1.
British cuisine
–
British cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. British cuisine has been described as unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, however, British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing many hybrid dishes, such as the Anglo-Indian chicken tikka masala. Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into England in the Middle Ages, the British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indias elaborate food tradition of strong, penetrating spices and herbs. Food rationing policies, put in place by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century, are said to have been the stimulus for British cuisines poor international reputation. It has been claimed, contrary to belief, that people in southern England eat more garlic per head than the people of northern France. British cuisine has traditionally been limited in its recognition to the full breakfast, fish and chips. Other British dishes include the Sunday roast, steak and kidney pie, shepherds pie, British cuisine has many regional varieties within the broader categories of English, Scottish and Welsh cuisine. Romano-British agriculture, highly fertile soils and advanced animal breeding produced a variety of very high quality foodstuffs for indigenous Romano-British people. Developments in plant breeding produced a multiplicity of fruit and vegetable varieties, during the World Wars of the 20th century difficulties of food supply were countered by official measures, which included rationing. The problem was worse in WWII, and the Ministry of Food was established to address the problems, due to the economic problems following the war, rationing continued for some years, and in some aspects was more strict than during wartime. Rationing was not fully lifted until almost a decade after war ended in Europe and these policies, put in place by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century, are often blamed for the decline of British cuisine in the 20th century. Consequently, food security has become a major popular concern. Concerns over the quality and nutritional value of industrialised food production led to the creation of the Soil Association in 1946 and it is not generally a nostalgic movement, although efforts have been made to re-introduce pre-20th-century recipes. Ingredients not native to the islands, particularly herbs and spices, are added to traditional dishes. Much of Modern British cooking also draws heavily on influences from Mediterranean cuisines, the traditional influence of northern and central European cuisines is significant but fading. By the 1960s foreign holidays, and foreign-style restaurants in Britain, since appearing in Christmas dinner tables in England in the late 16th century, the turkey has become more popular, with Christmas pudding served for dessert
2.
English cuisine
–
English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, the 14th-century English cookbook, the Forme of Cury, contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II. English cooking has been influenced by foreign ingredients and cooking styles since the Middle Ages, curry was introduced from the Indian subcontinent and adapted to English tastes from the eighteenth century with Hannah Glasses recipe for chicken currey. French cuisine influenced English recipes throughout the Victorian era, after the rationing of the Second World War, Elizabeth Davids 1950 A Book of Mediterranean Food had wide influence, bringing Italian cuisine to English homes. Her success encouraged other writers to describe other styles, including Chinese. England continues to absorb culinary ideas from all over the world, English cookery has developed over many centuries since at least the time of The Forme of Cury, written in the Middle Ages around 1390 in the reign of King Richard II. The book offers imaginative and sophisticated recipes, with sweet and sour sauces thickened with bread or quantities of almonds boiled, peeled, dried and ground. Foods such as gingerbread are described and it was not at all, emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her A History of English Food, a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films. Set hit on the fyre, put to sigure & safron, when hit boyleth, tak som of thy milk, boylying, fro the fyre & aley hit up with yolkes of eyron that hit be ryght chargeaunt, styre hit wel for quelling. Put therto that othyr, & ster hem togedyr, & serve hem forth as mortruys, the early modern period saw the gradual arrival of printed cookery books, though the very first, the printer Richard Pynsons 1500 Boke of Cokery was compiled from medieval texts. The next, A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye, was published sometime after 1545, the Secretes of the Reverende Maister Alexis of Piermont was published in 1558, translated from a French translation of Alessio Piemonteses original Italian work on confectionery. English tastes evolved during the century in at least three ways. Firstly, recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour, secondly, butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces, a trend which continued in later centuries. Thirdly, herbs, which could be grown locally but had been used in the Middle Ages. In A. W. s Book of Cookrye, 35% of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs, on the other hand, 76% of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit, together or separately. New ingredients were arriving from distant countries, too, The Good Huswifes Jewell introduced sweet potatoes alongside familiar Medieval recipes, elinor Fettiplaces Receipt Book, compiled in 1604 gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery. The book provides recipes for various forms of bread, such as buttered loaves, for apple fritters, preserves and pickles, New ingredients such as the sweet potato appear. Pies were important both as food and for show, the nursery rhyme Sing a Song of Sixpence, with its lines Four and Twenty blackbirds / Baked in a pie
3.
