1.
Honours of Wales
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The Honours of the Principality of Wales are the regalia used at the investiture of Princes of Wales, made up of a coronet, a ring, a rod, a sword, a girdle, and a mantle. All but the date from the investiture of Prince Edward in 1911 when most of the Honours of Wales were redesigned. Within the frame, which is made of gold, is a velvet cap lined with ermine. The present coronet was made for the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales in 1969 as the Coronet of George was still in the possession of the Duke of Windsor who was living in exile in France. The defunct coronet and its predecessor the Coronet of Frederick are now a part of the Crown Jewels in the Jewel House at the Tower of London, the original coronets as worn by the Welsh rulers of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and other Welsh principalities have been lost. Llywelyns coronet was seized by the king of England in 1284 and is only to history. The fates of the coronets of the rulers of the princely states. The regalia were on display at the National Museum of Wales from 1974 until 2011 when they were put into storage at St Jamess Palace, London. Investiture of the Prince of Wales Honours of the Principality of Wales at the Royal Family website The Prince of Waless Coronet at the Royal Collection, Prince of Waless Investiture Sword at the Royal Collection
2.
Coronet
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A coronet is a small crown consisting of ornaments fixed on a metal ring. By one definition, a coronet differs from a crown in that a coronet never has arches, by a slightly different definition, a crown is worn by an emperor, empress, king or queen, a coronet by a nobleman or lady. The word stems from the Old French coronete, a diminutive of coronne, itself from the Latin corona, other than a crown, a coronet shows the rank of the respective noble. Hence, in German and Scandinavian languages there is also the term Rangkrone, for equivalents, both physical and emblematic, in other languages and cultures, see under crown. The main use is now actually not on the head but as a symbol in heraldry. In the United Kingdom, a peer wears his or her coronet on one occasion only, for a royal coronation, when it is worn along with coronation robes, equally standardised as a luxurious uniform. In the peerages of the United Kingdom, the design of a coronet shows the rank of its owner, as in German, French, dukes were the first individuals authorised to wear coronets. Marquesses acquired coronets in the 15th century, earls in the 16th and viscounts, until the barons received coronets in 1661, the coronets of earls, marquesses and dukes were engraved while those of viscounts were plain. After 1661, however, viscomital coronets became engraved, while baronial coronets were plain, Coronets may not bear any precious or semi-precious stones. In Canadian heraldry, descendants of the United Empire Loyalists are entitled to use a Loyalist military coronet or Loyalist civil coronet in their arms, Members of the British Royal Family often have coronets on their coats of arms, and may wear actual coronets at coronations. They were made, according to regulations made by King Charles II in 1661 and they vary depending upon the princes relationship to the monarch. Occasionally, additional royal warrants vary the designs for individuals, the most recent royal warrant concerning coronets was the 19 November 1917 warrant of George V. Rather than a coronet, the heir apparent receives a crown with a single arch, there is evidence to support the wearing of coronets amongst Welsh royalty and nobility, particularly in the Kingdom of Gwynedd. Llywelyns coronet was for a while kept with the English crown jewels, some distinguished families held no higher title than count or even baron, but were proud of their ancient origin. As an example, the title of Marquis ranks in principle immediately after Duke, titles continued to be granted until the Second Empire fell in 1870, and legally survive among their descendants. As a result, the title of duc was actually, as well as nominally, at the top of the scale after the family and foreign princes. Prince, this was not a title in Old Regime France, dauphin, initially an open crown of fleurs-de-lis, starting with Henri IVs son, the crown is closed with dolphins instead of arches. Fils de France et Petit-Fils de France, open coronet of fleurs-de-lis, prince du Sang, first a coronet alternating fleurs-de-lis and acanthus leaves, e. g. on François de Montpensiers coinage in Dombes, c
3.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
4.
Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
5.
Louis Osman
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Louis Osman was an English artist, architect, goldsmith, silversmith and medallist. He is notable for the crown he designed and made for the investiture in 1969 of Charles. His work as a goldsmith puts him amongst the top artists in his field with his valuable and important works held in church, civic and he was the son of Charles Osman of Exeter, Devon. He was educated at Hele’s School in Exeter, in the 1930s he attended the Bartlett School of Architecture, part of University College London,1931, and also the Slade School of Art. He was a Donaldson Medallist of RIBA in 1935, the winner of this medal is selected by the Bartlett School of Architecture to the student who graduates top of the class at Part I. During the Second World War he was a Major in the Intelligence Corps serving with the Combined Operations Headquarters and he also served on the Beach Reconnaissance Committee prior to Normandy landings on 6 June 1944. In the late 1930s he took part in the British Museum and he also designed private and public buildings. After war service he worked in London designing buildings, furniture, tapestries and he also did work for the National Trust at Staunton Harold Church in Ashby de la Zouch. During the 1970s he and his wife lived at Canons Ashby House in Northamptonshire, whilst there, he made the crown, with his enamelist wife, which was used at the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales. In 1976, they made the gold enameled casket holding the Magna Carta on view in the United States Capitol, Washington. In 1940 he married Dilys Roberts of Rotherfield, East Sussex, restoration and improvements to numbers 11-14, a Convent and installation of Epsteins Madonna and Child statue
6.
Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths
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The Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths is one of the Great Twelve Livery Companies of the City of London. The Company, which originates from the century, received a Royal Charter in 1327. Its motto is Justitia Virtutum Regina, Latin for Justice is Queen of Virtues, the Goldsmiths Company founded a London Technical and Recreative Institute in 1891, which is better known nowadays as Goldsmiths, University of London. The Company was established as a guild for the goldsmith trade. Only those clothed with the livery of the Company were licensed to trade such precious commodities within the bounds of the City, whilst this arrangement maintained standards, it also became restrictive in an ever increasing global market. The word hallmarking derives from the fact that metals were officially inspected and marked at Goldsmiths Hall. Today, the Company is one of the few Livery Companies still to play a role in its ancient trade. At the Trial of the Pyx, the Goldsmiths Company is also responsible for checking the validity of British coinage, in 2012 Goldsmiths’ Centre, a space for workshops, exhibitions and events, and education including apprentice training, opened in Clerkenwell. Harache family The Goldsmiths Company The Goldsmiths Centre
7.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
8.
St James's Palace
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St Jamess Palace is the most senior royal palace in the United Kingdom. Built by King Henry VIII on the site of a hospital dedicated to Saint James the Less. The palace increased in importance during the reigns of the early Georgian monarchy, after decades of being used increasingly for only formal occasions, the move was formalised by Queen Victoria in 1837. Today the palace houses a number of offices, societies and collections and all ambassadors. Mainly built between 1531 and 1536 in red-brick, the architecture is primarily Tudor in style. A fire in 1809 destroyed parts of the structure, including the private apartments. Some 17th-century interiors survive, but most were remodelled in the 19th century, the palace was commissioned by Henry VIII, on the site of a former leper hospital dedicated to Saint James the Less. The new palace, secondary in the kings interest to Henrys Whitehall Palace, was constructed between 1531 and 1536 as a residence to escape formal court life. Much smaller than the nearby Whitehall, St Jamess was arranged around a number of courtyards, including the Colour Court, the Ambassadors Court and it is decorated with the initials H. A. for Henry and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry constructed the palace in red brick, with picked out in darker brick. The palace was remodelled in 1544, with ceilings painted by Hans Holbein, two of Henry VIIIs children died at Saint Jamess, Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset and Mary I. Elizabeth I often resided at the palace, and is said to have spent the night there while waiting for the Spanish Armada to sail up the Channel, in 1638, Charles I gave the palace to Marie de Medici, the mother of his wife Henrietta Maria. Marie remained in the palace for three years, but the residence of a Catholic former queen of France proved unpopular with parliament, Charles I spent his final night at St Jamess before his execution. Oliver Cromwell then took it over, and turned it into barracks during the English Commonwealth period, Charles II, James II, Mary II and Anne were all born at the palace. The palace was restored by Charles II following the demise of the Commonwealth, the first two monarchs of the House of Hanover used St Jamess Palace as their principal London residence. George I and George II both housed their mistresses, the Duchess of Kendal and the Countess of Suffolk respectively, at the palace. In 1757, George II donated the Palace library to the British Museum, in 1809, a fire destroyed part of the palace, including the monarchs private apartments at the south east corner. These apartments were not replaced, leaving the Queens Chapel in isolation, George III found St Jamess increasingly unsuitable
9.
