1.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
2.
Abingdon-on-Thames
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Abingdon /ˈæbɪŋdən/, also known as Abingdon on Thames or Abingdon-on-Thames, is a market town and civil parish in England. Historically the county town of Berkshire, since 1974 it has been the seat of the Vale of White Horse district in the county of Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 33,130. This is 2,504 more than in the 2001 Census total of 30,626 and it is on the A415 between Witney and Dorchester, adjacent to the A34 trunk road, linking it with the M4 and M40 motorways. The B4017 and A4183 also link the town, both being part of the old A34 and often heavily congested, Local bus services to Oxford and the surrounding areas are run by Stagecoach Oxfordshire, Thames Travel, the Oxford Bus Company and smaller independent companies. The small, primarily stopping-service, railway stations at Culham and Radley are both just over 2 miles away, Abingdons eastern ring-road and newest suburbs are under a mile which is connected by footpath and cycleway from Radley railway station. The Radley to Abingdon railway station branch line closed to passengers in 1963, the nearest major stations with taxi ranks are Oxford and Didcot Parkway. All are managed by First Great Western, frequent express buses operate between Oxford station and Abingdon. A Neolithic stone hand axe was found at Abingdon, petrological analysis in 1940 identified the stone as epidotised tuff from Stake Pass in the Lake District,250 miles to the north. Stone axes from the same source have been found at Sutton Courtenay, Alvescot, Kencot, Abingdon has been occupied from the early to middle Iron Age and the remains of a late Iron Age defensive enclosure lies below the town centre. The oppidum was in use throughout the Roman occupation, Abingdon Abbey was founded in Saxon times, possibly around AD676, but its early history is confused by numerous legends, invented to raise its status and explain the place name. The name seems to mean Hill of a man named Æbba, or a woman named Æbbe, however Abingdon stands in a valley and not on a hill. It is thought that the name was first given to a place on Boars Hill above Chilswell, in 1084, William the Conqueror celebrated Easter at the Abbey and then left his son, the future Henry I, to be educated there. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Abingdon was an agricultural centre with an extensive trade in wool. The abbot seems to have held a market very early times and charters for the holding of markets and fairs were granted by various sovereigns. In 1337 there was a riot in protest at the Abbots control of this market in which several of the monks were killed. P. The present Christs Hospital originally belonged to the Guild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI founded the almshouses instead, the council was empowered to elect one burgess to parliament and this right continued until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were appointed and the boundaries described in great detail
3.
City of Oxford High School for Boys
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The City of Oxford High School for Boys was founded in 1881 by Thomas Hill Green to provide Oxford boys with an education which would enable them to prepare for University. It was administered by the City of Oxford Education Committee, with around 400 boys enrolled, the school finally closed in 1966, when it was combined with what was then Southfield Grammar School to form a Grammar school, known as Oxford School at that time. Additional classrooms were added in the playground, a space that was contained on the south side by an extensive length of the citys mediaeval wall. The school remained here until 1966, when it moved to the Southfield Grammar School site in Glanville Road off Cowley Road, the George Street building for some years housed the Classics Department of Oxford University, but was transferred to the History Faculty in the summer of 2007. The schools playing fields were in North Oxford, along and beside Marston Ferry Road, the George Street building has the following inscription on it, Thomas Hill Green. Thus were united town and gown in common cause, during the late 1940s, the headmaster was F. C. Lay, he was succeeded by Mr R. W. Bodey in the 1960s, other masters included Mr F. Rowland, Mr B. Vaughan, Mr E. J. Wright, Mr K G Rook, Mr C W Busby, Mr Coleman, Mr Lee, Mr M. J. Soulsby, Mr F. W. Sutton, Mr B. A. Field, Mr Ian H. Taylor, G. Wright, B. C. Atkin, Len Bielby and Mr R. Atkinson, Labor Vincit Omnia Tis work that conquers all. This gem of ancient Roman lore Was carved above the prefects door, nemo Repente Sapit, too, Was there beside it in full view, Reminding those of slower pace That perseverance wins the race. Labor Vincit Omnia Labor Vincit Omnia Each November the School Speech Day took place in Oxford Town Hall. First there was a service in St. Marys church in the morning, then the main event in the afternoon started with a procession of staff in Academic robes. In December there was a carol service in the University Church. The boys blazers were chocolate brown, as were the caps, in later years Sixth formers wore blue blazers. The striped tie was brown with red and blue diagonal piping, on entry to the school, every boy became a member of one of the four school houses, Lawrence, Jolliffe, Kerry or Salter. The former pupils of the City of Oxford High School now have their own Old Boys Association, following the merger of the Oxford High School for Boys, and many changes, there remains a school at the Glanville Road site, the Oxford Spires Academy. Dr. Cyril Beeson, entomologist and antiquarian horologist, rupert E. Theodore William Chaundy, mathematician Brian Cobby, voice of the British speaking clock. The pianist and composer Jack Gibbons, arthur Hawes, Archdeacon of Lincoln Philip Hunt, Baron Hunt of Kings Heath OBE, Labour peer and former Minister in DEFRA and the DECC, and President from 1998-9 of the Family Planning Association
4.
