1.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
2.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
3.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
4.
Mapuche
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The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of present-day Patagonia. Their influence once extended from the Aconcagua River to the Chiloé Archipelago, today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile, and about 9% of the total Chilean population. They are particularly concentrated in Araucanía, many have migrated to the Santiago area for economic opportunities. The Mapuchen is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or at other times, the Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture, their traditional social organisation consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, they would unite in larger groupings and they are known for the textiles woven by women, which have been goods for trade for centuries, since before European encounter. The Araucanian Mapuche inhabited at the time of Spanish arrival the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, South of it, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and pampas, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the time, ethnic groups of the pampa regions. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture, historically the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians. However, this term is now considered pejorative by some people, the name was likely derived from the placename rag ko, meaning clayey water. The Quechua word awqa, meaning rebel, enemy, is not the root of araucano. Some Mapuche mingled with Spanish during colonial times, and their descendants make up the group of mestizos in Chile. But, Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the Chilean Occupation of Araucanía, since then Mapuches have become subjects, and then nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Mapuche communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land, archaeological finds have shown the existence of a Mapuche culture in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically Mapuches differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia and this suggests a different origin or long lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations. Troops of the Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuches between the Maule River and the Itata River there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and the Maipo River or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River, thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for the first time met people with state organization and their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization
5.
Huaso
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A huaso is a Chilean countryman and skilled horseman, similar to the American cowboy or Mexican charro, the gaucho of Argentina, Uruguay and Rio Grande Do Sul and the Australian stockman. A female huaso is called a huasa, although the term china is far more commonly used for his wife or sweetheart, huasos are found all over Central and Southern Chile while the Magallanes Region sheep raisers are gauchos. The major difference between the huaso and the gaucho is that huasos are involved in farming as well as cattle herding, huasos are generally found in Chiles central valley. They ride horses and typically wear a hat called a chupalla. Huasos are an important part of Chilean folkloric culture and are a part of parades, fiestas, holidays. The dancing of the cueca in which the coy china is courted by the persistent huaso, in Chile, the term huaso or ahuasado is also used disparagingly to refer to people without manners or lacking the sophistication of an urbanite, akin to US English redneck. Moreover the word guaso/a is used in Andalusian and American Spanish with the last sense and it appears that a form of folk etymology has operated to conflate the contrasting identities of the huaso, viewed as both a free horseman and an unsophisticated country bumpkin. Both senses can be observed in Chilean usage, regional variants Gaucho Stockman Caipira Cowboy Chagra Chalan Guajiro Paniolo Charro Jibaro Llanero Related articles Arriero Chilean horse Chilean rodeo Southamerica. cl/Chile/Huasos. htm
6.
Central Chile
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Central Chile is one of the five natural regions into which CORFO divided continental Chile in 1950. It is home to a majority of the Chilean population and includes the three largest metropolitan areas—Santiago, Valparaíso, and Concepción and it extends from about 32° south latitude to about 37° south latitude. Central Chile is one of the five main geographical zones in which Chile is divided, the Chilean Central Valley lies between the Coastal range and the Andes Mountains. To the north is the region known as El Norte Chico. To the south lies the cooler and wetter Valdivian temperate rain forests ecoregion, the Central valley is a fertile region and the agricultural heartland of Chile. The climate is of the temperate Mediterranean type, with the amount of rainfall increasing considerably and progressively from north to south. In the Santiago area, the average temperatures are about 19.5 °C in the summer months of January and February and 7.5 °C in the winter months of June. The average monthly precipitation is no more than a trace in January and February and 69.7 millimetres in June and July. By contrast, in Concepción the average temperatures are somewhat lower in the summer at 17.6 °C but higher in the winter at 9.3 °C. In the summer, Concepción receives an average of twenty millimeters of rain per month, in June and July, the numerous rivers greatly increase their flow as a result of the winter rains and the spring melting of the Andean snows, and they contract considerably in the summer. The combination of abundant snow in the Andes and relatively moderate winter temperatures creates excellent conditions for Alpine skiing, the annual mean temperature in Santiago is 57 °F. The temperate action of the ocean temperatures from dropping drastically. In Santiago the annual rainfall is 13 inches and in Valparaíso, along the Central Valley rainfall increases gradually southward until it reaches 52 inches in Concepción. The topography of central Chile includes a range of mountains running parallel to the Andes. Lying between the two ranges is the so-called Central Valley, which contains some of the richest agricultural land in the country. The area just north and south of Santiago is a producer of fruits. Most of these exports, such as grapes, apples, and peaches, go by refrigerator ships, the southern portion of central Chile contains a mixture of some excellent agricultural lands, many of which were covered originally with old-growth forests. They were cleared for agriculture but were exhausted of their organic matter
7.
Easter Island
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Easter Island is a Chilean island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. Easter Island is famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai, in 1995, UNESCO named Easter Island a World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park. However, human activity, the introduction of the Polynesian rat, by the time of European arrival in 1722, the islands population had dropped to 2, 000–3,000 from an estimated high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier. European diseases and Peruvian slave raiding in the 1860s further reduced the Rapa Nui population, Easter Island is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. Easter Island is a territory of Chile that was annexed in 1888. Administratively, it belongs to the Valparaíso Region, and, more specifically, according to the 2012 Chilean census, the island has about 5,800 residents, of whom some 60 percent are descendants of the aboriginal Rapa Nui. Easter Island is considered part of Insular Chile, the islands official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means Easter Island. However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the name of Easter Island. William Churchill inquired about the phrase and was told there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes of the island. The phrase appears to have used in the same sense as the designation of Lands End at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, according to Barthel, oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka The little piece of land of Hau Maka. However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning end and one navel, and the phrase can also mean the Navel of the World. This was apparently its actual meaning, French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the actual translation the Navel of the World, another name, Mata ki te rangi, means Eyes looking to the sky. Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense, however it is common to refer to members of the community as Rapa Nui. Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200, rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 CE. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement, according to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands or the Marquesas Islands,3,200 km away
8.
Arica y Parinacota Region
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The XV Arica and Parinacota Region is one of Chiles 15 first order administrative divisions. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the east and it is also the countrys newest region, created under Law 20.175. It became operational on October 8,2007, in 2007, the region was subdivided to create the Arica y Parinacota region and the present day Tarapacá Region to the south. The region is subdivided into two provinces, Arica and Parinacota. According to data from the 2002 Census of INE, the region is populated by 189644 inhabitants and its density reaches 11.2 inhabitants per km ². This region holds the largest population of Aymara and a significant number of immigrants from neighboring Peru, included are those of Asian descent, such as Chinese and Japanese, and Arabs from Lebanon, Palestine and Syria. Most of the countrys Afro-Chileans live in the Arica province, descended from slaves in the 17th and 18th centuries, there are a large number of Roma people or Gypsies in the Arica province as well, originated from Eastern Europe in the late 19th century. At the level of cities, the most populated are, Arica, with 175,441 inhabitants and Putre, the region lies within the Norte Grande natural region. It combines deserts, green valleys, the steep and volcanic Andes mountains, a narrow coastal strip of low-lying land no more than 2 kilometres wide separates the Pacifics Nazca plate from the Andes. Its Parinacota volcano is the regions highest elevation at 6,348 metres and lies on the border with Bolivia in Lauca National Park. The regions two main rivers are the Lauca, which drains into Bolivias Coipasa salt flat, and the Lluta, lake Chungará at 4,517 metres above sea level ranks as one of the highest in the world. A desert climate dominates the region, near the coast, cloudiness can limit the temperature swing throughout the day, but in other drier areas, temperatures can vary greatly as is typical in deserts. A marginal desert region can be found over 3,000 m above sea level, on January 26,2007, Peru’s government issued a protest against Chile’s demarcation of the coastal frontier the two countries share. Moreover, it is alleged that the proposed Chilean law included an assertion of sovereignty over 19,000 m2 of land in Perus Tacna Region, according to the Peruvian Foreign Ministry, Chile has defined a new region without respecting the Concordia demarcation. For its part, the Chilean government has asserted that the region in dispute is not a site named Concordia. 1, which is located to the northeast and 200 meters inland, a possible border dispute was averted when the Chilean Constitutional Court formally ruled on January 26,2007 against the legislation. The Peruvian government has stated that it turn to the international court at The Hague to solve the dispute. Atacama Desert Geography of Chile Climate of Chile List of volcanoes in Chile Azapa Valley Ancuta Constitutional Court sentence
9.