Edward VIII
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Edward VIII was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire, and Emperor of India, from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December the same year. Edward was the eldest son of George V and Mary of Teck and he was named Prince of Wales on his sixteenth birthday, nine weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, he served in the British Army during the First World War, Edward became king on his fathers death in early 1936. However, he showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, he caused a crisis by proposing marriage to Wallis Simpson. When it became apparent that he could not marry Wallis and remain on the throne and he was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the monarchs in British history. After his abdication, he was created Duke of Windsor and he married Wallis in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Germany, after the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in retirement in France. Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park and he was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York. His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales and his mother was the eldest daughter of Francis and Mary Adelaide, Duke and Duchess of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne and he was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury. The names were chosen in honour of Edwards late uncle, who was known to his family as Eddy or Edward and he was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David. As was common practice with children of the time, Edward. One of Edwards early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents and his subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away. The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, Edwards father, though a harsh disciplinarian, was demonstrably affectionate, and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master, initially Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. Upon his parents return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who brought up Edward and his brothers
10.
Exile
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To be in exile means to be away from ones home, while either being explicitly refused permission to return or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return. It can be a form of punishment and solitude and it is common to distinguish between internal exile, i. e. forced resettlement within the country of residence, and external exile, which is deportation outside the country of residence. Although most commonly used to describe a situation, the term is also used for groups. Exile can also be a departure from ones homeland. Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. In some cases the head of state is allowed to go into exile following a coup or other change of government. A wealthy citizen who departs from an abode for a lower tax jurisdiction in order to reduce his/her tax burden is termed a tax exile. Creative people such as authors and musicians who achieve sudden wealth sometimes find themselves among this group, in 2012, Eduardo Saverin, one of the founders of Facebook, made headlines by renouncing his U. S. citizenship before his companys IPO. In some cases a person lives in exile to avoid legal issues. For example, nuns were exiled following the Communist coup détat of 1948 in Czechoslovakia, many Jewish prayers include a yearning to return to Jerusalem and the Jewish homeland. The entire population of Crimean Tatars that remained in their homeland Crimea was exiled on 18 May 1944 to Central Asia as a form of ethnic cleansing and collective punishment on false accusations. At Diego Garcia, between 1967 and 1973 the British Government forcibly removed some 2,000 Chagossian resident islanders to make way for a military base today jointly operated by the US, since the Cuban Revolution over one million Cubans have left Cuba. Most of these self-identify as exiles as their motivation for leaving the island is political in nature, most of the exiles children also consider themselves to be Cuban exiles. It is to be noted that under Cuban law, children of Cubans born abroad are considered Cuban citizens, during a foreign occupation or after a coup détat, a government in exile of a such afflicted country may be established abroad. Exile is a motif in ancient Greek tragedy. In the ancient Greek world, this was seen as a worse than death. The motif reaches its peak on the play Medea, written by Euripides in the fifth century BC, euripides’ Medea has remained the most frequently performed Greek tragedy through the 20th century. After Medea was abandoned by Jason and had become a murderer out of revenge, she fled to Athens and married king Aigeus there, due to a conflict with him, she must leave the Polis and go away into exile
11.
Duke of Windsor
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Duke of Windsor was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 8 March 1937, for the Prince Edward, former King Edward VIII, the dukedom takes its name from the town where Windsor Castle, a residence of English monarchs since the time of Henry I, following the Norman Conquest, is situated. Windsor has been the name of the Royal Family since 1917. Edward had abdicated on 11 December 1936, so that he could marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson, at the time of the abdication, there was controversy as to how the ex-King should be titled. The new King George VI apparently brought up the idea of a title just after the instrument was signed. That declaration is recorded in the London Gazette, the Dukedom of Windsor became extinct on the death of its first and sole holder in 1972. The Duchess of Windsor died in 1986, as the Royal Arms go hand-in-hand with the crown, the undifferentiated Royal Arms passed to George VI. This was done by means of a label argent of three points, bearing on the point an imperial crown proper
12.
Edward VIII abdication crisis
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The marriage was opposed by the governments of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth. Religious, legal, political and moral objections were raised, as British monarch, Edward was the nominal head of the Church of England, which did not then allow divorced people to remarry in church if their ex-spouses were still alive. For this reason, it was believed that Edward could not marry Simpson. Simpson was perceived to be politically and socially unsuitable as a queen consort because of her two failed marriages. It was widely assumed by the Establishment that she was driven by love of money or position rather than love for the King, despite the opposition, Edward declared that he loved Simpson and intended to marry her whether his governments approved or not. The widespread unwillingness to accept Simpson as the Kings consort and Edwards refusal to give her up led to his abdication in December 1936 and they remained married until his death 35 years later. Edward had been introduced to Wallis Simpson, an American citizen and wife of British shipping executive Ernest Aldrich Simpson, Ernest Simpson was Walliss second husband, her first marriage, to U. S. Navy pilot Win Spencer, had ended in divorce in 1927. It is generally accepted that Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales became lovers in 1934, however, Edward adamantly insisted to his father that he was not physically intimate with Simpson and that it was inappropriate to describe her as his mistress. Edwards relationship with Simpson further weakened his poor relationship with his parents, although King George V and Queen Mary met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935, they later refused to receive her. The prospect of having an American divorcee with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures, Edward VIII succeeded his father on 20 January 1936, after which Simpson attended more official functions as the Kings guest. Despite her name appearing regularly in the Court Circular, the name of her husband was conspicuously absent, nevertheless, Canadians and expatriate Britons, who had access to the foreign reports, were largely scandalised by the coverage. By October, it was rumoured in high society and abroad that Edward intended to marry Simpson as soon as she was free to do so. At the end of month, the crisis came to a head when she filed for divorce. Judging by the letters from British subjects living in countries where the Press has been outspoken. Senior British ministers knew that Hardinge had written to the King, the King invited Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace the following Monday and informed him that he intended to marry Simpson. Baldwin replied that such a marriage would not be acceptable to the people, the Queen becomes the Queen of the country. Therefore in the choice of a Queen the voice of the people must be heard, baldwins view was shared by the Australian High Commissioner in London, Stanley Bruce, who was a former Australian prime minister. On the same day that Hardinge wrote to the King, Bruce met Hardinge and then wrote to Baldwin, some of us wish that he gave more positive signs of his awareness
13.
Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom
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Objects used to invest and crown the monarch variously denote his or her roles as Head of State, Supreme Governor of the Church of England, and Commander-in-Chief of the British Armed Forces. Wives of kings are crowned as queen consort with a set of regalia. Since 1831, a new crown has been made specially for each queen consort, the use of regalia by monarchs in Britain can be traced back to its early history. Most of the present collection as a whole dates from around 350 years ago when King Charles II ascended the throne. The medieval coronation regalia and Tudor state regalia had been sold or melted down by Oliver Cromwell. In addition to their use at coronations, a number of items are used at the annual State Opening of Parliament, royal christenings, weddings, and a few other state and religious occasions. When not in use, the Jewels are on display, mainly in the Jewel House. Although they are part of the Royal Collection and owned by the king or queen for the duration of his or her reign, following the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD, crowns and other symbols of authority continued to be used by the governors of Britain. By the 5th century, the Romans had withdrawn from Britain, and the Angles, a series of new kingdoms began to emerge. One of the used by regional kings to solidify their authority over their territories was the use of ceremony. The tomb of an unknown king – evidence suggests it may be Rædwald of East Anglia – at Sutton Hoo provides an insight into the regalia of a pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon king. He was also buried with a heavy stone sceptre, on top of which is an iron ring surmounted by the figure of a stag, a sword. In 597, a Benedictine monk had been sent by Pope Gregory I to start converting Pagan England to Christianity, the monk Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Within two centuries, the ritual of anointing monarchs with holy oil and crowning them in a Christian ceremony had been established, and regalia took on a religious identity. There was still no permanent set of regalia, each monarch generally had a new set made. Edward the Confessor is depicted on a throne and wearing a crown in the first scene of the Bayeux Tapestry, in 1066, Edward died without an heir, and William the Conqueror emerged as king of England following his victory over the English at the Battle of Hastings. Wearing a crown became an important part of William Is efforts to cement his authority over his new territory, in 1161, Edward the Confessor was made a saint, and objects connected with his reign became holy relics. A crown referred to as St Edwards Crown is first recorded as having used for the coronation of Henry III in 1220
14.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
15.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
16.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
17.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
18.
Half-arch (crown)
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A half-arch is the piece of gold, silver or platinum, usually decorated with jewels, that links the circlet of a hoop crown to the monde at the top of the crown. In contrast many European crowns traditionally contained more, as did some other British consort crowns. In addition, the British Imperial Crown of India was designed with eight half-arches to indicate the British monarchs claim to title in India. The Crown of Louis XV of France, reflecting the European norm, has eight half-arches, different crowns possess different shaped half arches. In some crowns, the half-arches dip down at the centre of the crown where they meet the globe, in some crowns, such as the British Imperial State Crown, the half-arches are detachable, allowing the crown to be worn as a circlet. Where a crown possesses arches or half-arches, the circlet of the crown below the arches or half-arches are usually filled with velvet or other cloth, different states and different crowns may possess different coloured cloth inlays. The most widely used colours for cloth infils are purple, as in the Crown of Queen Elizabeth and in St. Edwards Crown, however, not all crowns possess arches. Nor are arches to be found on the Iron Crown of Lombardy, the Russian coronation crown possesses two central half arches, with most of the rest of the crown covered in. A same feature occurs on the mediaeval Crown of Rudolf II used by the Austrian Empire in the 19th century, monarchy Enthronement Anna Keay, The Crown Jewels, Official Guidebook ISBN 1-873993-20-X
19.
Dukes in the United Kingdom
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Duke, in the United Kingdom, is the highest-ranking hereditary title in all four peerages of the British Isles. A duke thus outranks all other holders of titles of nobility. The wife of a duke is known as a duchess, which is also the title of a woman who holds a dukedom in her own right, referred to as a duchess suo jure, her husband, however, does not receive any title. A Royal Duke is a duke who is a member of the British Royal Family, entitled to the style of His Royal Highness. The British monarch also holds and is entitled to the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster, even when the monarch is a Queen regnant, she does not use the title of Duchess. The physical coronet is worn only at coronations, any peer can bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms above the shield
20.
Futurism
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Futurism was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth, and violence, and objects such as the car, the aeroplane, although it was largely an Italian phenomenon, there were parallel movements in Russia, England, Belgium and elsewhere. It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past, Cubism contributed to the formation of Italian Futurisms artistic style. Important Futurist works included Marinettis Manifesto of Futurism, Boccionis sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, to some extent Futurism influenced the art movements Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism. Futurism is a movement founded in Milan in 1909 by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. He was soon joined by the painters Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini, Marinetti expressed a passionate loathing of everything old, especially political and artistic tradition. We want no part of it, the past, he wrote, publishing manifestos was a feature of Futurism, and the Futurists wrote them on many topics, including painting, architecture, religion, clothing and cooking. The founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting. This committed them to a universal dynamism, which was to be represented in painting. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, the Futurist painters were slow to develop a distinctive style and subject matter. In 1910 and 1911 they used the techniques of Divisionism, breaking light and color down into a field of stippled dots and stripes, which had been originally created by Giovanni Segantini and others. Later, Severini, who lived in Paris, attributed their backwardness in style and method at this time to their distance from Paris, the centre of avant-garde art. Severini was the first to come into contact with Cubism and following a visit to Paris in 1911 the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists, Cubism offered them a means of analysing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. They often painted modern urban scenes, carràs Funeral of the Anarchist Galli is a large canvas representing events that the artist had himself been involved in, in 1904. The action of an attack and riot is rendered energetically with diagonals. His Leaving the Theatre uses a Divisionist technique to render isolated, Boccionis The City Rises represents scenes of construction and manual labour with a huge, rearing red horse in the centre foreground, which workmen struggle to control. The Futurists aimed through their art thus to enable the viewer to apprehend the inner being of what they depicted, Boccioni developed these ideas at length in his book, Pittura scultura Futuriste, Dinamismo plastico. Ballas Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash exemplifies the Futurists insistence that the world is in constant movement
21.
Monde
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A monde, meaning world in French, is an orb located near the top of a crown. It represents, as the name suggests, the world that the king rules and it is the point at which a crowns half arches meet. It is usually topped off either with a national or religious symbol, for example a cross in Christian countries
22.
Table tennis
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Table tennis, also known as ping pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball back and forth across a table using a small bat. The game takes place on a hard table divided by a net, a point is scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions, spinning the ball alters its trajectory and limits an opponents options, giving the hitter a great advantage. Table tennis is governed by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation, ITTF currently includes 220 member associations. The table tennis rules are specified in the ITTF handbook. Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988, with several event categories, from 1988 until 2004, these were mens singles, womens singles, mens doubles and womens doubles. Since 2008, an event has been played instead of the doubles. The sport originated in Victorian England, where it was played among the upper-class as a parlour game. It has been suggested that makeshift versions of the game were developed by British military officers in India in around 1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them. A row of books stood up along the center of the table as a net and it had several different names, including whiff-whaff. The name ping-pong was in use before British manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name ping-pong then came to describe the game played using the rather expensive Jaquess equipment, a similar situation arose in the United States, where Jaques sold the rights to the ping-pong name to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark for the term in the 1920s making the various associations change their names to table tennis instead of the more common, but trademarked, term. The next major innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British enthusiast of table tennis, who discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the game. This was followed by E. C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket by fixing a sheet of pimpled, or stippled, rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was growing in popularity by 1901 to the extent that tournaments were being organized, books being written on the subject, in 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded in Britain, and the International Table Tennis Federation followed in 1926. London hosted the first official World Championships in 1926, in 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was formed. In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that the Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War had a passion for the English game of table tennis which he found bizarre
23.