St John's College, Oxford
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford. It was founded in 1555 by the merchant Sir Thomas White, the college occupies a central location on St Giles and has a student body of approximately 390 undergraduates and 250 postgraduates. As well as over 100 academic staff, the college is supported by a number of other staff. On 1 May 1555, Sir Thomas White, lately Lord Mayor of London, initially the new St Johns College was rather small and not well endowed financially. During the reign of Elizabeth I the fellows lectured in rhetoric, Greek, and dialectic, however, St Johns initially had a strong focus on the creation of a proficient and educated priesthood. White was Master of the Merchant Taylors Company, and established a number of educational foundations, although the College was closely linked to such institutions for many centuries, it became a more open society in the later 19th century. Female students were first admitted in 1979, and Elizabeth Fallaize was appointed as the first female fellow in 1990, although primarily a producer of Anglican clergymen in the earlier periods of its history, St Johns also gained a reputation for both law and medicine. The patronage of the parish of St Giles was included in the endowment of the college by Thomas White, vicars of St Giles were formerly either Fellows of the College, or ex-Fellows who were granted the living on marriage. The College retains the right to present candidates for the benefice to the bishop, today St Johns maintains the largest endowment of the Oxford colleges, for example owning the Oxford Playhouse building and the Millwall F. C. training ground. The college is situated on a single 5.5 hectares site, most of the college buildings are organised around seven quadrangles. The Front Quadrangle mainly consists of buildings built for the Cistercian St Bernards College. Construction started in 1437, though when the site passed to the crown in 1540, due to the Dissolution of the Monasteries, much of the exterior was as it is now, christ Church took control of the site in 1546 and Thomas White acquired it in 1554. Front Quad was gravelled until the colleges 400th anniversary when the current circular lawn, the turret clock, made by John Knibb, dates from 1690. The chapel was built and dedicated to St Bernard of Clairvaux in 1530, the chapel was re-dedicated to St John the Baptist in 1557. The Baylie chapel in the north-east corner was added 1662-9 and refitted in 1949, in 1840 the chapels interior underwent major changes which created the gothic revival pews, roof, wall arcading and west screen. Thomas White, William Laud and William Juxon are buried beneath the chapel, all three were presidents of the college, with the latter two also holding the role of Archbishop of Canterbury. Choral services have been sung in the chapel since 1618, orlando Gibbonss famous anthem This is the record of John was written at the Colleges request, and presumably received its first performance here. The college in 1620 commissioned the anthem As they departed from Michael East, the college choir today sings evensong services on Sundays and Wednesdays during term time, as well as singing the grace at Sunday formal hall
5.