Scottish cuisine
–
Scottish cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions, practices and cuisines associated with Scotland. It has distinctive attributes and recipes of its own, but shares much with wider British and European cuisine as a result of local and foreign influences, traditional Scottish dishes exist alongside international foodstuffs brought about by migration. Scotland, with its climate and abundance of indigenous game species, has provided a cornucopia of food for its inhabitants for millennia. The wealth of seafood available on and off the coasts provided the earliest settlers with their sustenance, agriculture was introduced, with primitive oats quickly becoming the staple. In common with many mediaeval European neighbours, Scotland was a state for a greater part of the second millennium. This put certain restrictions on what one was allowed to hunt, in the halls of the great men of the realm, one could expect venison, boar, various fowl and songbirds, expensive spices, and the meats of domesticated species. From the journeyman down to the lowest cottar, meat was an expensive commodity, for the lower echelons of mediaeval Scots, it was the products of their animals rather than the beasts themselves which provided nourishment. This is evident today in traditional Scots fare, with its emphasis on dairy produce and it would appear that the average meal would consist of a pottage of herbs and roots, with bread and cheese when possible. Before Sir Walter Raleighs introduction of the potato to the British Isles, wheat was generally difficult to grow because of the damp climate. Food thrift was evident from the earliest times, with excavated middens displaying little evidence of anything, all parts of an animal were used. The mobile nature of Scots society in the past required food that should not spoil quickly and it was common to carry a small bag of oatmeal that could be transformed into a basic porridge or oatcakes using a girdle. It is thought that Scotlands national dish, haggis, originated in a way, A small amount of offal or low-quality meat, carried in the most inexpensive bag available. It has also suggested that this dish was introduced by Norse invaders who were attempting to preserve their food during the long journey from Scandinavia. Mary, on her return to Scotland, brought an entourage of French staff who are considered responsible for revolutionising Scots cooking, cannel, from cannelle—cinnamon Collop, from escalope Gigot /ˈdʒɪɡət/, from gigot—leg of mutton. Syboe, from ciboule—a spring onion With the growth of sporting estates, the railways further expanded the scope of the market, with Scots grouse at a premium on English menus shortly after the Glorious Twelfth. The availability of certain foodstuffs in Scotland, in common with the parts of the United Kingdom. Rationing during the two World Wars, as well as industrial agriculture, limited the diversity of food available to the public. Imports from the British Empire and beyond did, however, introduce new foods to the Scottish public, during the 19th and 20th centuries there was large-scale immigration to Scotland from Italy, and later from the Middle East, India, and Pakistan
4.
Welsh cuisine
–
Welsh cuisine encompasses the cooking traditions and practices associated with the country of Wales and the Welsh people. Some variation in dishes exists across the country, with notable differences existing in the Gower Peninsula, Welsh Celts and their more recent Welsh descendants originally practiced transhumance, moving their cattle to higher elevations in the summer and back to their home base in the winter. Once they settled to homesteads, a family would have eaten meat from a pig primarily. Sheep farming is practiced extensively in Wales, with lamb and mutton being the meats most traditionally associated with the country, beef and dairy cattle are also raised widely, and there is a strong fishing culture. Fisheries and commercial fishing are common and seafood features widely in Welsh cuisine, vegetables, beyond cabbages and leeks, were historically rare and the leek became a significant component of many dishes. It has been a symbol of Wales for at least 400 years. Since the 1970s, the number of restaurants and gastropubs in Wales has increased significantly, there are few written records of traditional Welsh foods, recipes were instead held within families and passed down orally between the women of the family. The lack of records was highlighted by Mati Thomas in 1928 and those with the skills and inclination to write Welsh recipes, the upper classes, conformed to English styles and