Scorpius
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Scorpius is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for scorpion, and its symbol is, Scorpius is one of the 48 constellations identified by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy in the second century. It is an ancient constellation that pre-dated the Greeks and it lies between Libra to the west and Sagittarius to the east. It is a constellation located in the southern hemisphere near the center of the Milky Way. Scorpius contains many stars, including Antares, rival of Mars, so named because of its distinct reddish hue, β1 Sco, a triple star, δ Sco, θ Sco, ν Sco, ξ Sco, π Sco, σ Sco. Marking the tip of the scorpions curved tail are λ Sco and υ Sco, given their proximity to one another, λ Sco and υ Sco are sometimes referred to as the Cats Eyes. The constellations bright stars form a pattern like a longshoremans hook, most of them are massive members of the nearest OB association, Scorpius-Centaurus. The star δ Sco, after having been a stable 2.3 magnitude star and it has since become a variable star fluctuating between 2.0 and 1.6. This means that at its brightest it is the second brightest star in Scorpius, U Scorpii is the fastest known nova with a period of about 10 years. ω¹ Scorpii and ω² Scorpii are a double, which can be resolved by the unaided eye. They have contrasting blue and yellow colours, the star once designated γ Sco is today known as σ Lib. The division into Libra was formalised during Roman times, Messier 80 is a globular cluster of magnitude 7.3,33,000 light-years from Earth. It is a compact Shapley class II cluster, the classification indicates that it is highly concentrated, m80 was discovered in 1781 by Charles Messier. It was the site of a discovery in 1860 when Arthur von Auwers discovered the nova T Scorpii. NGC6302, also called the Bug Nebula, is a planetary nebula. NGC6334, also known as the Cats Paw Nebula, is an emission nebula, in Greek mythology, the myths associated with Scorpio almost invariably also contain a reference to Orion. According to one of these myths it is written that Orion boasted to goddess Artemis and her mother, Leto, although Artemis was known to be a hunter herself she offered protection to all creatures. Artemis and her mother Leto sent a scorpion to deal with Orion, the pair battled and the scorpion killed Orion
24.
Astrological sign
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In Western astrology, astrological signs are the twelve 30° sectors of the ecliptic, starting at the vernal equinox, also known as the First Point of Aries. The order of the signs is Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius. The concept of the zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology, and was influenced by Hellenistic culture. According to astrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of as above, so below, beyond the celestial bodies, other astrological points that are dependent on geographical location and time are also referenced within this ecliptic coordinate system. Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiacs names, Western astrology measures from Equinox and Solstice points, while Jyotiṣa or Vedic astrology measures along the equatorial plane. In Western and Indian astrology, the emphasis is on space, in Chinese astrology, by contrast, the emphasis is on time, with the zodiac operating on cycles of years, months, and hours of the day. A common feature of all three traditions however, is the significance of the Ascendant — the zodiac sign that is rising on the horizon at the moment of a persons birth. While Western astrology is essentially a product of Greco-Roman culture, some of its basic concepts originated in Babylonia. Isolated references to signs in Sumerian sources are insufficient to speak of a Sumerian zodiac. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction, by the 4th century BC, Babylonians astronomy and their system of celestial omens were influencing the Greek culture and, by the late 2nd century BC, Egyptian astrology was also mixing in. Association of the signs with Empedocles four classical elements was another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs. The following table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude, with the Latin names and the English translation. The longitude intervals, being a division, are closed for the first endpoint and open for the second — for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus. Association of calendar dates with astrological signs only makes sense when referring to Sun sign astrology, Empedocles, a fifth-century BC Greek philosopher, identified Fire, Earth, Air, and Water as elements. Different mixtures of these produced the different natures of things. Empedocles said that those who were born with equal proportions of the four elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions. The four astrological elements are considered as a direct equivalent to Hippocrates personality types. A modern approach looks at elements as the substance of experience
25.
Velvet
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Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctive feel. By extension, the word velvety means smooth like velvet, Velvet can be made from either synthetic or natural fibers. Velvet is woven on a loom that weaves two thicknesses of the material at the same time. The two pieces are cut apart to create the pile effect, and the two lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls. This complicated process meant that velvet was expensive to make before industrial power looms became available, Velvet is difficult to clean because of its pile, but modern dry cleaning methods make cleaning more feasible. Velvet pile is created by warp or vertical yarns and velveteen pile is created by weft or fill yarns, Velvet can be made from several different kinds of fibers, traditionally, the most expensive of which is silk. Much of the velvet sold today as silk velvet is actually a mix of rayon, Velvet made entirely from silk is rare and usually has market prices of several hundred US dollars per yard. Cotton is also used to make velvet, though this results in a less luxurious fabric. Velvet can also be made from such as linen, mohair. A cloth made by the Kuba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo from raffia is often referred to as Kuba velvet. More recently, synthetic velvets have been developed, mostly from polyester, nylon, viscose, acetate, a small percentage of spandex is sometimes added to give the final material a certain amount of stretch. Because of its softness and appearance as well as its high cost of production. Velvet was introduced to Baghdad during the rule of Harun al-Rashid by Kashmiri merchants, in the Mamluk era, Cairo was the worlds largest producer of velvet. Much of it was exported to Venice, Al-Andalus and the Mali Empire, musa I of Mali, the ruler of the Mali Empire, visited Cairo on his pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Arab velvet makers accompanied him back to Timbuktu, later Ibn Battuta mentions how Suleyman, the ruler of Mali, wore a locally produced complete crimson velvet caftan on Eid. During the reign of Mehmed II, assistant cooks wore blue-coloured dresses, conical hats, king Richard II of England directed in his will that his body should be clothed in velveto in 1399. Chiffon velvet, Very lightweight velvet on a silk or rayon chiffon base. Ciselé, Velvet where the pile uses cut and uncut loops to create a pattern, crushed, This type of velvet can be produced by pressing the fabric down in different directions
26.
Stoat
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Originally from Eurasia, it crossed into North America some half million years ago, where it naturalized and joined the notably larger closely related native long-tailed weasel. The name ermine is often, but not always, used for the stoat in its white winter coat. In the late 19th century, stoats were introduced into New Zealand to control rabbits, the stoat is classed by the IUCN as least concern, due to its wide circumpolar distribution, and because it does not face any significant threat to its survival. It was nominated as one of the worlds top 100 worst invaders, Ermine luxury fur was used in the 15th century by Catholic monarchs, who sometimes used it as the mozzetta cape. It was also used in capes on images such as the Infant Jesus of Prague, the root word for stoat is likely either the Dutch word stout or the Gothic word stautan. This seems to come from the Lithuanian word šarmu, in Ireland, the stoat is referred to as a weasel, while in North America it is called a short-tailed weasel. A male stoat is called a dog, hob, or jack, the collective noun for stoats is either gang or pack. The stoat is the product of a process begun 5–7 million years ago, the stoats ancestors were larger than the current form, and underwent a reduction in size as they exploited the new food source. The stoat first arose in Eurasia, shortly after the long-tailed weasel arose as its image in North America 2 million years ago. The stoat thrived during the Ice Age, as its size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow. The stoat and the long-tailed weasel remained separated until half a million years ago, combined phylogenetic analyses indicate the stoats closest living relative is the mountain weasel, though it is also closely related to the least weasel and long-tailed weasel. Its next closest relatives are the New World Colombian weasel and the Amazon weasel, as of 2005,37 subspecies are recognized. The stoat has a neck, the head being set exceptionally far in front of the shoulders. The trunk is cylindrical, and does not bulge at the abdomen. The greatest circumference of body is more than half its length. The skull, although similar to that of the least weasel, is relatively longer. The projections of the skull and teeth are developed. The eyes are round, black and protrude slightly, the whiskers are brown or white in colour, and very long
27.