Entomology
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Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use, Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture, but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. William Kirby is widely considered as the father of Entomology, in collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subjects foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world, earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be recognized to such as Hymenoptera or Coleoptera. However, insects other than Lepidoptera are typically identifiable to genus or species only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a large number of species and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA, in 1994 the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called The Associate Certified Entomologist. To qualify as a true entomologist an individual would require an advanced degree. Trichopterology - caddis flies Vespology - Social wasps Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, there are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. C. Y. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas University of Minnesota, big Fleas Have Little Fleas, How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson,208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7. Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson, borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. — a classic textbook in North America, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Capinera, JL.2008. Iowa State Entomology Index of Internet Resources, archived from the original on 2006-11-14. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Compendium of References on Flies and Disease, archived from the original on 2006-10-15. USDA Collecting methods. Detailed instructions Arthropa Extensive photo album sorted by topic, Tereshkin Scientific illustration in entomology Tereshkin, A.2008, Methodology of a scientific drawings preparation in entomology on example of ichneumon flies
6.
Antiquarian
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An antiquarian or antiquary is an aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with attention to ancient artifacts, archaeological and historic sites, or historic archives. Today the term is used in a pejorative sense, to refer to an excessively narrow focus on factual historical trivia. The Kaogutu or Illustrated Catalogue of Examined Antiquity compiled by Lü Dalin is one of the oldest known catalogues to systematically describe and classify ancient artifacts which were unearthed. Interests in antiquarian studies of ancient inscriptions and artifacts waned after the Song Dynasty, Books on antiquarian topics covered such subjects as the origin of customs, religious rituals, and political institutions, genealogy, topography and landmarks, and etymology. By contrast, antiquarian works as a form are organized by topic. Major antiquarian Latin writers with surviving works include Varro, Pliny the Elder, Aulus Gellius, the Roman emperor Claudius published antiquarian works, none of which is extant. Some of Ciceros treatises, particularly his work on divination, show strong antiquarian interests, roman-era Greek writers also dealt with antiquarian material, such as Plutarch in his Roman Questions and the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus. The aim of Latin antiquarian works is to collect a number of possible explanations. The antiquarians are often used as sources by the ancient historians, despite the importance of antiquarian writing in the literature of ancient Rome, some scholars view antiquarianism as emerging only in the Middle Ages. Antiquarianisms wider flowering is more associated with the Renaissance, and with the critical assessment. The development of genealogy as a scientific discipline went hand-in-hand with the development of antiquarianism, genealogical antiquaries recognised the evidential value for their researches of non-textual sources, including seals and church monuments. Many early modern antiquaries were also chorographers, that is to say, they recorded landscapes, in England, some of the most important of these took the form of county histories. They increasingly argued that empirical evidence could be used to refine. Antiquaries had always attracted a degree of ridicule, and since the century the term has tended to be used most commonly in negative or derogatory contexts. Nevertheless, many practising antiquaries continue to claim the title with pride, Antiquary was the usual term in English from the 16th to the mid-18th centuries to describe a person interested in antiquities. From the second half of the 18th century, however, antiquarian began to be used widely as a noun. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, a distinction was perceived to exist between the interests and activities of the antiquary and the historian
7.
Horology
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Horology is the art and/or science of measuring time. Ancient Sanskrit language has a similar word hora meaning hour and this word is also used as a measurement of time. Clocks, watches, clockwork, sundials, hourglasses, clepsydras, timers, time recorders, marine chronometers, people interested in horology are called horologists. That term is used both by people who deal professionally with timekeeping apparatus, as well as aficionados and scholars of horology, horology and horologists have numerous organizations, both professional associations and more scholarly societies. There are many museums and several specialized libraries devoted to the subject. One example is the Royal Greenwich Observatory, which is also the source of the Prime Meridian, one of the more comprehensive museums dedicated to horology is the Musée international dhorlogerie in La Chaux-de-Fonds. The Musée dHorlogerie du Locle is smaller but located nearby, one of the better horological museums in Germany is the Deutsches Uhrenmuseum in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, in the Black Forest. The two leading specialised horological museums in North America are the National Watch and Clock Museum in Columbia, Pennsylvania, the eastern French city of Besançon has the Musée du Temps in the historic Palais Grenvelle. An example of a devoted to one particular type of clock is the Cuckooland Museum in the UK. One of the most comprehensive horological libraries open to the public is the National Watch, other good horological libraries providing public access are at the Musée international dhorlogerie in Switzerland, at the Deutsches Uhrenmuseum in Germany, and at the Guildhall Library in London. Another museum dedicated to clocks is the Willard House and Clock Museum in Grafton, Massachusetts. A
8.
