understand a passage from Isaiah that the Ethiopian was reading, after Philip interpreted the passage as prophecy referring to Jesus Christ, the Ethiopian requested that Philip baptize him, and Philip did so. The Ethiopic version of this verse reads Hendeke, Queen Gersamot Hendeke VII was the Queen of Ethiopia from c.42 to 52, the same kind of witness is shared by 3rd and 4th century writers such as Eusebius of Caesarea and Origen of Alexandria. As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast, the brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptized Emperor Ezana. Ezana sent Frumentius to Alexandria to ask the Patriarch, St. Athanasius, Athanasius appointed Frumentius, who returned to Ethiopia as Bishop with the name of Abune Selama. From then on, until 1959, the Pope of Alexandria, as Patriarch of All Africa, union with the Coptic Orthodox Church continued after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and these examples show the close relations of the two churches throughout the Middle Ages. In 1439, in the reign of Zara Yaqob, a discussion between Abba Giyorgis and a French visitor led to the dispatch of an embassy from Ethiopia to the Vatican
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Armenian Apostolic Church
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The Armenian Apostolic Church is the national church of the Armenian people. Part of Oriental Orthodoxy, it is one of the most ancient Christian communities, Armenia was the first country to adopt Christianity as its official religion, in the early 4th century. The church claims to have originated in the missions of Apostles Bartholomew and it is sometimes referred to as the Armenian Orthodox Church or Gregorian Church. It is also known as the Armenian Church. The Armenian Church believes apostolic succession through the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus, according to legend, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD. After this, Bartholomew came to Armenia, bringing a portrait of the virgin Mary, Bartholomew then converted the sister of Sanatruk, who once again martyred a female relative and the apostle who converted her. Both apostles ordained native bishops before their execution, and some other Armenians had been ordained outside of Armenia by James the Just. According to Eusebius and Tertullian, Armenian Christians were persecuted by kings Axidares, Khosrov I, and Tiridates III, ancient Armenias adoption of Christianity as a state religion has been referred to by Nina Garsoïan as probably the most crucial step in its history. This conversion distinguished it from its Iranian and Mazdean roots and protected it from further Parthian influence, other scholars as well have stated that the acceptance of Christianity by the Arsacid-Armenian rulers was partly in defiance of the Sassanids. When King Trdat IV made Christianity the state religion of Armenia between 301 and 314, it was not a new religion there. It had penetrated the country from at least the third century, Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the Armenian Church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated. Upon his return, Gregory tore down shrines to idols, built churches and monasteries, while meditating in the old capital city of Vagharshapat, Gregory had a vision of Christ descending to the earth and striking it with a hammer. From that spot arose a great Christian temple with a huge cross and he was convinced that God intended him to build the main Armenian church there. With the kings help he did so in accord with his vision and he renamed the city Etchmiadzin, which means the place of the descent of the only-begotten. Initially the Armenian church participated in the church world. Its Catholicos was represented at the First Council of Nicea and the First Council of Constantinople, although unable to attend the Council of Ephesus, the Catholicos Isaac Parthiev sent a message agreeing with its decisions. Christianity was strengthened in Armenia in the 5th century by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the theologian, monk. Before the 5th century, Armenians had a language
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Syriac Orthodox Church
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The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, or Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Eastern Mediterranean. Employing the Divine Liturgy of Saint James with Syriac as its official and liturgical language, the church is led by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius Aphrem II since 2014, seated in Bab Tuma, Damascus, Syria. The Syriac Orthodox Church belongs to the Oriental Orthodoxy, a full communion of churches since the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Around 825, many Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India, affirmed allegiance to the Syriac Orthodox Church, however, another part of clergy gained permission from the Ottoman authorities in Istanbul to reestablish the Syriac Orthodox Church soon after. The churchs present circa 5 million members are divided in 26 archdioceses and its original area is present-day Syria, Turkey, or Iraq. The churchs Levantine ethno-religious identity has been a matter of controversy since the 20th century, many refer to these as ethnic Syriacs or Assyrians, while other advocate the term Arameans. The Syriac Orthodox Church participates in discussions, being a member of the World Council of Churches since 1960. Due mainly to persecution throughout the centuries, a diaspora has spread from the Levant throughout the world, notably in Sweden, Germany, United States, Canada, Guatemala, Brazil, and Australia. The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch claims the status as the most ancient Christian church in the world, according to Saint Luke, The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch. As Jewish Christianity originated at Jerusalem, so gentile Christianity started at Antioch, then the center of the Hellenistic East, with Peter. 