Fleur-de-lis
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The fleur-de-lis or flower-de-luce is a stylized lily that is used as a decorative design or symbol. Many of the saints are depicted with a lily, most prominently St. Joseph. The fleur-de-lis is represented in Unicode at U+269C in the Miscellaneous Symbols block and it remains an enduring symbol of France that appears on French postage stamps, although it has never been adopted officially by any of the French republics. According to French historian Georges Duby, the three represent the medieval social classes, those who worked, those who fought. It is unclear where the fleur-de-lis originated, among the Egyptians, Persians, Arabs and Greeks, this arabesque evoked warrior-like power. In France it is used in city emblems like in the coat of arms of the city of Lille, Saint-Denis, Brest, Clermont-Ferrand, Boulogne-Billancourt. The fleur-de-lis was the symbol of Île-de-France, the core of the French kingdom, many of the current departments use the ancient symbol on their coats to express this heritage. In Italy, the fleur de lis, called giglio is mainly known as the crest of the city of Florence, in the Florentine fleurs-de-lis, the stamens are always posed between the petals. This heraldic charge is known as the Florentine lily to distinguish it from the conventional design. As an emblem of the city, it is found in icons of Zenobius, its first bishop. Several towns subjugated by Florence or founded within the territory of the Florentine Republic adopted a variation of the Florentine lily in their crests, often without the stamens. The heraldic fleur-de-lis is still widespread, among the cities which use it as a symbol are some whose names echo the word lily, for example, Liljendal, Finland. This is called canting arms in heraldic terminology, other European examples of municipal coats-of-arms bearing the fleur-de-lis include Lincoln in England, Morcín in Spain, Wiesbaden in Germany, Skierniewice in Poland and Jurbarkas in Lithuania. The Swiss municipality of Schlieren and the Estonian municipality of Jõelähtme also have a fleur-de-lis on their coats, in Malta, the town of Santa Venera has three red fleurs-de-lis on its flag and coat of arms. Another suburb which developed around the area known as Fleur-de-Lys. The coat of arms of the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia contained six fleurs-de-lis, understood as the native Bosnian or Golden Lily and this emblem was revived in 1992 as a national symbol of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and was the flag of Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1992 to 1998. The state insignia were changed in 1999, the former flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a fleur-de-lis alongside the Croatian chequy. Fleurs also appear in the flags and arms of cantons, municipalities, cities
28.
Merionethshire
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Merionethshire or Merioneth is one of thirteen historic counties of Wales, a vice county and a former administrative county. The spelling of the Welsh name in modern orthography is Meirionnydd or Sir Feirionnydd, with a double <nn>. Merionethshire is a county, bounded to the north by Caernarfonshire, to the east by Denbighshire, to the south by Montgomeryshire and Cardiganshire. With a total area of 1,731 km², it is one of the sparsely populated counties in Great Britain. The Merioneth area remains one of the strongest Welsh-speaking parts of Wales, the coastline consists alternately of cliffs and stretches of sand and the area generally is the most mountainous in Wales, a large part of the Snowdonia National Park lies within it. The greatest heights are Aran Fawddwy 905 m and Cadair Idris 893 m, the chief rivers are the Dwyryd, the Mawddach and the Dyfi. Waterfalls and small lakes are numerous, the largest being Bala Lake, an administrative county of Merioneth was created under the Local Government Act 1888 on 1 April 1889. The first election to the new authority was held in January 1889, the county was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974. The bulk formed the Meirionnydd district of Gwynedd, with an area in the north east, Edeirnion Rural District. The latter area was, however, renamed Gwynedd almost immediately, the main towns are Dolgellau Aberdyfi Bala Barmouth Blaenau Ffestiniog Corwen Ffestiniog Harlech Tywyn The main industries today are agriculture, forestry and tourism
29.
Johnson Matthey
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Johnson Matthey is a British multinational speciality chemicals and sustainable technologies company headquartered in the United Kingdom. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and has been a constituent of the FTSE100 Index since 2002, Johnson Matthey traces its origins to 1817, when Percival Norton Johnson set up business as a gold assayer in London. In 1851 George Matthey joined the business and its name was changed to Johnson & Matthey, the following year the firm was appointed Official Assayer & Refiner to the Bank of England. In 1874, the company was commissioned to manufacture the kilogram reference standard, made from 90% platinum and 10% iridium, beginning in 1957, the company published a journal, Platinum Metals Review. In the 1960s Johnson Matthey formed a subsidiary, Johnson Matthey Bankers, in the early 1980s the bank expanded its activities outside the bullion business and started making high-risk loans. The quality of some of these turned out to be worse than expected. The size of the loans grew to exceed the level of the banks capital, to prevent a wider banking crisis the Bank of England organized a rescue package on the evening of 30 September 1984, purchasing JMB for £1. Most of JMBs business was sold to Mase Westpac. In 1989, worldwide annual turnover of Johnson Matthey was £1.43 billion, with plants in Evere, Wayne. In 2008 Johnson Matthey acquired Argillon, a business specialising in catalysts, in October 2010 Johnson Matthey acquired InterCAT, a supplier of fluid catalytic cracking additives for the petroleum refining industry, for $56.2 million. Today, around one third of all cars worldwide are fitted with a Johnson Matthey catalyst, process Technologies supplies catalysts, licenses technologies and delivers other services to the petrochemical, syngas, oil refining and gas processing industries. Precious Metal Products manages, distributes, refines and recycles precious metals and fabricates products using precious metals, Johnson Matthey offers seven metal separation of gold, silver, platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium and ruthenium. Products include advanced coatings for glass manufacture, catalysts for the production of nitric acid, fine Chemicals supplies active pharmaceutical ingredients and catalysis and chiral technologies to the pharmaceutical, fine chemical and agrochemical industries. It is also a globally integrated supplier of research chemicals under the Alfa Aesar brand name, new Businesses targets new opportunities in areas adjacent to the company’s current businesses and which align with its core technology competencies. This division includes Johnson Matthey Fuel Cells and Johnson Matthey Battery Technologies, Johnson Matthey identifies Sustainability as an integral part of its growth strategy and a key driver for its competitiveness. In 2007 Johnson Matthey set itself six targets to achieve by 2017, in 2013/14 Johnson Matthey reported a reduction in carbon intensity to 149 tonnes CO2 equivalent / £ million sales. As a result of Johnson Matthey’s nitrous oxide abatement catalysts more than 64 million tonnes CO2 equivalent of N2O has been prevented from entering the atmosphere, the violation related to the selective screening of wastewater samples for compliance analysis. Following the charge Johnson Matthey Inc contributed $750,000 to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Official site London Stock Exchange profile Yahoo
30.
Emerald
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Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Beryl has a hardness of 7. 5–8 on the Mohs scale, most emeralds are highly included, so their toughness is classified as generally poor. The word emerald is derived, from Vulgar Latin, esmaralda/esmaraldus, a variant of Latin smaragdus, emeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters–the four Cs of Connoisseurship, Color, Clarity, Cut and Carat weight. Before the 20th century, jewelers used the water, as in a gem of the finest water. Normally, in the grading of colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion, however, in the grading of emeralds, clarity is considered a close second. A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, in the 1960s, the American jewelry industry changed the definition of emerald to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl as emerald. As a result, vanadium emeralds purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the UK, in America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as Colombian Emerald. In gemology, color is divided into three components, hue, saturation, and tone, emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green, with the primary hue necessarily being green. Yellow and blue are the normal secondary hues found in emeralds, only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emerald, light-toned gems are known instead by the species name green beryl. The finest emerald are approximately 75% tone on a scale where 0% tone would be colorless, in addition, a fine emerald should be well saturated and have a hue that is bright. Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emerald, Emerald tends to have numerous inclusions and surface breaking fissures. Unlike diamond, where the standard, i. e. 10× magnification, is used to grade clarity. Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye it is considered flawless, stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated to enhance the apparent clarity. The inclusions and fissures within an emerald are sometime described as jardin, imperfections are unique for each emerald and can be used to identify a particular stone. Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue, with no more than 15% of any hue or combination of a medium-dark tone. The relative non-uniformity motivates the cutting of emeralds in cabochon form, faceted emeralds are most commonly given an oval cut, or the signature emerald cut, a rectangular cut with facets around the top edge. Most emeralds are oiled as part of the process, in order to fill in surface-reaching cracks so that clarity and stability are improved. Cedar oil, having a refractive index, is often used in this widely adopted practice
31.