Ethnic groups in Europe
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The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. The total number of minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the ethnic group or nationality. There are eight peoples of Europe with more than 30 million members residing in Europe and these eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population, Russians, Germans, French, British, Italians, Spanish, Ukrainians, Poles. About 20–25 million residents are members of diasporas of non-European origin, the population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population. Of the total population of Europe of some 730 million, over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz. Slavic, Italic and Germanic, the largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks and the Albanians. Beside the Indo-European languages there are two major language families on the European continent, Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, abkhaz–Adyghean, Basque, Kartvelian, and Nakho-Dagestani are linguistic isolates with no known relation to each other or to any other languages inside or outside of Europe. The Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly, the Indo-European groups of Europe are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age. The Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their homelands by about 3,000 years ago. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan, a pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty. Regarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek, a Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic, and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages, iron Age populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus, Aegean, Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians. Armenian Highlands/Anatolia, Armenians Balkans, Illyrians, Dacians, and Thracians, Caucasus, Georgians Italian peninsula, Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies. Western/Central Europe, Celts, Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii, Iberian peninsula, Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Basques and Phoenicians. Sardinia, ancient Sardinians, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes, British Isles, Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni. Northern Europe, Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples, iranian influence, Achaemenid control of Thrace and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes. The Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD70, the Bulgars, a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs
10.
Roto
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Roto, f. rota, is a term used to refer to Chilean people and in particular to the common Chilean. In Chile from the start of the 20th century it was applied with a negative classist connotation to poor city-dwellers and it is also used contemptuously in other Spanish-speaking countries, especially Bolivia and Peru, to refer to Chileans despectively. Otherwise, despite its defects, the roto is also considered a figure of national identity and this term became more used after the Chilean campaigns against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation in 1839 —Chilean troops defeated the confederation at the Battle of Yungay on 20 January 1839. In Chile tributes were paid to the victors of Yungay and, in a gesture of recognition,20 January was declared the Día del Roto Chileno — and the War of the Pacific. The Army has an appreciation to the figure which was regarded as the main hero –a collective and anonymous hero- of some of the most crucial battles in the war against Bolivia. In this context, the webpage of the Chilean Army states, The patriotism, bravery and heroism was embodied in the Chilean roto and this was the one who fought in Yungay and characterise himself by his fierceness and determination
11.
Music of Chile
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Chilean music refers to all kinds of music developed in Chile, or by Chileans in other countries, from the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors to the modern day. It also includes the native pre-Columbian music from what is today Chilean territory, archaeological excavations have unearthed many musical instruments showing the existence of a variety of musical cultures in the area long before even the Inca period. Sociologist Carlos Keller has compared the Inca occupation of the Andean region with the Roman occupation of Greece or the Aztec conquest of the Maya, like the Aztecs and Romans, the Incas took the knowledge and traditions of the cultures they found and incorporated them into their own. Inca music was formed by elements of Nazca, Chimú, Colla – Aymara and it is also believed that the Incas were the first American people to develop some kind of formal music education. Atacama people When the Incas advanced over the north of Chile, they encountered different native peoples and absorbed elements of their culture, especially the Atacameños. They were conquered by the Incas in the 15th century, but today still speak and sing some of the ancient songs in cunza, Mapuche people The Mapuche people were the main indigenous people populating the region running from Copiapó in the north to Chiloé in the south. The Mapuche were never conquered by the Incas, so their music, Spanish chroniclers observed their musical rituals with interest, and their observations have allowed historians to compare this early music with the Mapuche music of the modern day. Historian Samuel Marti writes that the Mapuche “do not dance or sing to demonstrate knowledge and skill, or to entertain spectators, the Franciscan missionary Geronimo de Ore noted that Mapuche children learned songs from a very young age and demonstrated excellent memory and sense of rhythm. The same method was used in Chile by Jesuit priests, Jesuit priest Bernardo Havestadt came to Chile in 1748 and worked as missionary in La Mocha Concepción, Rere and Santa Fe. In 1777, he published a document in Westphalia that contains 19 Mapuche songs accompanied by European-style music, unlike the Andean peoples, the Mapuches did not develop a theoretical musical system, but in practice one is imposed by the limitations of their instruments. The technique of playing these instruments has been preserved from generation to generation, there are no long notes in Mapuche music and the scales and melodic schemes of their music have no relation to the panphonic Andean music. Other chroniclers agreed with Gonzalez de Naveja’s observations, including the jesuit Juan Ignacio Molina, similar to the trutruca but smaller, made of ñolkin cane, a native plant species. Pingkullwe, a flute with 5 holes, made of colihue wood. Pifüllka or, a flute with a closed end, made of wood. Kull kull, a trumpet made of bull horn. Of the string instruments, the best known is the Kunkulkawe, known in cultures as the Pawpaweñ, Latajkiaswole. It consists of a bow that is rubbed against another bow, Chilean music is closely related with Chile’s history and geography. The landscape, climate and lifestyle vary greatly from north to south and have a impact on cultural traditions
12.
Cueca
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Cueca is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Argentina, Chile and Bolivia. In Chile, the cueca holds the status of national dance, while cuecas origins are not clearly defined, it is considered to have mostly European Spanish and arguably indigenous influences. The most widespread version of its origins relates it with the zamacueca which arose in Peru as a variation of Spanish Fandango dancing with criollo, the dance is then thought to have passed to Chile and Bolivia, where its name was shortened and where it continued to evolve. Due to the popularity in the region, the Peruvian evolution of the zamacueca was nicknamed la chilena. Later, after the Pacific War, the marinera, in honor of Perus naval combatants. In March 1879 the writer and musician Abelardo Gamarra renamed the “chilena” as the “marinera”, the Marinera, Zamba and the Cueca styles are distinct from each other and from their root dance, the zamacueca. Another theory is that Cueca originated in the early 19th century bordellos of South America, the usual interpretation of this courting dance is zoomorphic, it tries to reenact the courting ritual of a rooster and a hen. The male displays a quite enthusiastic and at times even aggressive attitude while attempting to court the female, the dance often finishes with the man kneeling on one knee, with the woman placing her foot triumphantly on his raised knee. In Bolivia, there are many throughout the different regions. Cueca styles of La Paz, Potosí and Sucre are the elegant and static versions, whereas in Cochabamba and Tarija the style is much livelier, the same could be said with the music where in different regions rhythm and speed slightly differ amongst the regions. While dancing, handkerchiefs are used by male and female dancers by twirling over the head. It is said the twirling of the handkerchief is a way to lure the woman, in Chile the cueca was developed and spread in the bars and taverns, which in the 19th century were popular centers of entertainment and parties. During the second half of the 19th century the cueca was spread to diverse Latin American countries, similarly to the majority of Argentina the cueca was known as the “chilena” in Bolivia as well. Chilean sailors and adventurers spread the cueca to the coast of Mexico in the cities of Guerrero and Oaxaca, in Peru the dance transformed into one of the most popular dances during the 1860’s and 1870’s and was also known as the “chilena”. The clothing worn during the dance is very traditional Chilean clothes. They wear black costumes or dresses, the men in the dance wear the huasos hat, shirts, flannel poncho, riding pants and boots, short jacket, riding boots, and spurs. Cueca dancing resembles a rooster-chicken relationship, the man approaches the woman and offers his arm, then the women accompanies him and they walk around the room. They then face each other and hold their handkerchief in the air and they never touch, but still maintain contact through facial expressions and movements
13.