therefore would not have run their houses with traditional Welsh cuisine. Upper-class households would take on any English fashions, even adopting English names, the traditional cookery of Wales originates from the daily meals of peasant folk, unlike other cultures where meals often started in the kitchens of the gentry and would be adapted. Historically the King of the Welsh people would travel, with his court, in a circuit, the tribute was codified in the Laws of Hywel Dda, showing that people lived on beer, bread, meat and dairy products, with few vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks. Towards the start of the 11th century, Welsh society started to build settlements, Food would be cooked in a single cauldron over an open fire on the floor, it would likely be reheated and topped up with fresh ingredients over a number of days. Some dishes could be cooked on a bakestone, a stone which could be placed above a fire to heat it evenly. Gerald of Wales, chaplain to Henry II, wrote after an 1188 tour of Wales, The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and you must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen, and there are no highly-seasoned titbits to whet your appetite. The medieval Welsh used thyme, savory, and mint in the kitchen, towards the end of the 18th century, Welsh land owners divided up the land to allow for tenant-based farming. Each small holding would include vegetable crops, as well as a cow, pigs, the 18th and 19th centuries were a time of unrest for the Welsh people. The Welsh food riots began in 1740, when colliers blamed the lack of food on problems in the supply, as a result of riots by colliers in the mid 1790s, magistrates in Glamorgan sold the rioters corn at a reduced price. At the same time they also requested assistance from the government to stop further rioting. The majority of food riots had ended by 1801, and there were certain political undertones to the actions, by the 1870s, 60% of Wales was owned by 570 families, most of whom did no farming
5.
Cornish cuisine
–
Cornish cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with Cornwall and the Cornish people. It has been influenced by the geography of the county as well as its social history. Cornwall, being a peninsula surrounded by seas historically well-stocked with fish, has meant that fish dishes form a part of the historical. The fishing industry has played a part in the economy of the county. The iconic dish of Cornwall, the pasty, has its roots in another historical industry within the county, Cornwall has influenced and been influenced by other British cuisine, as well as having similarities with the cuisine of its neighbour in South West England, Devon. The Cornwall Food and Drink festival promotes Cornish cuisine and produce, a major theme is the use of game foods as well as fish. A number of high-profile Cornish restaurants and hotels use game as part of their menu and this is highlighted at the Cornwall Food and Drink festival by the Magnificent Seven Dinner, put on by seven of the best chefs in Cornwall. Larger commercial producers of characteristically Cornish products include the bakers Ginsters and Warrens Bakery, Cornwall has a strong culinary heritage. Surrounded on three sides by the sea amid fertile fishing grounds, Cornwall naturally has fresh seafood readily available, traditional dishes in the Lizard Peninsula are described in a pamphlet published in 1980. Television chef Rick Stein has long operated a restaurant in Padstow for this reason. MasterChef host and founder of Smiths of Smithfield, John Torode, nathan Outlaw opened a two Michelin Star fish restaurant at Rock, which then transferred to Port Isaac. One famous local dish is Stargazy pie, a fish-based pie in which the heads of the fish stick through the piecrust. The pie is cooked as part of celebrations for Tom Bawcocks Eve. Cornwall is perhaps best known though for its pasties, a baked dish made from pastry. Todays pasties usually contain a filling of beef steak, onion, potato and swede with salt and white pepper, turmut, tates and mate describes a filling once very common. For instance, the licky pasty contained mostly leeks, and the herb pasty contained watercress, parsley, pasties are often locally referred to as oggies. Historically, pasties were also made with sweet fillings such as jam, apple and blackberry. The Pasty Shop and West Cornwall Pasty are just two Cornish chains that have popularised traditional oggies around the UK, squab pie is a traditional dish from South West England, with early records showing it was commonly eaten in Cornwall, Devon and Gloucestershire
6.