Seven deadly sins
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The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices of Christian origin. Behaviors or habits are classified under this category if they give birth to other immoralities. According to the standard list, they are pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth and these sins are often thought to be abuses or excessive versions of ones natural faculties or passions. This classification originated with the fathers, especially Evagrius Ponticus. To inspire people to focus on the seven sins, the vices are discussed in treatises. The seven deadly sins in their current form are not found in the Bible, one such antecedent is found in the Book of Proverbs 6, 16–19, however only in the Masoretic Text. Since the apostle Paul goes on to say that the persons who practice these sins shall not inherit the Kingdom of God, still another list of things that God hates comes from Revelation 21,8. While the seven deadly sins as we know them did not originate with the Greeks or Romans, Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics lists several positive, healthy human qualities, excellences, or virtues. Aristotle argues that for each positive quality there are two negative vices that are found on each extreme of the virtue, courage, for example, is the human excellence or virtue in facing fear and risk. Excessive courage makes one rash, while a deficiency of courage makes one cowardly and this principle of virtue found in the middle or mean between excess and deficiency is Aristotles notion of the golden mean. Aristotle lists virtues like courage, temperance or self-control, generosity, greatness of soul, proper response to anger, friendliness, roman writers like Horace extolled the value of virtue while listing and warning against vices. His first epistles says that to flee vice is the beginning of virtue, Gregory combined tristitia and acedia, vanagloria and superbia, and added envy. Gregorys list became the standard list of sins, Thomas Aquinas uses and defends Gregorys list in his Summa Theologica. The Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church, and Methodist Church, among other Christian denominations, moreover, modern day evangelists, such as Billy Graham have explicated the seven deadly sins. In the seven sins are seven ways of eternal death. The capital sins from lust to envy are generally associated with pride, lust, or lechery, is intense longing. It is usually thought of as intense or unbridled sexual desire, which leads to fornication, adultery, rape, bestiality, however, lust could also mean simply desire in general, thus, lust for money, power, and other things are sinful. In accordance with the words of Henry Edward, the impurity of lust makes one a slave of the devil, lust, if not managed properly, can subvert propriety
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Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit
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They are, wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord. The passage uses the term Spirit of the Lord, in the Hebrew Masoretic text the Spirit of the Lord is described with six characteristics, and then the last characteristic is mentioned a second time. In the Greek Septuagint the first mention of the fear of the Lord is translated as spirit of godliness, the seven Latin terms are then, sapientia intellectus consilium fortitudo scientia pietas timor Domini. The Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit is one of works in Christian devotional literature which follow a scheme of seven. Others include the seven petitions of the Lords Prayer, the beatitudes, the seven last words from the cross, the seven sins. The seven gifts were often represented as doves in medieval texts, for Saint Thomas Aquinas, the dove signifies by its properties each gift of the Holy Spirit. For by the sacrament of Confirmation, are more bound to the Church and are enriched with a special strength of the Holy Spirit. Hence they are, as witnesses of Christ, more strictly obliged to spread and defend the faith by word. The Catechism of the Catholic Church lists the seven gifts as follows, Wisdom, It is the capacity to love spiritual things more than material ones, it also means the want to understand God. It is the perfection of the virtue of faith, Understanding, In understanding. A person with understanding is not confused by the messages in our culture about the right way to live. The gift of understanding perfects a persons speculative reason in the apprehension of truth and it is the gift whereby self-evident principles are known, Counsel, With the gift of counsel/right judgment, we know the difference between right and wrong, and we choose to do what is right. A person with right judgment avoids sin and lives out the values taught by Jesus Christ. It is the perfection of the virtue of prudence, Fortitude, With the gift of fortitude/courage. A person with courage is willing to stand up for what is right in the sight of God, even if it means accepting rejection, verbal abuse, the gift of courage allows people the firmness of mind that is required both in doing good and in enduring evil. It is the perfection of the virtue of the same name, Knowledge, With the gift of knowledge. The distinction between wisdom and knowledge is that gives the desire to know the things of God. A person with reverence recognizes our total reliance on God and comes before God with humility, trust, according to Saint Thomas Aquinas, it is the perfection of the virtue of religion
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Epoxy
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Epoxy is either any of the basic components or the cured end products of epoxy resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional group. Epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides, are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups, Epoxy resins may be reacted either with themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines, acids, phenols, alcohols and thiols. These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives, reaction of polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners forms a thermosetting polymer, often with high mechanical properties, temperature and chemical resistance. Epoxy resins are low molecular weight pre-polymers or higher molecular weight polymers which contain at least two epoxide groups. The epoxide group is sometimes referred to as a glycidyl or oxirane group. A wide range of epoxy resins are produced industrially, the raw materials for epoxy resin production are today largely petroleum derived, although some plant derived sources are now becoming commercially available. Epoxy resins are polymeric or semi-polymeric materials, and as such rarely exist as pure substances, high purity grades can be produced for certain applications, e. g. using a distillation purification process. One downside of high purity liquid grades is their tendency to form crystalline solids due to their highly regular structure, an important criterion for epoxy resins is the epoxide content. Epoxies are typically cured with stoichiometric or near-stoichiometric quantities of curative to achieve maximum physical properties, use of blending, additives and fillers is often referred to as formulating. Important epoxy resins are produced from combining epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A to give bisphenol A diglycidyl ethers, as the molecular weight of the resin increases, the epoxide content reduces and the material behaves more and more like a thermoplastic. Very high molecular weight polycondensates form a class known as phenoxy resins and these resins do however contain hydroxyl groups throughout the backbone, which may also undergo other cross-linking reactions, e. g. with aminoplasts, phenoplasts and isocyanates. Bisphenol F may also undergo epoxidation in a fashion to bisphenol A. Compared to DGEBA, bisphenol F epoxy resins have lower viscosity and a higher mean epoxy content per gramme, reaction of phenols with formaldehyde and subsequent glycidylation with epichlorohydrin produces epoxidised novolacs, such as epoxy phenol novolacs and epoxy cresol novolacs. These are highly viscous to solid resins with typical mean epoxide functionality of around 2 to 6, the high epoxide functionality of these resins forms a highly crosslinked polymer network displaying high temperature and chemical resistance, but low flexibility. Aliphatic epoxy resins are typically formed by glycidylation of aliphatic alcohols or polyols, the resulting resins may be monofunctional, difunctional, or higher functionality. These resins typically display low viscosity at room temperature and are referred to as reactive diluents. They are rarely used alone, but are employed to modify the viscosity of other epoxy resins. This has led to the term ‘modified epoxy resin’ to denote those containing viscosity-lowering reactive diluents, a related class is cycloaliphatic epoxy resin, which contains one or more cycloaliphatic rings in the molecule
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Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
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Polyester
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Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
36.