Augusto Pinochet
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Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte was a Chilean general, politician and the military ruler of Chile between 1973 and 1990, he remained the Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army until 1998. He was also president of the Government Junta of Chile between 1973 and 1981 and his rule of Chile was a dictatorship. Several academics have stated that the support of the United States was crucial to the coup, Pinochet had been promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Army by Allende on 23 August 1973, having been its General Chief of Staff since early 1972. From the start of the new military government harsh measures were implemented. During the period of Pinochets rule, various investigations have identified the murder of 1,200 to 3,200 people with up to 80,000 people forcibly interned, according to the Chilean government, the official number of deaths and forced disappearances stands at 3,095. Chile was, for most of the 1990s, the economy in Latin America. Pinochets 17-year rule was given a legal framework through a controversial 1980 plebiscite, in a 1988 plebiscite 56% voted against Pinochets continuing as president, which led to democratic elections for the Presidency and Congress. However, Pinochet was arrested under an international arrest warrant on a visit to London on 10 October 1998 in connection with human rights violations. Following a legal battle he was released on grounds of ill-health, in 2004, Chilean Judge Juan Guzmán Tapia ruled that Pinochet was medically fit to stand trial and placed him under house arrest. Despite the indictment and 300 charges, he served time in house arrest. Pinochet was born in Valparaíso, the son of Augusto Pinochet Vera, a descendant of a French Breton immigrant from Lamballe, and Avelina Ugarte Martínez, in 1935, after four years studying military geography, he graduated with the rank of alférez in the infantry. In September 1937, Pinochet was assigned to the Chacabuco Regiment, two years later, in 1939, then with the rank of Sub-lieutenant, he moved to the Maipo Regiment, garrisoned in Valparaíso. He returned to Infantry School in 1940, on 30 January 1943, Pinochet married Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez, with whom he had five children, Inés Lucía, María Verónica, Jacqueline Marie, Augusto Osvaldo, and Marco Antonio. By late 1945 Pinochet had been assigned to the Carampangue Regiment in the city of Iquique. Three years later, he entered the War Academy but had to postpone his studies because, being the youngest officer, he had to carry out a service mission in the coal zone of Lota. The following year he returned to his studies in the Academy, at the same time, he worked as a teachers aide at the War Academy, giving military geography and geopolitics classes. He was also the editor of the institutional magazine Cien Águilas, at the beginning of 1953, with the rank of major, he was sent for two years to the Rancagua Regiment in Arica. While there, he was appointed professor of the Chilean War Academy, in 1956 Pinochet and a group of young officers were chosen to form a military mission to collaborate in the organization of the War Academy of Ecuador in Quito
14.
Folk music
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Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is applied to music older than that. Some types of music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways, as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and it has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. Starting in the century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times and this type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two, a consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions and they are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music, however, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used, Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers, the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character. Such definitions depend upon processes rather than abstract musical types, one widely used definition is simply Folk music is what the people sing. For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, Folk music was already. seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear, particularly in a community uninfluenced by art music and by commercial and printed song. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a schema comprising four types, primitive or tribal, elite or art, folk. Music in this genre is often called traditional music. Although the term is only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre
15.
Margot Loyola
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Margot Loyola Palacios was a musician, folk singer and researcher of the folklore of Chile and Latin America in general. Loyola was active as a musician and musical ethnographer/anthropologist for many decades and she published a large body of work dealing with musical styles, folk music and customs of all Chilean regions as well as other South American countries. Loyola was born in Linares, Chile in 1918 and she studied piano with Rosita Renard and Elisa Gayán at the National Conservatory of Music of Chile, and studied song with Blanca Hauser. In 1952 she immersed herself in researching the typical Peruvian dances and musical forms, the marinera and this allowed her to study the origins of these dances and to characterize the simililarities between the Peruvian and Chilean ones. Subsequently, she worked with Porfirio Vásquez, the patriarch of music in Peru. Later, Loyola studied Argentine and Uruguayan traditional and folk music, with Carlos Vega and Lauro Ayestarán, in 1952, she began her celebrated research on the ceremonial dances of the Chilean north, with Rogelia Perez and other musicians and groups. Loyola researched the folklore and traditional styles of all the regions of Chile as well as Easter Island. She compiled and published a great deal of material obtained from her scholarly research and was regarded as an artist. Among the art expressions she researched, some were rescued from oblivion and extinction by her work. Loyola created Chiles first traditional music and dance group, The Conjunto de Alumnos de Margot Loyola, in 1972, Loyola became a Professor of the University of Chile, and in 1998 she was made a Professor emeritus of the Catholic University of Valparaíso. She was awarded the coveted National Prize of Art in 1994 and she died on August 3,2015 at the age of 96 in Santiago de Chile. Loyolas activities resulted in books, videos, LPs, cassettes
16.
Violeta Parra
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Violeta del Carmen Parra Sandoval was a Chilean composer, songwriter, folklorist, ethnomusicologist and visual artist. In 2011 Andrés Wood directed a biopic about her, titled Violeta Went to Heaven, Parra was born in San Fabián de Alico, near San Carlos, Ñuble Province, a small town in southern Chile on 4 October 1917, as Violeta del Carmen Parra Sandoval. Violeta Parra was a member of the prolific Parra family, among her brothers were the notable modern poet, better known as the anti-poet, Nicanor Parra, and fellow folklorist Roberto Parra. Her son, Ángel Parra, and her daughter, Isabel Parra, are important figures in the development of the Nueva Canción Chilena. Their children have also maintained the familys artistic traditions. Her father was a teacher and her mother worked on a farm. Two years after Violetas birth, the moved to Santiago, then. It was in Chillán that Violeta started singing and playing the guitar, together with her siblings Hilda, Eduardo and Roberto, after Parras father died in 1929, the life circumstances of her family greatly deteriorated. Violeta and her siblings had to work to feed the family. In 1932, at the insistence of her brother Nicanor, Parra moved to Santiago to attend the Normal School, later, she moved back with her mother and siblings to Edison street, in the Quinta Normal district. The Parras performed in nightclubs, such as El Tordo Azul and El Popular, in the Mapocho district, interpreting boleros, rancheras, Mexican corridos and other styles. In 1934, she met Luis Cereceda, a driver, whom she married four years later. Parra began singing songs of Spanish origin, from the repertoire of the famous Argentinian singers Lolita Torres and she sang in restaurants and, also, in theatres, calling herself Violeta de Mayo. In 1945, she appeared with her children Isabel and Angel in a Spanish show in the Casanova confectionery, in 1948, after ten years of marriage, Parra and Luis Cereceda separated. Parra and her sister Hilda began singing together as The Parra Sisters, in 1949, Violeta met and married Luis Arce. Their daughter Carmen Luisa was born in the same year, Parra continued performing, she appeared in circuses and toured, with Hilda and with her children, throughout Argentina. In 1952, Parras second daughter, Rosita Clara, was born, in that same year, driven by her brother Nicanor, Violeta began to collect and collate authentic Chilean folk music from all over the Chile. She abandoned her old repertoire for songs, and began composing her own songs based on traditional folk forms
17.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
18.