70 and 130, were out from Jerusalem and Palestine into Syria. When Saint Peter left Antioch, Evodios and Ignatius presided over the Patriarchate of Antioch, because of the significance attributed to Saint Ignatius in the Syriac Orthodox Church, almost all of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs since 1293 have been named Ignatius. Until 498, this church accepted the authority of the Patriarch of Antioch. The church also maintained a smaller church under a Catholicos, known by the title Maphryono. The Christological controversies that followed the Council of Chalcedon in 451 resulted in a struggle for the Patriarchate between those who accepted and those who rejected the Council. In 518, Patriarch Severus of Antioch was exiled from the city of Antioch, on account of many historical upheavals and consequent hardships which the church had to undergo, the Patriarchate was transferred to different monasteries in Mesopotamia for centuries. In about 1160 its seat was transferred from Antioch to the Mor Hananyo Monastery, in southeastern Turkey near Mardin and they reestablished themselves in Homs, Syria due to an adverse political situation in Turkey. In 1959 it was transferred to Damascus, where it currently resides
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Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
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The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church is an Oriental Orthodox church with its headquarters in Asmara, Eritrea. Its autocephaly was recognised by Pope Shenouda III of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria after Eritrea gained its independence in 1993, tewaḥido is a Geez word meaning being made one, cognate to Arabic tawhid. This separate Christian communion came to be known as Oriental Orthodoxy and these Churches themselves describe their Christology as miaphysite, but outsiders often incorrectly describe them as monophysite. Tewahedo Orthodoxy is an ethnoreligious group in Eritrea and the largest Christian group there. Christianity has been the majority religion since the 4th century and remains still the largest population, historically, they spoke Geez, which belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. However, the language is now almost extinct, and has been limited to liturgical use since the 10th century. Most also adhere to the Tewahdo Orthodox Church, Tewahdo is an identity and a religion as well for the adherent of Eritrean Tewahdos. The Eritrean Orthodox Church claims its origins from Philip the Evangelist and it became the state church of the Kingdom of Aksum under Ezana in the 4th century through the efforts of a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known in the church as Abba Selama, Kesate Birhan. As a boy, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast, the brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and converted Emperor Ezana to Christianity, causing him to be baptised. Ezana sent Frumentius to Alexandria to ask the Patriarch, Athanasius of Alexandria, Athanasius appointed Frumentius himself, who returned to Axum as Bishop with the name of Abune Selama. For fifteen centuries afterward, the pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria always named a Copt to be Abuna metropolitan bishop of the Ethiopian Church, little else is known of church history down to the period of Jesuit influence, which broke the connection with Egypt. Union with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria continued even after Arab conquests in Egypt, abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, until Al Hakim stopped the practice. Coptic patriarch Cyril II sent Severus as bishop, with orders to suppress the practice of polygamy and these examples show the close relations of the two churches concurrent with the Middle Ages. Early in the 16th century the church was brought under the influence of a Portuguese mission, in 1507 Matthew, an Armenian, had been sent as Ethiopian envoy to Portugal to ask aid against the Adal Sultanate. In 1520 an embassy under Rodrigo de Lima landed in Ethiopia, an account of the Portuguese mission, which remained for several years, was written by the chaplain, Francisco Álvares. Later, Ignatius of Loyola wished to essay the task of conversion, instead, the pope sent out João Nunes Barreto as Patriarch of the East Indies, with Andrés de Oviedo as bishop, and from Goa envoys went to Ethiopia. After repeated failures, some measure of success was achieved under Susenyos I and he then expelled the Society of Jesus in 1633, and in 1665 Fasilides ordered all Jesuit books be burned. In the 1920s the Italian colonial power in Eritrea started the first attempts to found a separate Eritrean Orthodox Church
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Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church