Northern Irish cuisine
–
Northern Irish cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, cuisine, traditions and recipes associated with Northern Ireland, the United Kingdom and also Ireland. Ardglass potted herring is found in shops and fish traders. It is herring that is marinated in vinegar, rolled with bay leaf, potato bread farl a flat bread prepared with potato, flour, and buttermilk. Soda bread is one of Northern Ireland’s unique griddle breads, it can be eaten straightaway and they are sometimes eaten with butter and homemade jam, or with savoury food such as smoked salmon, fresh fried eel, or thick dry-cured bacon. Soda bread farl is a soft, thick and fluffy bread and it was first baked in the 1800s in Ireland, and local people used baking soda to cause the dough to rise. Its typically served with an Ulster fry, wheaten bread is a brown bread originally made with whole wheat flour. A soft tray bake cake which gets its name from using 15 of each main ingredient, Boxty is mainly found in County Fermanagh, Boxty is a weighty, starchy potato cake made with 50,50 mix of cooked mashed potatoes and grated, strained, raw potato. The most common variety is boiled boxty, also known as hurley, champ is a made with potatoes when they are mashed with milk and chopped spring onions are added. Dulse is a snack food. Originally, it was harvested by fishermen for income supplementation when fishing was meager, pasties are made from a mixture of sausage meat, onions, and mashed potato, shaped like a burger and spiced with black pepper. They can be ordered battered from most chip shops, the best known traditional dish in Northern Ireland is the Ulster fry. The Ulster fry is distinguishable from other full breakfasts by its griddle breads – soda bread and potato farls, fried until crisp, bacon, sausages, an egg, a tomato and sometimes mushrooms complete the dish and it is usually served with tea and toast. At breakfast people of Northern Ireland are also partial to porridge, made with rolled oats, milk or water, for extra luxury, in the weekend, it can be dressed with cream rather than milk, and brown sugar. Some even add a dash of Bushmills whiskey, yellowman is a crunchy golden confectionery and looks a bit like honeycomb. It is mainly sold at fairs and markets, another uniquely Northern Irish speciality is vegetable roll – slices of peppery minced beef, flavoured with fresh leek, carrot and onion. Bushmills whiskey Brown Lemonade McDaids Football Special Punjana tea Jenny Bristow Michael Deane Noel McMeel Robbie Millar Paul Rankin Clare Smyth British cuisine Irish cuisine
7.
Irish cuisine
–
Irish cuisine is the style of cooking that originated from Ireland, or was developed by the Irish people. It has evolved from centuries of social and political change, the cuisine is founded upon the crops and animals farmed in its temperate climate. The English also replaced more sophisticated types of cuisine with English norms. Consequently, the potato, after its adoption in the 18th century. As a result, the potato is often associated with Ireland and Irish potato has come to mean any dense, white potato with a low starch content. Many elements of Irish cuisine were lost or abandoned during that time, by the 21st century, much of Irish cuisine was being revived. Representative modern Irish dishes include Irish stew, shepherds pie, bacon and cabbage, boxty, coddle, there are many references to food and drink in Irish mythology and early Irish literature, such as the tale of Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Salmon of Knowledge. The old stories also contain references to banquets involving the heroes portion and meat cooked in cauldrons. Irish mythology is a Celtic Indo-European tradition and shares many foods with others in this group, for example, honey has always been valued and was used in the making of mead, a drink featured in many ancient Indo-European myths and rituals, from Ireland to India. In the Mesolithic period, seafood appears to have played a part in the diet. Huge mounds of shellfish, known as middens, are common on many parts of the coast, for example, Sligo is a place meaning shells, a reference to these mounds. Red deer, wild boar, fish, shellfish, berries, with the arrival of Neolithic groups, emmer wheat, einkorn and barley began to be grown. Sheep, cattle and goats were kept for their meat, milk, the most common sites associated with cooking are fulacht fiadh, a name which means a site for cooking deer, consisting of holes in the ground which were filled with water. The water was heated by the introduction of hot stones, there are thousands of fulacht fiadh sites across the island of Ireland and they mostly seem to date from the Bronze Age, although many appear to have been used much more recently. Horses arrived in the Bronze Age and seem always to have been taboo as a foodstuff, Hospitality was compulsory on all householders under Irish law and those entitled could sue on refusal. Much evidence for early Irish food exists in the law texts, the arrival of Christianity also brought new influences from the Middle east and Roman culture. The main meal was eaten in the afternoon or evening, a daytime meal was termed díthat. A meal at night, and especially a celebratory one, was called a feis and was accompanied by beer
8.