Salvador Allende
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Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections. Allendes involvement in Chilean political life spanned a period of forty years. As a member of the Socialist Party, he was a senator, deputy and he unsuccessfully ran for the presidency in the 1952,1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency in a close three-way race and he was elected in a run-off by Congress as no candidate had gained a majority. A centre-right majority including the Christian Democrats, whose support had enabled Allendes election, denounced his rule as unconstitutional, on 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup détat sponsored by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, he gave his last speech vowing not to resign, later that day, Allende committed suicide with an assault rifle, according to an investigation conducted by a Chilean court with the assistance of international experts in 2011. Allende was born on 26 June 1908 in Santiago and he was the son of Salvador Allende Castro and Laura Gossens Uribe. Allendes family belonged to the Chilean upper middle class and had a tradition of political involvement in progressive. His grandfather was a prominent physician and a social reformist who founded one of the first secular schools in Chile, Salvador Allende was of Belgian and Basque descent. Allende attended high school at the Liceo Eduardo de la Barra in Valparaíso, as a teenager, his main intellectual and political influence came from the shoe-maker Juan De Marchi, an Italian-born anarchist. Allende was an athlete in his youth, being a member of the Everton de Viña del Mar sports club. Allende then graduated with a degree in 1933 from the University of Chile. During his time at medical school Allende was influenced by Professor Max Westenhofer, Allende co-founded a section of the Socialist Party of Chile in Valparaíso and became its chairman. He married Hortensia Bussi with whom he had three daughters and he was a Freemason, a member of the Lodge Progreso No.4 in Valparaíso. In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis Higiene Mental y Delincuencia in which he criticized Cesare Lombrosos proposals, in 1938, Allende was in charge of the electoral campaign of the Popular Front headed by Pedro Aguirre Cerda. The Popular Fronts slogan was Bread, a Roof and Work, after its electoral victory, he became Minister of Health in the Reformist Popular Front government which was dominated by the Radicals. Upon entering the government, Allende relinquished his seat for Valparaíso. Around that time, he wrote La Realidad Médico Social de Chile, after the Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany, Allende was one of 76 members of the Congress who sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews
19.
Popular Unity (Chile)
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The Popular Unity was a left-wing political alliance in Chile that stood behind the successful candidacy of Salvador Allende for the 1970 Chilean presidential election. They were later joined in 1971 by the Christian Left and in 1972 by the MAPU Obrero Campesino, UP also initially included the moderate Party of the Radical Left, but in 1972 it joined the opposition. UPs leader, Salvador Allende, was a Marxist who co-founded Chiles Socialist Party and his slight plurality in the election resulted in his confirmation as president by the National Congress of Chile. The Unidad Popular coalition itself experienced political conflicts, Salvador Allendes election in 1970 represented several important developments internationally and domestically. He was the first democratically elected socialist leader in Latin America, in contrast with Fidel Castros violent revolution from below, Allende proposed a peaceful transition to socialism through existing governmental structures, a revolution from above. Popular Unity had the support of the people, and this support only grew, Allende was elected with 36% of the popular vote in 1970. Five months into his presidency, that number had grown to 49% and this was where his support peaked. Following severe inflation and food shortages, Allende became increasingly unpopular until there was a coup on September 11,1973. The UPs early economic success was short lived, despite winning the presidential election, the legislative and judicial powers were still held by the opposition. Without their support, Allende was unable to modify the tax system or authorize the necessary budgets, the United States, under the Nixon administration, prevented the renegotiation of national debt and placed an embargo on goods from nationalized companies. In response to these efforts, Allende expanded the money supply, food shortages worsened as the embargo and market inefficiency limited imports and access to food. The UP promoted the transition to socialism. This primarily involved the nationalizing of certain industries and agrarian reform, the UP intended to nationalize basic sources of wealth held by foreign companies and internal monopolies. Agrarian reform would include the expropriation of latifundios, or large holdings of land, in addition to these policies, the UP promoted improved social security and public health, an improved and expanded housing sector, gender equality, and the extension of the right to organize unions. The expropriation of the first company, a factory, was announced on December 2,1970. There was considerable redistribution of income and falling unemployment, only the banks resisted the UP’s attempts to nationalize them. The main beneficiaries of both Eduardo Frei and Allende Land Reform were the already working the land. The process was similar to that of sharecropping, in which the owners of the land pay people to work the land, the peasants working the land keep a percentage of the profit, the rest goes to the owner
20.
Los Jaivas
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Los Jaivas are a Chilean musical group who perform in folk, rock, and progressive rock styles. Los Jaivas appeared in Chilean music in 1963 as a progressive-rock-andino group, the Parra brothers met Mario Mutis and Eduardo Gato Alquinta in their childhood and joined to play music. They acquired fame in Viña del Mar, by playing at diverse parties, the band took refuge in Argentina after the military dictatorship took over in Chile. In 1977, they headed to France, where they resided for a long time, the first major change in the band occurred in 1988 when Gabriel died in Peru in a car crash. His daughter Juanita took his place behind the drums, in January 2003, the main singer, Gato Alquinta, died in Coquimbo, Chile, of a heart attack while swimming in the sea. Gatos three sons joined the band to replace him, Ankatu, Eloy and Aurora. Aurora left shortly after, and Eloy died of an attack in 2004. Ankatu, however, is still a member of the band, the spelling of Jaivas is a misspelling of the word jaibas, which means crabs in Spanish. A homage was made to Los Jaivas on the occasion of their 50th anniversary, at the Festival del Huaso de Olmuhé realised in Olmué, Chile,2003 Serie de Oro, Grandes Exitos 2004 Official website Los Jaivas biography and discography Download album of Los Jaivas
21.
Inti-Illimani
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Inti-Illimani are an instrumental and vocal Latin American folk music ensemble from Chile. At the moment of the September 11,1973 Chilean coup they were on tour in Europe and were unable to return to their country where their music was proscribed by the military junta. They are perhaps the best internationally known members of the nueva canción movement and their name means Sun of the Illimani. In Aymara Illimani is the name of a mountain in the Bolivian Andes and they influenced Yeni Türkü, a Turkish group, during their debut album, Buğdayın Türküsü in 1979. The group was formed by students at Universidad Técnica del Estado at Santiago, in 1973 as they were on tour abroad, General Augusto Pinochet launched a coup detat and took power. They continued their efforts supporting Chilean democracy internationally, magnitizdat copies of their work continued to be distributed in Chile. In September 1988, days after they were no longer banned from Chile and they helped organize the voting down of the referendum that would have re-elected Pinochet. Recently, they were supported by Chile as representatives of Chilean culture. In the past the group was led by Horacio Salinas. However, in 2001 there was a split of the group. They were replaced by Manuel Meriño, Cristián González and Juan Flores, due to the importance of departed members, many called into question the ability of the remainder to carry on the Inti-Illimani name. Meanwhile, the three departed members started their own group they call Inti-Histórico, La Nueva Canción Chilena Canto de Pueblos Andinos Hacia La Libertad Canto de Pueblos Andinos, Vol. Tributo a su música 2009 - Tributo a Inti-Illimani Histórico
22.