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The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church also known as Indian Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church centered in the Indian state of Kerala. It is one of the churches of Indias Saint Thomas Christian community, the church is headed by the autocephalous Catholicos of the East and the Malankara Metropolitan, presently Baselios Mar Thoma Paulose II. It is believed that Saint Thomas Christians of Malabar were in communion with the Church of the East from 496 to 1599. They got episcopal support from Persian bishops, who traveled to Kerala in merchant ships through spice route and ruled by a hereditary local chief called an Archdeacon from Pakalomattam family. Saint Thomas Christians were administratively under the single native dynastic leadership of an Archdeacon and were in communion with the Church of the East, centered in Persia, the indigenous Church of Malabar/Malankara followed the faith and traditions handed over by the Apostle St. Thomas. During 16th century, the Portuguese Jesuits began deliberate attempts to annex the native Christians to the Catholic Church, and in 1599 they succeeded through the Synod of Diamper. Resentment against these measures led the majority of the community under the Archdeacon Thomas to swear an oath never to submit to the Portuguese, known as the Coonan Cross Oath. The Malankara Church consolidated under Mar Thoma I welcomed Gregorios Abdal Jaleel, meanwhile, the Dutch East India Company defeated the Portuguese in supremacy of the spice trade in Malabar in 1663. The Malankara church used this opportunity to escape from Catholic persecution with the Dutch East India Companys help, at the request of the Malankara Church, the Dutch brought Gregorios Abdal Jaleel of Jerusalem, a Syrian Orthodox Church Bishop, in their trading vessel in 1665. Mar Thoma I forged a relationship with the Syriac Orthodox Church and gradually adopted West Syrian liturgy, while the spread of Christianity around the Mediterranean was led by apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, St. Thomas spread its message in the East. He preached in south India to a community of Jewish diaspora, native Dravidian majority, small groups of Jains, Buddhists. This Nasrani faith it is claimed had many similarities to ancient Judaism, Malankara Nazranies formulated a script to write Syriac-Malayalam after making certain changes in Syriac script. Despite many competing faiths, St. Thomas Christians held to their creed until the arrival of Portuguese missionaries in the 16th century, in 1601, Menezes consecrated Fr. Francis Roz as bishop of Angamaly, which marked the beginning of Roman Catholic hierarchy in Malankara. In 1652 Mar Ahatallah, a prelate from Syria, reached Mylapore near present-day Chennai, in 1653, under the leadership of, Nazranis gathered at Mattancherry church in Mattancherry, Cochin on 3 January 1653, and swore an oath known as the Coonen Cross Oath. As large number people were holding the rope, the cross bent a little and they wanted to combat the aggressive Portuguese padroado rule and regain spiritual and administrative autonomy for the Church. Hence later on 22 May 1653 at St Marys Church Alangad,12 elderly priests laid hands on Archdeacon Thomas and they appealed to several eastern Christian churches to defend their faith from Latin intrusion. Mar Gregorios of Jerusalem regularized Mar Thoma I as the Metropolitan, due to widespread complaints against Jesuits in Malankara, Rome sent Carmelites in two groups from the Propagation of the Faith to Malabar headed by Fr. They gradually gained support, especially with the help of Palliveettil Mar Chandy Kathanar, according to Jesuit reports they succeeded in wooing three of the four advisors of Mar Thoma I
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Holy See of Cilicia
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The Armenian Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia is a hierarchal see of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Since 1930, the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia has been headquartered in Antelias, aram I is the Catholicos of Cilicia of the Armenian Apostolic Church since 1995. First Sis era, 267-301, According to the order of Catholicoi, in 485 AD, the Catholicosate was transferred to the new capital of Armenia Dvin. The origin of the Armenian Church dates back to the Apostolic age and according to the ancient tradition was established by St. Thaddeus, in 301 AD, Christianity was officially accepted by the Armenians as the state religion. St. St. Gregory the Illuminator became the organizer of the Armenian Church hierarchy, from that time, the heads of the Armenian Church have been called Catholicos and still hold the same title. St. Gregory chose as the site of the Catholicosate then the city of Vagharshapat. He built the residence next to the church called Holy Mother of God. In 485 AD, the Catholicosate was transferred to the new capital Dvin, in the 10th century it moved from Dvin to Dzoravank and then to Aghtamar, to Arghina and to Ani. After the fall of Ani and the Armenian Kingdom of Bagradits in 1045, the Catholicosate, together with the people, settled there. The seat of the church was first established in Sivas moving to Tavbloor, then to Dzamendav, Dzovk, Hromgla, and finally in Sis, the capital of the Cilician Kingdom. After the fall of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, in 1375, the Church also assumed the role of leadership. This national responsibility considerably broadened the scope of the Churchs mission, in 1441, a new Catholicos of All Armenians was elected in Holy Etchmiadzin in the person of Kirakos I Virapetsi of Armenia. At the same time the retiring Catholicos in Sis Gregory IX Mousabegian remained as the Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia, the Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians resides in the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. The city of Sis was the center of the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia for more than six centuries, the monastery of St. Sophia of Sis, home of the Catholicosate, dominates the town in early 20th-century photographs. During the Armenian Genocide, in 1915, the Armenian population in Cilicia was mostly destroyed, the last Catholicos to reside in Sis was Sahak II. In 1921, after renewed massacres of Armenians in Cilicia by Kemalist Turkey, Sahak II, with the surviving Armenian population, Sahak II after leaving the premises of the Catholicosate in Sis stayed at various locations in Northern Syria and in Lebanon, running the affairs of the Catholicosate. In 1922 the American Committee for Relief in the Near East established an orphanage in Antilias for survivors of the genocide, the foundation also agreed to contribute $6000-$7000 yearly towards running costs. The first mass in the Catholicosates seminary at Antelias took place on Sunday, using donations from Simon and Mathilde Kayekjian, the Catholicosate eventually purchased the property and land that housed the Catholicosate in Antelias