Order of the Indian Empire
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The Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1878. With the death of the last surviving knight, the Maharaja of Dhrangadhra, the motto of the Order is Imperatricis auspiciis, a reference to Queen Victoria, the first Empress of India. The Order is the junior British order of chivalry associated with the British Indian Empire, the British founded the Order in 1878 to reward British and native officials who served in India. The Order originally had one class, but expanded to comprise two classes in 1887. The Orders have never formally abolished, and as of 2012 Queen Elizabeth II remains the Sovereign of the Orders. Today, there are no living members of the order, the last Grand Master of the Order was Rear Admiral The 1st Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, the last Viceroy of India. Lord Mountbatten was killed in an IRA bombing in County Sligo on 27 August 1979, the last surviving GCIE, H. H. Maharaja Sri Sir Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, the Maharaja of Travancore, died on 19 July 1991 in Trivandrum. The last surviving KCIE, H. H. Maharaja Sri Sir the Maharaja of Dhrangadhra, the last surviving CIE, Ian Dixon Scott, died on 3 March 2002. The fictional characters Purun Dass and Harry Paget Flashman each held a KCIE, the British Sovereign serves as the Sovereign of the Order. The Grand Master held the next-most senior rank, the position was held, ex officio, members of the first class were known as Knights Grand Commanders rather than Knights Grand Cross so as not to offend the non-Christian Indians appointed to the Order. At the time of foundation in 1878 the order had one class. In 1886, the Order was divided into the two classes of Knights Commander and Companions, the following year the class of Knight Grand Commander was added, the composition of the other two classes remained the same. By Letters Patent of 2 Aug 1886, the number of Knights Commander was increased to 82, membership was expanded by Letters Patent of 10 June 1897, which permitted up to 32 Knights Grand Commander. A special statute of 21 October 1902 permitted up to 92 Knights Commander, on 21 December 1911, in connection with the Delhi Durbar, the limits were increased to 40 Knights Grand Commander,120 Knights Commander, and 40 nominations of companions in any successive year. British officials and soldiers were eligible for appointment, as were rulers of Indian Princely States, generally, the rulers of the more important states were appointed Knights Grand Commanders of the Order of the Star of India, rather than of the Order of the Indian Empire. Women, save the princely rulers, were ineligible for appointment to the Order, female princely rulers were, oddly, admitted as Knights rather than as Dames or Ladies. As well, other Asian and Middle Eastern rulers were also appointed, members of the Order wore elaborate costumes on important ceremonial occasions, The mantle, worn only by Knights Grand Commanders, comprised dark blue satin lined with white silk. On the left side was a representation of the star, the collar, also worn only by Knights Grand Commanders, was made of gold
9.
Forestry
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Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests and associated resources to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human and environment benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands, the science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester, other terms are used a verderer and a silviculturalist being common ones. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, the preindustrial age has been dubbed by Werner Sombart and others as the wooden age, as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of forestry is closely connected with the rise of capitalism, economy as a science and varying notions of land use. Roman Latifundiae, large estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire. Large deforestations came with respectively after the decline of the Romans, however already in the 5th century, monks in the then Byzantine Romagna on the Adriatic coast, were able to establish stone pine plantations to provide fuelwood and food. This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by Dante Alighieri in his 1308 poem Divine Comedy, the use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. A similar approach was used in Japan and it was also later written about by the Ming Dynasty Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. In Europe, land rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests. The notion of commons refers to the traditional legal term of common land. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times, however, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like fox hunting. Systematic management of forests for a yield of timber is said to have begun in the German states in the 14th century, e. g. in Nuremberg. Typically, a forest was divided into sections and mapped. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Dutch ship yards, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. The notion of Nachhaltigkeit, sustainability in forestry, is connected to the work of Hans Carl von Carlowitz
10.