Protest song
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A protest song is a song that is associated with a movement for social change and hence part of the broader category of topical songs. It may be folk, classical, or commercial in genre, Protest songs are frequently situational, having been associated with a social movement through context. Goodnight Irene, for example, acquired the aura of a protest song because it was written by Lead Belly, a black convict and social outcast, although on its face it is a love song. Or they may be abstract, expressing, in general terms, opposition to injustice and support for peace, or free thought. Beethovens Ode to Joy, a song in support of universal brotherhood, is a song of this kind and it is a setting of a poem by Schiller celebrating the continuum of living beings, to which Beethoven himself added the lines that all men are brothers. Songs which support the status quo do not qualify as protest songs, Protest song texts may have significant cognitive content. The labor movement musical Pins and Needles summed up the definition of a protest song in a number called Sing Me a Song of Social Significance, Phil Ochs once explained, A protest song is a song thats so specific that you cannot mistake it for BS. There is no evidence that it was sung as a movement song. A more recent song advocating sexual liberation is Sexo by Los Prisioneros, reggae* music, originating in Jamaica, has become a major global form of protest song on a wide variety of themes. The sociologist R. Serge Denisoff saw protest songs rather narrowly in terms of their function, Denisoff saw the protest song tradition as originating in the psalms or songs of grass-roots Protestant religious revival movements, terming these hymns protest-propaganda, as well. Denisoff subdivided protest songs as either magnetic or rhetorical, magnetic protest songs were aimed at attracting people to the movement and promoting group solidarity and commitment – for example, Eyes on the Prize and We Shall Overcome. Rhetorical protest songs, on the hand, are often characterized by individual indignation. Denisoff argued that although rhetorical songs often are not overtly connected to building a larger movement, examples include Bob Dylans Masters of War and Whats Going On by Marvin Gaye. They point out that Denisoff had paid attention to the song tunes of protest music, considered them strictly subordinate to the texts. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. described the songs this way. Raï has been music in Algeria, to the point of one popular singer being assassinated. According to Memi, It is a song against racism, so I wanted to sing it with a North African who was born in France Because of that and because of his talent, in the song, we say, In your eyes, I feel like foreigner. Its like the kids who were born in France but they have Arab faces and they are French, and they should be considered French
23.
La Ley (band)
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La Ley are a Chilean rock band formed by Andrés Bobe, Rodrigo Aboitiz, Luciano Rojas and Mauricio Claveria with Beto Cuevas. After a failed first album, Desiertos, they released Doble Opuesto, singles like Desiertos, Tejedores de Ilusión, and Prisioneros de la Piel made them stars in Chile, Argentina and Mexico, especially after the release of La Ley, their second recording. Before the release of Vértigo, Rodrigo Aboitiz left the band, in the middle of the tour, bassist Luciano Rojas left the band as well, and together with the Aboitiz formed a new group named Saiko. Their music became more rock and less experimental, and the musicians dropped their dark image, La Ley also performed on MTV Unplugged in 2001, and released an album of the performance, which went on to win a Grammy award. In 2004, they released a greatest hits compilation titled Historias e Histeria
24.
Los Tres
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Los Tres are a Chilean rock band composed of three members, a rock/folk singer and two jazzmen. It was one of the bands in the Chilean nineties, together with La Ley. Los Tres recorded nine albums during their first period, from 1989 until 2000, starting with Los Tres, the band dissolved in 2000 and its members continued their musical careers in personal projects, during the following five years. The bands newest album is Coliumo and it was released in October 2010. During the nineties, massive commercial entertainment rose immensely in Chile, in this context appeared Los Tres whose work is based, in contrast to most rock/pop groups from this era, on the folk and popular music of Chile with added rock and jazz influences. The bands attitude was to reject commercial pop/rock and easy trends, furthermore, their music and mostly their lyrics, though not following the style, can be considered as grunge in spirit. Given this, it was against all odds for them to succeed and they quickly became very popular in universities, bars, and peñas around the southern city of Concepción. Given their ambition, to success in the Chilean mainstream, they decided to move to the capital city of Santiago. In 1988, Ángel Parra joined the band, and even though Los Tres is Spanish for the three, they decided to keep the name, in 1991, with the alternative Alerce music label, Los Tres recorded their first album, Los Tres. Despite being only a successful album with songs that mixed Rock, Jazz. The single Un Amor Violento, and its music video became very popular in Chile. The lyrics in songs of this album talk strongly about their opposition to the Pinochet coup. The second album of the band was called Se Remata el Siglo, in 1993, now signed with the Sony music label, the band achieved a much better quality LP. La Espada & la Pared was the album of the band. This album was popular and the most important of their career. Singles like Dejate Caer and La Espada & La Pared were popular in all of Latin America, thanks to the diffusion on MTV Latino and became a Gold record in 46 days. One of the songs in La Espada & La Pared was the remake of Buddy Richards cover 1960 rock tune Tu Cariño se me Va. The popularity achieved by La Espada y La Pared, was an important motivation for the MTV network and this was recorded on 14 September 1995, with the participation of the Chilean musicians and friends of the band Toño Restucci and Cuti Aste
25.
Los Prisioneros
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Los Prisioneros were a Chilean rock / pop band formed in San Miguel, Santiago, Chile in 1979. They are considered one of the most important Chilean bands, in addition, they are considered by Latin American media and musicians pioneers of Rock en español and the band with strongest socio-political impact in Chile. Their roots date back to March 1979, when their members entered high school. From that point on, they reached mainstream success in Chile, Los Prisioneros created a simple Punk sound with a mix of Nueva ola, Techno, Synthpop, and Reggae. Their legacy has been recognised by such as Glup. Javiera y Los Imposibles, Lucybell, Los Tetas and La Ley and they made themselves known for having controversial songs that criticized socio-economic structures, education, economic policies, as well as societal attitudes of Chile and Latin America. Their songs were used by Chilean young people to protest the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. The band went through several cast configurations and through several phases and cycles of playing together, dissolving, placing third is La Voz De Los 80, ninth is Corazones and 15th is Pateando Piedras. In early 1990, when Claudio Narea left the band, two new members were added, Robert Rodriguez, guitarist and vocalist from Arequipa, Peru, by the end of 1991, they decided to dissolve resulting in a 10-year hiatus. In 2003, after they recorded their album titled Los Prisioneros, Jorge González and Claudio Narea had a falling out, resulting in Narea bitterly leaving the band. González and Tapia continued performing, and recorded an album titled Los Prisioneros En Las Raras Tocatas Nuevas De la Rock & Pop with Alvaro Henríquez from Los Tres band. In 2004, the band recorded Manzana with new members Sergio Coty Badilla and Gonzalo Yáñez, and they go on tour of Canada, The United States, Mexico, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, and Chile. On February 18,2006, in Caracas, Venezuela the band performed their last concert, Jorge González moved to Mexico, leaving Tapia and Badilla in Chile. Although theyre no longer active, their music continues to be relevant, in 1979, songwriter Jorge González, Miguel Tapia and Claudio Narea, met during their first year of High school or Secondary Education as it is known in Chile. They attended The «Liceo Number 6 Miguel León Prado» located in San Miguel and their high school has since been renamed Liceo Andres Bello. In 1980, Jorge and Claudio, along with brothers Rodrigo and Alvaro Beltran, the group created humorous songs a cappella, using everyday objects as percussion. Simultaneously, Jorge had a band with Miguel, where they would pretend to be John Lennon, after watching them play, Narea nicknamed them Los Vinchukas. Vinchukas are small insects of northern Chile, this nickname inferred that the Jorge and Miguel were «The Chilean Beatles». As they all got to know each other, they eventually invited Narea to join the band, shortly after Alvaro Beltran joined on guitar, and Miguel Tapia, who had received a drum set as a gift from one of his sisters, took over the drums
26.