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Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople
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The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople is an autonomous See which recognizes the primacy of the Catholicos of All Armenians, the supreme head of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The seat of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople is the Surp Asdvadzadzin Patriarchal Church in the Kumkapı neighborhood of Istanbul, the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople also known as Armenian Patriarch of Istanbul is today head of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. During the Byzantine period, the Armenian Apostolic Church had not been allowed to operate in Constantinople because the two churches mutually regarded each other as heretical, after conquering Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire allowed the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople to stay in the city. But Sultan Mehmed II asked the Armenians to establish their own church in the new Ottoman capital, from then on the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople acted as superior religious institution in the Ottoman Empire, even standing over the Armenian Catholicos. For a short period, the Syriac Orthodox Church was also placed under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Patriarchate, the first Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople was Hovakim I, who was at the time the Metropolitan of Bursa. In 1461, he was brought to Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II, Hovakim I was recognized as the religious and secular leader of all Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, and carried the title of milletbaşı or ethnarch as well as patriarch. However like the Greek Patriarchate, the Armenians suffered severely from intervention by the state in their internal affairs, although there have been 115 pontificates since 1461, there have only been 84 individual Patriarchs. In 1861, a constitution was granted to Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Abdülaziz. In 1896 Patriarch Madteos III was deposed and exiled to Jerusalem by Sultan Abdülhamid II for boldly denouncing the 1896 massacre, the constitution governing the Armenians was suspended by the Sultan. The Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople Madteos III was permitted to return to Istanbul in 1908 when Sultan Abdulhamid II was deposed by the Young Turks, the new Turkish administration also restored the constitution. In the initial period of the reign of the Young Turks, the Armenian community of Turkey in 1915 was accordingly decimated by mass deportations and killings. The inability of Turkey to acknowledge these events has been a source of significant angst among Armenians worldwide for the past hundred years, prior to 1915, almost two million Armenians lived in Turkey, today less than 100,000 reside there. With this backdrop of turmoil for Armenians, the post of the Patriarch remained vacant from 1915 to 1919 and it was restored for a brief period from 1919 to 1922 with Patriarch Zaven I Der Yeghiayan residing. Four Armenian Patriarchs served under the rule of the Young Turks, despite a huge diminution in the number of its faithful during the Armenian Genocide, the patriarchate remains the spiritual head of the largest Christian community presently living in Turkey. Today, the Armenian Patriarchs are recognized as the head of the Armenian Apostolic Church in Turkey, five Armenian Patriarchs have served after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. The synod of the Patriarchate has designated, with the votes of 25 of its 26 members, some members of the Armenian community of Turkey criticised this move and asked for the election of a new Patriarch by universal suffrage instead. At last, the decided to retire the Patriarch Mesrob II Mutafyan on October 26,2016. The Patriarchate publishes a review in Armenian called Shoghagat, containing theological, liturgical, historical and cultural articles
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Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem
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The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem also known as the Armenian Patriarchate of Sts. James is located in the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem, the Armenian Apostolic Church is officially recognised under Israels confessional system, for the self-regulation of status issues, such as marriage and divorce. Manougian succeeded Archbishop Torkom Manoogian, who died on October 12,2012 after serving 22 years in the office, the Patriarch, along with a Synod of seven clergymen elected by the St. James Brotherhood, oversees the Patriarchates operations. As a result of the Genocide on Armenians by Turkey during World War I, the Armenian population of Jerusalem reached at that time 25,000 people. But political and economic instability in the region have reduced the Armenian population, most Armenians in Jerusalem live in and around the Patriarchate at the Sts. James Monastery, which occupies most of the Armenian Quarter of the Old City, apart from Jerusalem, there are Armenian Communities in Jaffa, Haifa and Nazareth, and in the Palestinian Territories. The Jerusalem Armenian community uses the Julian calendar, unlike the rest of the Armenian