T. E. Lawrence
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Thomas Edward Lawrence, CB, DSO was a British archaeologist, military officer, diplomat, and writer. He was renowned for his role during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. Chapman had left his wife and first family in Ireland to live with Junner, in 1896, the Lawrences moved to Oxford, where Lawrence attended high school, then in 1907–1910 studied History at Jesus College. Between 1910 and 1914 he worked as an archaeologist, chiefly at Carchemish, soon after the outbreak of war he joined the British Army and was stationed in Egypt. In 1916, he was sent to Arabia on a mission and quickly became involved with the Arab Revolt, serving, along with other British officers. After the war, Lawrence served until 1922 as a diplomat, in 1922, he retreated from public life and spent the years until 1935 serving as an enlisted man, mostly in the Royal Air Force, with a brief stint in the Army. During this time, he wrote and published his work, Seven Pillars of Wisdom. He also translated books into English and completed The Mint, which was published posthumously and he corresponded extensively and was friendly with well-known artists, writers, and politicians. For the RAF, he participated in the design of rescue motorboats, Lawrences public image resulted in part from the sensationalised reporting of the Arab revolt by American journalist Lowell Thomas, as well as from Seven Pillars of Wisdom. In 1935, Lawrence was fatally injured in a accident in Dorset. Lawrence was born on 16 August 1888 in Tremadog, Carnarvonshire, Wales in a house named Gorphwysfa, now known as Snowdon Lodge. His Anglo-Irish father Thomas Chapman had left his wife Edith after he fell in love and had a son with Sarah Junner, a young Scotswoman who had been engaged as governess to his daughters. Sarah was the daughter of Elizabeth Junner and John Lawrence, who worked as a carpenter and was a son of the household in which Elizabeth had been a servant. She was dismissed four months before Sarah was born, Sarah and Thomas did not marry, but lived together under the name Lawrence. In 1914, Sir Thomas inherited the Chapman baronetcy based at Killua Castle, the family home in County Westmeath, Ireland. They had five sons, Thomas Edward was the second eldest, from Wales the family moved to Kirkcudbright, Galloway in southwestern Scotland, then Dinard in Brittany, then to Jersey. In 1894–96, the family lived at Langley Lodge, set in woods between the eastern borders of the New Forest and Southampton Water in Hampshire. The residence was isolated, and young Ned Lawrence had many opportunities for outdoor activities, in the summer of 1896, the Lawrences moved to 2, Polstead Road in Oxford, where they lived under the names of Mr and Mrs Lawrence until 1921
11.
Berkshire
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Berkshire is a county in south east England, west of London. It was recognised as the Royal County of Berkshire because of the presence of Windsor Castle by the Queen in 1957, Berkshire is a county of historic origin and is a home county, a ceremonial county and a non-metropolitan county without a county council. Berkshire County Council was the main county governance from 1889 to 1998 except for the separately administered County Borough of Reading, in 1974, significant alterations were made to the countys administrative boundaries although the traditional boundaries of Berkshire were not changed. The towns of Abingdon, Didcot and Wantage were transferred to Oxfordshire, Slough was gained from Buckinghamshire, since 1998, Berkshire has been governed by the six unitary authorities of Bracknell Forest, Reading, Slough, West Berkshire, Windsor and Maidenhead and Wokingham. It borders the counties of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Greater London, Surrey, according to Asser, it takes its name from a large forest of box trees that was called Bearroc. Berkshire has been the scene of notable battles through its history. Alfred the Greats campaign against the Danes included the Battles of Englefield, Ashdown, Newbury was the site of two English Civil War battles, the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 and the Second Battle of Newbury in 1644. The nearby Donnington Castle was reduced to a ruin in the aftermath of the second battle, another Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688. It was the only military action in England during the Glorious Revolution. Reading became the new county town in 1867, taking over from Abingdon, boundary alterations in the early part of the 20th century were minor, with Caversham from Oxfordshire becoming part of the Reading county borough, and cessions in the Oxford area. On 1 April 1974 Berkshires boundaries changed under the Local Government Act 1972, Berkshire took over administration of Slough and Eton and part of the former Eton Rural District from Buckinghamshire. 94 Signal Squadron still keep the Uffington White Horse in their insignia, the original Local Government White Paper would have transferred Henley-on-Thames from Oxfordshire to Berkshire, this proposal did not make it into the Bill as introduced. On 1 April 1998 Berkshire County Council was abolished under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, unlike similar reforms elsewhere at the same time, the non-metropolitan county was not abolished. Berkshire divides into two distinct sections with the boundary lying roughly on a north-south line through the centre of Reading. The eastern section of Berkshire lies largely to the south of the River Thames, in two places the county now includes land to the north of the river. Tributaries of the Thames, including the Loddon and Blackwater, increase the amount of low lying land in the area. Beyond the flood plains, the land rises gently to the county boundaries with Surrey, much of this area is still well wooded, especially around Bracknell and Windsor Great Park. In the west of the county and heading upstream, the Thames veers away to the north of the county boundary, leaving the county behind at the Goring Gap
12.