Engelhard
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Engelhard Corporation is a former American Fortune 500 company headquartered in Iselin, New Jersey, USA. It is credited with developing the first production catalytic converter, in 2006, the German chemical manufacturer BASF bought Engelhard for $US5 billion. The company was started by Charles W. Engelhard, Sr. in 1902 when he purchased the Charles F. Croselmire Company in Newark and he subsequently founded the American Platinum Works in 1903 and acquired several other companies. In 1904, he purchased Baker & Co. a platinum smelting and refining business located in Newark and in 1905, he established Hanovia Chemical and they also developed liquid gold for decorative applications. In 1958, Engelhards son Charles Jr. consolidated the holdings to form Engelhard Industries. Engelhard executed the transaction through a swap, giving up 8 percent of Engelhard as partial payment for the 20 percent interest in MCP. Sales in MCP took off soon afterwards, mostly from Philipp Brothers fast-growing ore trading, in 1964 it had sales of $US447 million, and by 1966 sales reached $US709 million. Philipps trading continued to enjoy phenomenal growth as the world turned to spot traders to move scarce natural resources around the globe, by 1972, EMCCs sales hit $US2 billion, about 80 percent of it supplied by Philipp, and in 1974 revenue reached $5 billion. By 1981, Philipp Brothers earned 89 percent of the total corporations $US26.6 billion in revenues and 88 percent of its $US532.7 million in profits, management in the slow growing minerals-and-chemicals division, along with those in precious metals, felt overshadowed by their trading counterparts. This led to the spinoff of Philipp Brothers, and renaming what was left the Engelhard Corporation, Engelhard operated a Minerals & Chemicals Division and an Engelhard Industries Division with corporate headquarters in Menlo Park, New Jersey. In 1984, the company was realigned to consist of a Specialty Chemicals Division, Engelhard expanded significantly through growth, acquisitions and joint ventures. In 1998, Süd Chemie’s fats and oils catalyst business in 2001, and the Collaborative Group, on May 30,2006, Engelhard was taken over by BASF after the board agreed for the takeover of BASF. On August 2,2006, BASF began to rename Engelhard worldwide and this started in the USA with BASF Catalysts LLC. On April 1,2010, BASF Catalysts LLC became part of BASF Corporation, catalytic-converter-equipped vehicles have helped cut other air pollutants by more than 3 billion tons worldwide between 1975 and 2000, of this 1.5 billion short tons was in the United States. Researchers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst ranked Engelhard as the 32nd-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States, the study found Engelhards most toxic pollution comprised cobalt, nickel, chromium, and manganese compounds, based on Toxics Release Inventory data
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Electroforming
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Electroforming is a metal forming process that forms parts through electrodeposition or electroplating on a model, known in the industry as a mandrel. Conductive mandrels are pre-treated chemically to allow subsequent separation of the finished electroform, conductive layers can be deposited chemically, or using vacuum deposition techniques. The outer surface of the forms the inner surface of the form. A thick layer of electroplating is applied until the plate itself is enough to be self-supporting. The mandrel is most often separated intact or dissolved away after forming, the side of the part that was in contact with the plating solution is less well defined, and that loss of definition increases with thickness of plating. In extreme cases, where a thickness of several millimetres is required, there is preferential build-up of material on sharp outside edges and corners. This tendency can be reduced by a known as periodic reverse, where the plating current is reversed for short periods during electroforming. The finished plated form can either be the part, or can be used in a subsequent process to produce a positive of the original mandrel shape. In the basic electroforming process, a bath is used to deposit nickel or other electroformable metals onto a conductive patterned surface. Once the deposited material has been built up to the desired thickness and this process allows high-quality duplication of the premaster and therefore permits quality production—at low unit costs with high repeatability and excellent process control. If the mandrel is made of a material it can be covered with a conductive coating. Technically, it is a process of synthesizing a metal object by controlling the electrodeposition of metal passing through an electrolytic solution onto a metal or metalized form. The object being electroformed can be a permanent part of the end product or can be temporary, and removed later, leaving only the metal form, new technologies have made it possible for mandrels to be very complex. In order to facilitate the removal of the electroform from the mandrel, because aluminum can easily be chemically dissolved, a complex electroform can be produced with near exactness. The main advantage of electroforming is that it reproduces the external shape of the mandrel within one micrometre, compared to other basic metal forming processes electroforming is very effective when requirements call for extreme tolerances, complexity or light weight. Electroformed metal is extremely pure, with superior properties over wrought metal due to its crystal structure. Multiple layers of electroformed metal can be bonded together, or to different substrate materials to produce complex structures with grown-on flanges and bosses. Tolerances of 1.5 to 3 nanometres have been reported, a wide variety of shapes and sizes can be made by electroforming, the principal limitation being the need to part the product from the mandrel
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Forest of Dean
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The Forest of Dean is a geographical, historical and cultural region in the western part of the county of Gloucestershire, England. It forms a triangular plateau bounded by the River Wye to the west and north-west, Herefordshire to the north, the River Severn to the south. The area is characterised by more than 110 square kilometres of mixed woodland, a large area was reserved for royal hunting before 1066, and remained as the second largest crown forest in England, the largest being New Forest. Although the name is used loosely to refer to the part of Gloucestershire between the Severn and Wye, the Forest of Dean proper has covered a smaller area since medieval times. In 1327 it was defined to only the royal demesne and parts of parishes within the hundred of St Briavels. The Forest proper is within the parishes of West Dean, Lydbrook, Cinderford, Ruspidge. Traditionally the main sources of work have been forestry – including charcoal production - iron working, Archaeological studies have dated the earliest use of coal to Roman times for domestic heating and industrial processes such as the preparation of iron ore. The area gives its name to the government district, Forest of Dean. The administrative centre of the authority is Coleford, one of the main towns in the historic Forest area, together with Cinderford. The Forest of Dean is formed of a basin of palaeozoic rocks folded in the Variscan Orogeny. Its highest point is Ruardean Hill, the origins of the name remains an area of debate. The prevalence of Welsh place names in the area, suggests a possible corruption of Din, however, similar or identical elements from Old English exist throughout England. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in the century, refers to the area as Danubia which may translate as land of Danes following the Viking settlements in that era. It is possible that an original name Dene developed from this, the area was inhabited in Mesolithic times, and there are also remains of later megalithic monuments, including the Longstone near Staunton and the Broadstone at Wibdon, Stroat. Barrows have been identified at Tidenham and Blakeney, bronze Age field systems have been identified at Welshbury Hill near Littledean, and there are Iron Age hill forts at Symonds Yat and Welshbury. There is archaeological evidence of trading by sea, probably through Lydney. The area was occupied by the Romans around 50 AD and they were attracted by its natural resources which included iron ore, ochre and charcoal. The coal mining industry was established on a small scale in Roman times
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Caernarfon Castle
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Caernarfon Castle, often anglicized as Carnarvon Castle, is a medieval fortress in Caernarfon, Gwynedd, north-west Wales cared for by Cadw, the Welsh Governments historic environment service. There was a castle in the town of Caernarfon from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began replacing it with the current stone structure. The Edwardian town and castle acted as the centre of north Wales. There was a link with Caernarfons Roman past and the Roman fort of Segontium is nearby. While the castle was under construction, town walls were built around Caernarfon, the work cost between £20,000 and £25,000 from the start until the end of work in 1330. Despite Caernarfon Castles external appearance of being complete, the interior buildings no longer survive. The town and castle were sacked in 1294 when Madog ap Llywelyn led a rebellion against the English, Caernarfon was recaptured the following year. During the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400–1415, the castle was besieged, when the Tudor dynasty ascended to the English throne in 1485, tensions between the Welsh and English began to diminish and castles were considered less important. As a result, Caernarfon Castle was allowed to fall into a state of disrepair, despite its dilapidated condition, during the English Civil War Caernarfon Castle was held by Royalists, and was besieged three times by Parliamentarian forces. This was the last time the castle was used in war, Caernarfon Castle was neglected until the 19th century when the state funded repairs. In 1911, Caernarfon Castle was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales and it is part of the World Heritage Site Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd. The first fortifications at Caernarfon were built by the Romans and their fort, which they named Segontium, is on the outskirts of the modern town. The fort sat near the bank of the River Seiont, it is likely that the fort was positioned here due to the sheltered nature, Caernarfon derives its name from the Roman fortifications. In Welsh, the place was called y gaer yn Arfon, little is known about the fate of Segontium and its associated civilian settlement after the Romans departed from Britain in the early 5th century. Following the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror turned his attention to Wales, according to the Domesday Survey of 1086, the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan was nominally in command of the whole of northern Wales. He was killed by the Welsh in 1088 and this early castle was built on a peninsula, bounded by the River Seiont, the Menai Strait, it would have been a motte and bailey, defended by a timber palisade and earthworks. While the motte, or mound, was integrated into the later Edwardian castle, excavations on top of the motte in 1969 revealed no traces of medieval occupation, suggesting any evidence had been removed. It is likely that the motte was surmounted by a tower known as a keep