Church which use the Gregorian calendar, in 638, after Saint Sophronius died and the Greeks did not appoint another bishop for Jerusalem, the Armenian Apostolic Church began appointing its own bishops for Jerusalem. The office has continued, with interruptions, down to this day. The Bishops were later elevated in stature and became Patriarchs, the Armenian Patriarch is independent and self-governing. The Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem is therefore not under the authority of the Catholicos of Armenia. After the end of the Crusader period, the Armenian Patriarchs sought to establish relations with the Muslim rulers. The Armenian Patriarch Sarkis I met the Mamluk governor in Egypt and subsequently returned to his community in Jerusalem, in the 1340s the Armenians were permitted to build a wall around their quarter. The Mamluk government also engraved a protective declaration in Arabic on the entrance to the quarter. The Armenian quarter in this period kept creating facts on the ground by the constant small expansions and consolidations, in the 1380s Patriarch Krikor IV built a priests dining room across from the St. James Cathedral. Around 1415 the olive grove near the Garden of Gethsemane was purchased, in 1439, Armenians were removed from the Golgotha chapel, but the Patriarch Mardiros I purchased the “opposite area” and named it second Golgotha. This remains in the Patriarchs possession to this day, at times, the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem became politicized by struggles within the Armenian Church. Significantly Bishop Eghiazar assumed the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem and in 1644 declared himself for a period of time as Catholicos of all the Armenian church. In the 17th century, the Armenians were allowed after much pleading to enlarge the St. James Monastery, at the same time the Armenian Patriarch Hovhannes VII purchased a large parcel of land south of the St. James Cathedral, called “Cham Tagh”
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Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church
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The Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church, officially known as Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, is an integral branch of the Syriac Orthodox Church centered in Kerala, India. It recognizes the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch, currently Ignatius Aphrem II and it functions as a largely autonomous unit within the church, under the authority of the Catholicos of India, currently Baselios Thomas I. Its members are part of the Saint Thomas Christian community, which traces its origins to the activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. Thomas the Apostle reached India in AD52 and got followers from prominent families in Kerala, in AD345 Knai Thoma along with 72 Syrian Families and Clergymen arrived Kerala and mark the beginning of Knanaya Syrian Ethnicity in Kerala. In AD825 arrival of two bishops Mar Sabor and Mar Aproth enhanced the relationship between Saint Thomas Christians and the Church of the East, the local administration of the early Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala was done by archdeacons in the absence of a bishop. Archdeacons used to request for prelates from the Church of the East, from the 16th century the Portuguese Jesuits attempted to forcefully bring the community into the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. In 1653, Mar Ahatallah came to Malankara and he was a Syrian Bishop who had converted to Catholicism. He was captured by the Portuguese enroute and was taken to Madras, resentment of these measures lead a part of the community to join the Archdeacon, Thomas, in swearing never to submit to the Portuguese in the Coonan Cross Oath in 1653. The part of the church that resists the Latin power is known as the Malankara Syrian Church, the decisions taken by the Synod of Mulamthuruthy known as Mulanthuruthy Padiyola, is the most important historical document and the early constitution of the Malankara Syrian Church. In 1934 after the death of Mar Divanyasious VI Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs Ignatius Elias III consecrated Paulose Mar Athanasius as the Malankara Metropolitan. At the same time Mar Themothiose Augen I left that faction, the headquarters of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church in India is situated near the St. Peters and St. Pauls Jacobite Syrian church Puthencruz. As part of the Syriac Orthodox communion, the uses the West Syrian liturgy and is part of the Oriental Orthodox group of churches. It has dioceses in most parts of India as well as in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Western Europe, in 2003 it was estimated that the church has 1,200,000 members globally. The Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church has been known by several names during its existence, other variants include Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church, and Jacobite Syrian Church. Puthencruz is the headquarters of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church in India, the headquarters is situated near the St. Peters and St. Pauls Jacobite Syrian church. Its headquarters is named after the illustrious Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, the Catholicossate chapel is named after Poulose Mar Athanasius of Aluva and under the chapel is situated the space for tombs for the use of future Catholicos of the church. An Arts and Science college named after Mar Athanasius of Aluva is also run in the premises of the Zakka centre. It is the place where Akhila Malankara Suvisesha Yogam, the official gospel convention of the community, Thomas the Apostle is credited by tradition for founding the Indian Church in 52 AD
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