English church monuments
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A church monument is an architectural or sculptural memorial to a deceased person or persons, located within a Christian church. It is usually placed immediately above or close to the burial vault or grave. Sometimes the monument is a cenotaph, commemorating a person buried at another location, once only the subject of antiquarian curiosity, church monuments are today recognised as works of funerary art. From the middle of the 15th century, many figurative monuments started to represent genuine portraiture where before had existed only generalised representations. The earliest English church monuments were simple stone coffin-shaped grave coverings incised with a cross or similar design, the first attempts at commemorative portraiture emerged in the 13th century, executed in low relief, horizontal but as in life. Gradually these became full high-relief effigies, usually recumbent, as in death, in general, such monumental effigies were carved in stone, marble or wood, or cast in bronze or brass. Often the stone effigies were painted to life, but on the vast majority of medieval monuments. Feet were often supported by stylised animals, usually either a lion indicating valour and nobility, sometimes the footrest was an heraldic beast from the deceaseds family coat of arms. By the early 13th century, the effigies were raised on tomb-style chests decorated with foliage, soon such chests stood alone with varying degrees of decorations. By the end of the century, these often had architectural canopies, small figures of weepers were popular decorative features. In the 15th century, the figures were portrayed as angels or saints. The most refined monuments were made of alabaster, around the 13th century, smaller two-dimensional effigies incised in plates of brass and affixed to monumental slabs of stone became popular too. These memorial brasses were somewhat cheaper and particularly popular with the middle class. The removal of almost all the many wall-paintings in English churches in the iconoclasm of the English Reformation, over the following centuries, these were gradually filled by monuments of the wealthy. In the 16th century, church monuments became increasingly influenced by Renaissance forms and detailing, particularly in France, there were major innovations in effigial posture, the deceased often being shown reclining or kneeling in prayer and surrounded by the whole family, as in life. The hanging mural or wall monument also became popular, sometimes with half-length demi-figures, the 17th century saw an increase in classicism and the use of marble. Effigies might be sitting or standing, grief-stricken, shrouded or, unusually, busts and relief portraits were popular. High Baroque monuments were some of the grandest ever constructed, decoration turned to cherubs, urns, drapery, garlands of fruit and flowers
13.
Brass rubbing
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The concept of recording textures of things is more generally called making a rubbing. What distinguishes rubbings from frottage is that rubbings are meant to reproduce the form of something being transferred, now most brass rubbers purchase special paper rolls of heavy duty black velvety material, and the crayons are gold, silver or bronze. Brass plaques are slowly but surely worn away by the rubbing process, Brass rubbing centres with replicas of original brass plaques have become a prime source for brass rubbings in the UK. Replicas are often not the scale as the original. Bronze and brass ornamental work Monumental Brasses as Art and History ed. Jerome Bertram, Monumental Brass Society History. uk. coms guide to brass rubbing
14.