Heavy metal music
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Heavy metal is a genre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, largely in the United Kingdom and the United States. Heavy metal lyrics and performance styles are associated with aggression. The first heavy metal such as Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath. During the mid-1970s, Judas Priest helped spur the evolution by discarding much of its blues influence, Motörhead introduced a punk rock sensibility. Beginning in the late 1970s, bands in the new wave of British heavy metal such as Iron Maiden, before the end of the decade, heavy metal fans became known as metalheads or headbangers. During the 1980s, glam metal became popular with such as Mötley Crüe. Since the mid-1990s popular styles have further expanded the definition of the genre and these include groove metal and nu metal, the latter of which often incorporates elements of grunge and hip hop. Heavy metal is characterized by loud distorted guitars, emphatic rhythms, dense bass-and-drum sound. Metal subgenres variously emphasize, alter, or omit one or more of these attributes, the typical band lineup includes a drummer, a bassist, a rhythm guitarist, a lead guitarist, and a singer, who may or may not be an instrumentalist. Keyboard instruments are used to enhance the fullness of the sound. Deep Purples Jon Lord played an overdriven Hammond organ, in 1970, John Paul Jones used a Moog synthesizer on Led Zeppelin III, by the 1990s, in. almost every subgenre of heavy metal synthesizers were used. The electric guitar and the power that it projects through amplification has historically been the key element in heavy metal. The heavy metal guitar sound comes from a use of high volumes. Guitar solos are an element of the heavy metal code. That underscores the significance of the guitar to the genre, most heavy metal songs featur at least one guitar solo, which is a primary means through which the heavy metal performer expresses virtuosity. One exception is nu metal bands, which tend to omit guitar solos, with rhythm guitar parts, the heavy crunch sound in heavy metal. Palm muting the strings with the hand and using distortion. Palm muting creates a tighter, more sound and it emphasizes the low end
27.
Alternative rock
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Alternative rock is a genre of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1980s and became widely popular in the 1990s and 2000s. In this instance, the word refers to the genres distinction from mainstream rock music. The terms original meaning was broader, referring to a generation of musicians unified by their debt to either the musical style or simply the independent. Ethos of punk rock, which in the late 1970s laid the groundwork for alternative music, Alternative rock is a broad umbrella term consisting of music that differs greatly in terms of its sound, its social context, and its regional roots. Most of these subgenres had achieved minor mainstream notice and a few bands representing them, such as Hüsker Dü, with the breakthrough of Nirvana and the popularity of the grunge and Britpop movements in the 1990s, alternative rock entered the musical mainstream and many alternative bands became successful. By the end of the decade, alternative rocks mainstream prominence declined due to a number of events that caused grunge and Britpop to fade, emo attracted attention in the larger alternative rock world, and the term was applied to a variety of artists, including multi-platinum acts. Post-punk revival artists such as Modest Mouse and The Killers had commercial success in the early, before the term alternative rock came into common usage around 1990, the sort of music to which it refers was known by a variety of terms. In 1979, Terry Tolkin used the term Alternative Music to describe the groups he was writing about, in 1979 Dallas radio station KZEW had a late night new wave show entitled Rock and Roll Alternative. College rock was used in the United States to describe the music during the 1980s due to its links to the radio circuit. In the United Kingdom, dozens of small do it yourself record labels emerged as a result of the punk subculture, according to the founder of one of these labels, Cherry Red, NME and Sounds magazines published charts based on small record stores called Alternative Charts. The first national chart based on distribution called the Indie Chart was published in January 1980, at the time, the term indie was used literally to describe independently distributed records. By 1985, indie had come to mean a particular genre, or group of subgenres, at first the term referred to intentionally non–mainstream rock acts that were not influenced by heavy metal ballads, rarefied new wave and high-energy dance anthems. The use of alternative gained further exposure due to the success of Lollapalooza, for which festival founder, in the late 1990s, the definition again became more specific. Defining music as alternative is often difficult because of two conflicting applications of the word, the name alternative rock essentially serves as an umbrella term for underground music that has emerged in the wake of punk rock since the mid-1980s. Alternative bands during the 1980s generally played in clubs, recorded for indie labels. Sounds range from the gloomy soundscapes of gothic rock to the guitars of indie pop to the dirty guitars of grunge to the 1960s/1970s revivalism of Britpop. This approach to lyrics developed as a reflection of the social and economic strains in the United States and United Kingdom of the 1980s, by 1984, a majority of groups signed to independent record labels mined from a variety of rock and particularly 1960s rock influences. This represented a break from the futuristic, hyper-rational post-punk years
28.
Chilean rock
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Chilean rock refers to rock music and its corresponding subgenres produced in Chile or by Chileans. Chilean rock lyrics are sung in Spanish. Rock music was first produced in Chile in the late 1950s by bands that imitated and this movement was known as the Nueva Ola. In the 1970s, however, there was a decline in the rock scene as a result of the military dictatorship imposed by the 1973 coup détat. From 1973 to 1990, all forms of music were prohibited. The 1980s saw the beginning of a revival for Chilean rock music, Rock and roll originated in the United States in the late 1940s and 1950s and expanded rapidly around the world. Chile’s first solo rock and roll artists were Peter Rock, with his Elvis Presley cover Baby, I Dont Care/Something Happened, and Nadia Milton, with her single Scobidou/Un poco. The twist was also popular in the 1950s, imported to Chile by the band Los Twisters with the singles Penas juveniles, Caprichitos, Me recordarás, Sueña. In 1963, Los Twisters were voted the most popular band in Chile, what began in the 1950s with imitations of American rock and roll soon developed into original music. La Orquesta Huambaly, with its roots in music and jazz, were the first Chilean rock and roll band to compose original songs. However, the first real success story of the Nueva Ola scene was Los Ramblers. Los Ramblers opened the door to other successful Nueva Ola artists. The Nueva Ola has been criticized for foreignizing Chilean music because the style, lyrics and even names were heavily lifted from American, for some, the Nueva Ola movement is not considered the true origin of Chilean rock. A neo-folk movement developed with the aim of recovering traditional Chilean folk music and this would have its fullest expression in the Nueva Canción Chilena, which grew up in parallel to other nueva canción movements across Latin America. They tried to represent the reality of life for working-class people, while psychedelia came to Chile in the 1970s as it did elsewhere, influencing bands like Aguaturbia, a new subgenre was being explored by Los Jaivas. Forming in 1963 in Viña del Mar, Los Jaivas mixed rock with South American ancestral music to form what became known as progressive rock. Other prominent early 1970s rock bands included Escombros and Sacros, Escombros contained former members of The Macs and The Jockers and sung in English, producing covers of Jimi Hendrix and Led Zeppelin among others. Sacros have been compared to The Byrds and Bob Dylan, with traces of Fusión latinoamericana, the album is now a collector’s item
29.