Hong Kong cuisine
–
From the roadside stalls to the most upscale restaurants, Hong Kong provides an unlimited variety of food in every class. Complex combinations and international gourmet expertise have given Hong Kong the reputable labels of Gourmet Paradise, Modern Hong Kong has a predominantly service-based economy, and restaurant businesses serve as a main economic contributor. With the third-densest population per square meters in the world and serving a population of 7 million, due to its small geographical size, Hong Kong contains a high number of restaurants per unit area. With Chinese ethnicity making up 94% of the resident population, Chinese cuisine is served at home. Rice is predominantly the main staple for home meals, home ingredients are picked up from local grocery stores and independent produce shops, although supermarkets have become progressively more popular. Take-out and dining out is very common, since people are often too busy to cook with an average 47-hour work week. The cuisine of Hong Kong traces its origins to its founding as a British colonial outpost in 1841, soon after the colony was founded, many British and other Western merchants along with Chinese from nearby Guangzhou flocked there to conduct business. Initially, much of Hong Kong society was segregated into expatriate Westerners, a majority of working class Chinese coolies, Chinese farmers and fishermen, the simple peasant cuisine was rudimentary compared to the cuisine of 19th century Canton. As the colony developed, there arose a need for meals to entertain businessmen, for the majority of Chinese who were not part of the merchant class, dining out in restaurants was non-existent and consisted of simple Cantonese country fares. Meat only appeared in festive occasions and celebrations such as birthdays were often done by catering services who prepared the meals at the celebrants home, the restaurant scene for Europeans in Hong Kong was segregated from Chinese dining. Elaborate colonial dining existed at the likes of Hongkong Hotel and subsequently Gloucester Hotel, Hong Kongs dining lagged behind the then-leader of Chinese cuisine, Canton, for a long time and many Hong Kong chefs spent their formative years in Canton. Canton was renowned for its food, and there was a saying of The food is in Canton. Cantonese cuisine in Canton reached its peak during the 1920s and was renowned in the care in preparation even for peasant fares such as char siu or boat congee. Dasanyuan was renowned for its braised shark fin dish that charged 60 silver yuan, the Guandong cooking style eventually trickled down to the culinary scene in Hong Kong. The victory of Chinese Communists in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 created a wave of refugees into Hong Kong, a sizeable number of refugees were from non-Cantonese speaking parts of China, including the Yangtze River Delta, and introduced Shanghai cuisine to Hong Kong. On the other hand, most renowned chefs of Canton, now known as Guangzhou in pinyin romanisation, egg tarts and Hong Kong-style milk tea soon became part of Hong Kongs food culture. It could be argued that the seeds of Hong Kong society as understood today were not sown until 1949, the Cantonese cuisine in Hong Kong had by then surpassed that of Guangzhou, which had witnessed a long period of decline after the Communists came to power. The rising prosperity from the mid-1960s had given birth to increasing demand for quality dining, many of the chefs, who spent their formative years in pre-Communist Guangzhou and Shanghai, started to bring out the best of fine dining specialties from pre-1949 Guangzhou and Shanghai
9.