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Frederick, Prince of Wales
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Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales, KG was heir apparent to the British throne from 1727 until his death. He was the eldest but estranged son of King George II and Caroline of Ansbach, under the Act of Settlement passed by the English Parliament in 1701, Frederick was high in line of succession to the British throne. He moved to Great Britain following the accession of his father and he predeceased his father, however, and upon the latters death on 25 October 1760, the throne passed to Prince Fredericks eldest son, George III. The Elector was the son of Sophia of Hanover, granddaughter of James VI and I and first cousin and heiress-presumptive to the English Queen Anne. However, Sophia died before Anne at age 83 in June 1714, which elevated the Elector to heir-presumptive, Queen Anne died on 1 August the same year and this made Fredericks father the new Prince of Wales and first-in-line to the British throne and Frederick himself second-in-line. Fredericks other godfather was his grand-uncle Frederick I, King in Prussia, Frederick was nicknamed Griff within the family. He was left in the care of his grand-uncle Ernest Augustus, Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück, in 1722, Frederick was inoculated against smallpox by Charles Maitland on the instructions of his mother Caroline. The latter two titles have been interpreted differently since – the ofs are omitted and Snaudon rendered as Snowdon, Frederick arrived in England in 1728 as a grown man, the year after his father had become King George II. By then, George and Caroline had had several younger children, the long separation damaged their relationship, and they would never be close. He was not permitted to go to Great Britain until after his father took the throne as George II on 11 June 1727, Frederick had continued to be known as Prince Friedrich Ludwig of Hanover even after his father had been created Prince of Wales. In 1728, Frederick was finally brought to Britain and was created Prince of Wales on 8 January 1729. He served as the tenth Chancellor of the University of Dublin from 1728 to 1751, and he sponsored a court of opposition politicians. Frederick and his group supported the Opera of the Nobility in Lincolns Inn Fields as a rival to Handels royally sponsored opera at the Kings Theatre in the Haymarket. He enjoyed the natural sciences and the arts, and became a thorn in the side of his parents, Hervey and Frederick wrote a theatrical comedy together which was staged at the Drury Lane Theatre in October 1731. It was panned by the critics, and even the theatres manager thought it so bad that it was unlikely to play out even the first night and he had soldiers stationed in the audience to maintain order, and when the play flopped the audience was given their money back. Hervey and Frederick also shared a mistress, Anne Vane, who had a son called FitzFrederick Vane in June 1732, either of them or William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington, another of her lovers, could have been the father. Jealousy between them may have contributed to a breach, and their friendship ended, Hervey later wrote bitterly that Frederick was false. Never having the least hesitation in telling any lie that served his present purpose, a permanent result of Fredericks patronage of the arts is Rule, Britannia
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House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
42.
National Museum Cardiff
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National Museum Cardiff is a museum and art gallery in Cardiff, Wales. The museum is part of the network of Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales. Entry is kept free by a grant from the Welsh Government, however, the National Museum of Wales was founded in 1905, with its royal charter granted in 1907. The Cardiff Museum was sharing the building of Cardiff Library, and was a sub-department of the library until 1893, the architects were Arnold Dunbar Smith and Cecil Brewer, although the building as it now stands is a heavily truncated version of their design. The museum has collections of archaeology, botany, fine and applied art, geology, school groups, formal and informal groups can also be accommodated but should book in advance. The National Museum of Art opened in 2011 and these works prefigure the career of the Welsh-born Richard Wilson, called the father of British landscape painting. In 1979 four cartoons for tapestries illustrating scenes from the Aeneid were bought as works by Peter Paul Rubens, but the attribution is now disputed. There is a devoted to British patronage of the 18th century, in particular that of Sir Watkin Williams Wynn. Included is a portrait of Williams-Wynn in Rome with fellow Tourists by Pompeo Batoni, one of his wife by Sir Joshua Reynolds. It includes the largest group of paintings by Honoré Daumier in the world, works by Claude Monet include Venetian scenes such as San Giorgio Maggiore at Dusk and examples from his Rouen Cathedral and Water Lilies series. Post-impressionism is represented by Van Goghs late work Rain at Auvers, and by Paul Cézannes The François Zola Dam, the first painting by the artist to be displayed in a British public collection. The two most famous works in the Davies Sisters collection are La Parisienne by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, exhibited in the First Impressionist Exhibition, the art gallery has works by all of the notable Welsh artists, including landscapes by Richard Wilson and the pioneering Thomas Jones. The artistic output of David Jones is well represented, but seldom on display owing to the nature of his works on paper. Waless most prominent contemporary painter, Sir Kyffin Williams, also features in the collection, works by contemporary artists are on rotational display, including those by Lucian Freud, Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach and Rachel Whiteread. Mason, Rhiannon, Museums, Nations, Identities, Wales and its National Museums, Cardiff, University of Wales Press Osmond, John, ed
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Elizabeth II's jewels
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The monarch of the Commonwealth realms, Queen Elizabeth II, owns a historic collection of jewels – some as monarch and others as a private individual. They are separate from the coronation and state regalia that make up the Crown Jewels, the origin of a distinct royal jewel collection is vague, though it is believed the jewels have their origin somewhere in the 16th century. Many of the pieces are from overseas and were brought to the United Kingdom as a result of war, coups and revolutions. Most of the dates from the 19th and 20th centuries. The Crown Jewels are only worn at coronations and the annual State Opening of Parliament, at other formal occasions, such as banquets, the Queen wears the jewellery in her collection. Unlike the Crown Jewels—which mainly date from the accession of Charles II—the jewels are not official regalia or insignia, much of the collection was designed for queens and queen consorts, though some kings have added to the collection. A few diamonds were brought to the United Kingdom from the British colonies, most of the jewellery was purchased from other European heads of state and members of the aristocracy, or handed down by older generations of the Royal Family, often as birthday and wedding presents. In 1714, with the accession of George I, the Kingdom of Great Britain, early Hanoverian monarchs were careful to keep the heirlooms of the two realms separate. George III gave half the British heirlooms to his bride, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, in her will, Charlotte left the jewels to the House of Hanover. The Kingdom of Hanover followed the Salic Law, whereby the line of succession went through male heirs, thus, when Queen Victoria acceded to the throne of the United Kingdom, her uncle Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale became King of Hanover. King Ernest demanded a portion of the jewellery, not only as the monarch of Hanover, Victoria flatly declined to hand over any of the jewels, claiming they had been bought with British money. Ernests son, George V of Hanover, continued to press the claim, a parliamentary commission was set up to investigate the matter and in 1857 they found in favour of the House of Hanover. On 28 January 1858,10 years after Ernests death, the jewels were handed to the Hanoverian Ambassador, Victoria did manage to hang on to one of her favourite pieces of jewellery, a fine rope of pearls. Items of jewellery made before the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 are regarded as owned by the Queen in right of the Crown. Objects made later, including gifts, can also be added to that part of the Royal Collection at the sole discretion of the monarch. It is not possible to say how much the collection is worth because the jewels have a rich and unique history, the Delhi Durbar Tiara was made by Garrard & Co. for Queen Mary, the wife of George V, to wear at the Delhi Durbar in 1911. As British law prohibited the removal of the Crown Jewels from the country, George V wore a specially made crown to the Durbar, and his consort Queen Mary wore the tiara. It was part of a set of made for Queen Mary to use at the event which included a necklace, stomacher, brooch
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