Chilean literature
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Chilean literature refers to all written or literary work produced in Chile or by Chilean writers. The literature of Chile is usually written in Spanish, Chile has a rich literary tradition and has been home to two Nobel prize winners, the poets Gabriela Mistral and Pablo Neruda. As the native cultures of the territories known today as Chile had no written tradition, the conquistador Pedro de Valdivia wrote letters to the king, Charles V, and in one of these letters, of 1554, he admiringly describes the natural beauty and landscape of the country. Chilean literature in the time of the Spanish conquest consisted mainly of chronicles of the war of Arauco, one exception to this, however, was the poem La Araucana, published in Spain in 1569,1578, and 1589 and also known as The Araucaniad. Later, Pedro de Oña, the first poet born in Chile, published an imitation of Ercilla and it was in print from February 13,1812 to April 1,1813, at which point it became El Monitor Araucano. The paper had four printed pages with two each, and was published weekly, every Thursday. Other journalists of the period included Manuel de Salas, José Miguel Infante, Juan Egaña Risco and Antonio José de Irisarri. In the following years, Mercedes Marín del Solar wrote the poem Canto fúnebre a la muerte de don Diego Portales, critics have seen the period as one of very active and enthusiastic writers, but with limited artistic technique. Its main feature was an emphasis on observing the picturesque and local. The group included Mercedes Marin del Solar, Vicente Pérez Rosales, the 1842 generation Made up of writers born between 1815 and 1829, this group was also known as the Romantic-social generation. Like their predecessors, they portrayed everyday life but added a layer of social critique to their work. Dramatic works of the period included Daniel Calderas El tribunal del honor, in 1886, the Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío moved to Valparaíso, Chile, where he stayed with fellow poets Poirier and Eduardo de la Barra. Together they co-authored a sentimental novel titled Emelina, although the novel was not an immediate success, Rubén Darío is credited with the re-emergence of Chilean lyric poetry with Azul in 1888. This was followed by Carlos Pezoa Véliz Entierro de campo and Tarde en el hospital, Carlos Pezoa Véliz only became famous after his early death at the age of 28. This movement was made up of writers born between 1830 and 1844, Alberto Blest Gana is considered a pioneer of realist style in Chile, starting with Martín Rivas in 1862, a portrait of the Chilean society of the time. Blest Gana describes what he saw as positive changes in Chilean society and he believed it was inevitable that local traditions would disappear and be replaced with European customs, and felt that opposition to these changes was old-fashioned and futile. In contrast, fellow writer Luis Orrego Luco observed the transformations with sadness, the opposing views of Blest Gana and Orrego Luco are the most important representation of the realism movement in Chile. Other important writers of the generation were Daniel Barros Grez, Eduardo de la Barra, Zorobabel Rodríguez, José Antonio Soffia, Moisés Vargas, during this period, narrative literature advanced more than poetry or drama, although the construction of new theatres encouraged some development in the latter
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Gabriela Mistral
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Gabriela Mistral was the pseudonym of Lucila Godoy y Alcayaga, a Chilean poet-diplomat, educator and humanist. Her portrait also appears on the 5,000 Chilean peso bank note, Mistral was born in Vicuña, Chile, but was raised in the small Andean village of Montegrande, where she attended a primary school taught by her older sister, Emelina Molina. She respected her sister greatly, despite the financial problems that Emelina brought her in later years. Her father, Juan Gerónimo Godoy Villanueva, was also a schoolteacher and he abandoned the family before she was three years old, and died, long since estranged from the family, in 1911. Throughout her early years she was never far from poverty, by age fifteen, she was supporting herself and her mother, Petronila Alcayaga, a seamstress, by working as a teachers aide in the seaside town of Compañia Baja, near La Serena, Chile. Probably in about 1906, while working as a teacher, Mistral met Romelio Ureta, a railway worker, who killed himself in 1909. The profound effects of death were already in the work, writing about his suicide led the poet to consider death. While Mistral had passionate friendships with men and women. She had been using the pen name Gabriela Mistral since June 1908 for much of her writing, after winning the Juegos Florales she infrequently used her given name of Lucila Godoy for her publications. Mistrals meteoric rise in Chiles national school system plays out against the politics of Chile in the first two decades of the 20th century. In her adolescence, the need for teachers was so great, and the number of trained teachers was so small, especially in the rural areas, the poet was able to rise from one post to another because of her publications in local and national newspapers and magazines. Her willingness to move was also a factor, between the years 1906 and 1912 she had taught, successively, in three schools near La Serena, then in Barrancas, then Traiguén in 1910, and in Antofagasta in the desert north, in 1911. By 1912 she had moved to work in a liceo, or high school, in Los Andes, in 1918 Pedro Aguirre Cerda, then Minister of Education, and a future president of Chile, promoted her appointment to direct a liceo in Punta Arenas. He had her join in the plan to reform libraries and schools. That year she published Desolación in New York, which promoted the international acclaim she had already been receiving thanks to her journalism. A year later she published Lecturas para Mujeres, a text in prose and verse that celebrates Latin America from the broad, following almost two years in Mexico she traveled from Laredo, Texas to Washington D. C. In early 1925 she returned to Chile, where she retired from the nations education system. The University of Chile had granted her the title of Spanish Professor in 1923
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Nobel Prize
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The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
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Pablo Neruda
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Pablo Neruda was the pen name and, later, legal name of the Chilean poet-diplomat and politician Ricardo Eliécer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto. He derived his pen name from the Czech poet Jan Neruda, Neruda won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971. Neruda became known as a poet when he was 10 years old and he often wrote in green ink, which was his personal symbol for desire and hope. The Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez once called Neruda the greatest poet of the 20th century in any language, harold Bloom included Neruda as one of the 26 writers central to the Western Tradition in his book The Western Canon. On July 15,1945, at Pacaembu Stadium in São Paulo, Brazil, during his lifetime, Neruda occupied many diplomatic positions and served a term as a Senator for the Chilean Communist Party. When President González Videla outlawed communism in Chile in 1948, a warrant was issued for Nerudas arrest, friends hid him for months in the basement of a house in the port city of Valparaíso. Later, Neruda escaped through a pass near Maihue Lake into Argentina. Years later, Neruda was an advisor to Chiles socialist President Salvador Allende. When Neruda returned to Chile after his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, Neruda died in his house in Isla Negra on 23 September 1973 six and a half hours after that injection. Pinochet, backed by elements of the forces, denied permission for Nerudas funeral to be made a public event. However, thousands of grieving Chileans disobeyed the curfew and crowded the streets, soon after her death, Reyes moved to Temuco, where he married Trinidad Candia Marverde, a woman with whom he had had another child nine years earlier, a boy named Rodolfo. Neruda grew up in Temuco with Rodolfo and a half-sister, Laura and he composed his first poems in the winter of 1914. During this winter, he wrote often about dinosaurs, on July 18,1917, at the age of thirteen, he published his first work, an essay entitled Entusiasmo y perseverancia in the local daily newspaper La Mañana, signed Neftalí Reyes. From 1918 to mid-1920 he published poems, such as Mis ojos. In 1919, he participated in the literary contest Juegos Florales del Maule, by mid-1920, when he adopted the pseudonym Pablo Neruda, he was a published author of poems, prose, and journalism. He is thought to have named himself Neruda after the Czech poet Jan Neruda, the young poets intention in publishing under a pseudonym was to avoid his fathers disapproval of his poems. In 1921, at the age of 16, Neruda moved to Santiago to study French at the Universidad de Chile, both works were critically acclaimed and have been translated into many languages. Over the decades, Veinte poemas sold millions of copies and became Nerudas best-known work, almost one hundred years later, Veinte Poemas still retains its place as the best selling poetry book in the Spanish language