Turks and Caicos Islands
–
They are known primarily for tourism and as an offshore financial centre. The resident population is 31,458 as of 2012 of whom 23,769 live on Providenciales in the Caicos Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands lie southeast of Mayaguana in the Bahamas island chain and north of the island of Hispaniola and the other Antilles archipelago islands. Cockburn Town, the capital since 1766, is situated on Grand Turk Island about 1,042 kilometres east-southeast of Miami, the islands have a total land area of 430 square kilometres. The first recorded European sighting of the now known as the Turks. In the subsequent centuries, the islands were claimed by several European powers with the British Empire eventually gaining control, for many years the islands were governed indirectly through Bermuda, the Bahamas, and Jamaica. When the Bahamas gained independence in 1973, the islands received their own governor, in August 2009, the United Kingdom suspended the Turks and Caicos Islands self-government following allegations of ministerial corruption. Home rule was restored in the islands after the November 2012 elections, the Turks and Caicos Islands are named after the Turks cap cactus, and the Lucayan term caya hico, meaning string of islands. The first inhabitants of the islands were Arawakan-speaking Taíno people, who crossed over from Hispaniola sometime from AD500 to 800, together with Taino who migrated from Cuba to the southern Bahamas around the same time, these people developed as the Lucayan. Around 1200, the Turks and Caicos Islands were resettled by Classical Taínos from Hispaniola, the southern Bahama Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands were completely depopulated by about 1513, and remained so until the 17th century. The first European documented to sight the islands was Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León, during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the islands passed from Spanish, to French, to British control, but none of the three powers ever established any settlements. Bermudian salt collectors settled the Turks Islands around 1680, for several decades around the turn of the 18th century, the islands became popular pirate hideouts. From 1765–1783, the islands were under French occupation, and again after the French captured the archipelago in 1783, after the American War of Independence, many Loyalists fled to British Caribbean colonies, in 1783, they were the first settlers on the Caicos Islands. They developed cotton as an important cash crop, but it was superseded by the development of the salt industry, in 1799, both the Turks and the Caicos island groups were annexed by Britain as part of the Bahamas. The processing of sea salt was developed as an important export product from the West Indies. Salt continued to be an export product into the nineteenth century. In 1807, Britain prohibited the trade and, in 1833. British ships sometimes intercepted slave traders in the Caribbean, and some ships were wrecked off the coast of these islands, in 1837, the Esperanza, a Portuguese slaver, was wrecked off East Caicos, one of the larger islands. While the crew and 220 captive Africans survived the shipwreck,18 Africans died before the survivors were taken to Nassau, Africans from this ship may have been among the 189 liberated Africans whom the British colonists settled in the Turks and Caicos from 1833 to 1840
10.
Saint Helena
–
It is part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Saint Helena measures about 16 by 8 kilometres and has a population of 4,534 and it was named after Saint Helena of Constantinople. The island, one of the most remote islands in the world, was uninhabited when discovered by the Portuguese in 1502 and it was an important stopover for ships sailing to Europe from Asia and South Africa for centuries. Napoleon was imprisoned there in exile by the British, as were Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, between 1791 and 1833, Saint Helena became the site of a series of experiments in conservation, reforestation and attempts to boost rainfall artificially. This environmental intervention was closely linked to the conceptualisation of the processes of environmental change, Saint Helena is Britains second-oldest remaining overseas territory after Bermuda. The Portuguese found the island uninhabited, with an abundance of trees and they imported livestock, fruit trees and vegetables, and built a chapel and one or two houses. Englishman Sir Francis Drake probably located the island on the leg of his circumnavigation of the world. In developing their Far East trade, the Dutch also began to frequent the island, the Dutch Republic formally made claim to Saint Helena in 1633, although there is no evidence that they ever occupied, colonized, or fortified it. By 1651, the Dutch had mainly abandoned the island in favour of their colony at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1657, Oliver Cromwell granted the English East India Company a charter to govern Saint Helena and, the following year, the first governor Captain John Dutton arrived in 1659, making Saint Helena one of Britains oldest colonies outside North America and the Caribbean. A fort and houses were built, after the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, the East India Company received a royal charter giving it the sole right to fortify and colonise the island. The fort was renamed James Fort and the town Jamestown, in honour of the Duke of York, between January and May 1673, the Dutch East India Company forcibly took the island, before English reinforcements restored English East India Company control. The company experienced difficulty attracting new immigrants, and sentiments of unrest, a census in 1723 recorded 1,110 people, including 610 slaves. The island enjoyed a period of prosperity from about 1770. Captain James Cook visited the island in 1775 on the leg of his second circumnavigation of the world. St. James Church was erected in Jamestown in 1774, the site of this telescope is near Saint Mathews Church in Hutts Gate in the Longwood district. The 680-metre high hill there is named for him and is called Halleys Mount, throughout this period, Saint Helena was an important port of call of the East India Company. East Indiamen would stop there on the leg of their voyages to British India
11.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
12.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
United Kingdom portal
.svg){kind=small}