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Isabel Allende
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Isabel Allende is a Chilean-American writer. Allende, whose works sometimes contain aspects of the magic realist tradition, is famous for such as The House of the Spirits and City of the Beasts. Allende has been called the worlds most widely read Spanish-language author, in 2004, Allende was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters, and in 2010, she received Chiles National Literature Prize. President Barack Obama awarded her the 2014 Presidential Medal of Freedom, Allendes novels are often based upon her personal experience and historical events and pay homage to the lives of women, while weaving together elements of myth and realism. She has lectured and toured many American colleges to teach literature, fluent in English as a second language, Allende was granted United States citizenship in 1993, having lived in California with her American husband since 1989. Allende was born Isabel Allende Llona in Lima, Peru, the daughter of Francisca Llona Barros and Tomás Allende and her father was a first cousin of Salvador Allende, President of Chile from 1970 to 1973, thus the former head of state is her first cousin once removed. Many sources cite Allende as being Salvador Allendes niece, the stems from Allende herself often referring to Salvador as her uncle in her private life. This is because in Spanish a first cousin once removed is translated as second degree uncle, in 1945, after Tomás disappeared, Isabels mother relocated with her three children to Santiago, Chile, where they lived until 1953. Between 1953 and 1958, Allendes mother was married to Ramón Huidobro, Huidobro was a diplomat appointed to Bolivia and Beirut. In Bolivia, Allende attended an American private school, and in Beirut, the family returned to Chile in 1958, where Allende was also briefly home-schooled. In her youth, she read widely, particularly the works of William Shakespeare, in 1970, Salvador Allende appointed Huidobro as ambassador to Argentina. While living in Chile, Allende finished her studies and met engineering student Miguel Frías whom she married in 1962. From 1959 to 1965, Allende worked with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in Santiago, Chile, then in Brussels, Belgium, for a short time in Chile, she also had a job translating romance novels from English to Spanish. Allende and Fríass daughter Paula was born in 1963, in 1966, Allende again returned to Chile and her son Nicolás was born there that year. The CIA-backed military coup in September 1973 changed everything for Allende, when she herself was added to the list and began receiving death threats, she fled to Venezuela, where she stayed for 13 years. In Venezuela she was a columnist for El Nacional, a national newspaper. In 1978, she began a temporary separation from Miguel Frías and she lived in Spain for two months, then returned to her marriage. During a visit to California in 1988, Allende met her second husband, in 1994, she was awarded the Gabriela Mistral Order of Merit, the first woman to receive this honor
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Il Postino: The Postman
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Il Postino, The Postman is a 1994 Italian film directed by Michael Radford. The film was released in the US as The Postman. However, since the release of Kevin Costners post-apocalyptic film of the same name, the film tells a fictional story in which the real life Chilean poet Pablo Neruda forms a relationship with a simple postman who learns to love poetry. It stars Philippe Noiret, Massimo Troisi, and Maria Grazia Cucinotta, the screenplay was adapted by Anna Pavignano, Michael Radford, Furio Scarpelli, Giacomo Scarpelli, and Massimo Troisi from the novel Ardiente paciencia by Antonio Skármeta. In 1983, Skármeta himself wrote and directed the film Ardiente paciencia, writer/star Massimo Troisi postponed heart surgery so that he could complete the film. The day after filming was completed, he suffered a heart attack. Set in the year 1950, Pablo Neruda, the famous Chilean poet, is exiled to an island in Italy for political reasons. On the island, a local, Mario Ruoppolo, is dissatisfied with being a fisherman, Mario looks for other work and is hired as a temporary postman, with Neruda as his only customer. He uses his bicycle to hand deliver Nerudas mail, though poorly educated, the postman eventually befriends Neruda and becomes further influenced by Nerudas political views and poetry. Meanwhile, Mario falls in love with a young lady, Beatrice Russo. He is shy with her, but he enlists Nerudas help, Mario constantly asks Neruda if particular metaphors that he uses are suitable for his poems. Mario is able to communicate with Beatrice and express his love through poetry. Despite the aunts strong disapproval of Mario, because of his sensual poetry, the priest refuses to allow Mario to have Neruda as his best man because of politics, however, this is soon resolved. This was because Di Cosimo was the politician in office in the area with the Christian Democrats, at the wedding, Neruda receives the welcome news that there is no longer a Chilean warrant for his arrest so he returns to Chile. Mario writes a letter but never gets any reply, several months later, he receives a letter from Neruda. However, to his dismay, it is actually from his secretary, while there Mario comes upon an old phonograph and listens to the song he first heard when he met Neruda. Moved, he makes recordings of all the sounds on the island onto a cassette including the heartbeat of his soon-to-be-born child. Several years later, Neruda finds Beatrice and her son, Pablito in the old inn
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Chilean art
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Chilean art refers to all kinds of visual art developed in Chile, or by Chileans, from the arrival of the Spanish conquerors to the modern day. It also includes the native pre-Columbian pictorial expression on modern Chilean territory, developed prior to the existence of written sources, study of this period is based on the material remains and vestiges of the cultures that developed. The beginning of art in Chile coincided with the appearance of indigenous cultures in the territory. After this period, indigenous art was virtually eliminated by the Catholic community as part of the process of converting native people, prehistoric art is closely related to the cave paintings and petroglyphs developed during the prehispanic period, especially in the extreme North of Chile. Art historian Luis Álvarez Urquieta was one of the first authors to raise the issue of pre-Columbian art in his book Pintura en Chile. The author explains that most of the painting developed before the arrival of the Spanish was done by the Atacameño and Araucano cultures, the use of art in this time could be aesthetic, practical, ritual or religious, depending on the culture and the resources available. Animal figures and symbols abound but images of people did not appear unless they were important or had some significance for the tribe. The cultural references varied depending on the area where the people lived, northern cultures, like the Diaguita, preferred geometric figures and used pottery and petroglyphs extensively. The Mapuche people, based in the centre of the modern Chilean territory, were focused on the rituals performed by the machi, as well as their gods. They developed colourful ritual textiles, used by the machi, and their designs did also include some northern influences. In the far south, there is evidence of petroglyph art. Notable among the southern cultures was the artwork of the Selknam people, also known as Ona, overall, prehistoric native art throughout the Americas was almost entirely destroyed by the Spanish conquerors, and Chile did not escape this. Some remains were preserved in the north, where, thanks to the qualities of the arid Atacama Desert. Chilean colonial art refers to art produced in the Chilean colonial period that extended from 1598 AD to 1810 AD, the period saw a mixing of European techniques with native cultural heritage. Artistically, the period began around the century and was led at first by the Spanish Jesuits. Art was seen as vital for the education and religious conversion of the people and played an important role in the transmission of Spanish dominance. Some countries, like Mexico, Ecuador and Peru, had their own art schools where local artists could work, Chile did not, however, because it did not represent a major interest for the Spanish government, so it relied on importing pieces from foreign art schools. According to art historian Luis Álvarez Urquieta, Spanish painting of the time incorporated Asian influences as a result of Spanish trade with the far east