Monumental brass
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The Earl of Moray had been assassinated, and his monumental brass carries the Moray arms and figures representing Religion and Justice. The fine memorials of the house of Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen and Freiberg are the most artistic. Among the 13th-century examples existing in German churches are the memorials of Yso von Welpe, Prince-Bishop of Verden. Many fine Flemish specimens exist in Belgium, especially at Bruges, the majority of extant memorial brasses are now found in England, where it is calculated that there may be about 4,000 still remaining in various churches. They are most abundant in the counties, and this fact has been frequently adduced in support of the opinion that they were of Flemish manufacture. Flemish brasses can be found in England, but they are not common, the Flemish examples have the figures engraved in the centre of a large plate, the background filled in with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription placed round the edge of the plate. The English examples have the cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in the slab. This is not a distinction, however, as figure-brasses of Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in England. Scarcely any of the brasses which now exist in England can be referred to the first half of the 13th century. The full-sized brass of Sir John dAubernon at Stoke dAbernon in Surrey has the decorations of the filled in with a species of enamel. A well-known 13th-century example is that of Sir Roger de Trumpington, about half a dozen examples of this stylistic feature are known. The 14th-century brasses are more numerous, and present a remarkable variety in their details. The finest specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell in the church of Acton Burnell, in the 15th century the design and execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick, and his wife Margaret, an interesting monumental brass of John Rudying dated 1481 in the Church of St Andrew in Biggleswade shows the figure of Death about to strike Archdeacon Rudying with a spear. It is only in the 16th century that the engraved representations become portraits, previous to that period the features were invariably represented conventionally, though sometimes personal peculiarities were added. A large number of brasses in England are palimpsests, the back of an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent memorial. Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode at Hedgerley, on being removed from its position, was discovered to have been previously the memorial of Thomas Totyngton, abbot of St Edmundsbury. The abbey was surrendered to Henry VIII in 1539, so that before the year was out the work of spoliation had begun
15.
Ashmolean Museum
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The Ashmolean Museum on Beaumont Street, Oxford, England, is the worlds first university museum. Its first building was erected in 1678–1683 to house the cabinet of curiosities that Elias Ashmole gave to the University of Oxford in 1677, the museum reopened in 2009 after a major redevelopment. In November 2011, new galleries focusing on Egypt and Nubia were also unveiled, in May 2016, the museum opened new galleries of 19th century Art. The museum opened on 24 May 1683, with naturalist Robert Plot as the first keeper, the first building, which became known as the Old Ashmolean, is sometimes attributed to Sir Christopher Wren or Thomas Wood. After the various specimens had been moved into new museums, the Old Ashmolean building on Broad Street was used as space for the Oxford English Dictionary. The present building dates from 1841–45 and it was designed by Charles Cockerell in a classical style and stands on Beaumont Street. One wing of the building is occupied by the Taylor Institution and this wing of the building dates from 1845–48 and was also designed by Charles Cockerell, using the Ionic order of Greek architecture. The main museum contains collections of archaeological specimens and fine art. It has one of the best collections of Pre-Raphaelite paintings, majolica pottery, the archaeology department includes the bequest of Arthur Evans and so has an excellent collection of Greek and Minoan pottery. The department also has a collection of antiquities from Ancient Egypt and the Sudan. Charles Buller Heberden left £1,000 to the University, which was used for the Coin Room at the museum, in 2012, the Ashmolean was awarded a grant of $1. 1m by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to establish the University Engagement Programme or UEP. The programme employs three Teaching Curators and a Programme Director to develop the use of the Museums collections in the teaching, the interior of the Ashmolean has been extensively modernised in recent years and now includes a restaurant and large gift shop. In 2000, the Chinese Picture Gallery, designed by van Heyningen and Haward Architects, the gallery was inserted into a lightwell in the Grade 1 listed building, and was designed to support future construction from its roof. Apart from the original Cockerell spaces, this gallery was the part of the museum retained in the rebuilding. It houses the Ashmolean’s own collection, but is used from time to time for the display of loan exhibitions. It is the museum gallery in Britain devoted to Chinese paintings. Between 2006 and 2009, the museum was expanded to the designs of architect Rick Mather, the $98.2 million rebuilding resulted in five floors instead of three, with a doubling of the display space, as well as new conservation studios and an education centre. The renovated museum re-opened on 7 November 2009, on 26 November 2011, the Ashmolean opened to the public the new galleries of Ancient Egypt and Nubia
16.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
17.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
18.
Royal Army Medical Corps
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The Royal Army Medical Corps is a specialist corps in the British Army which provides medical services to all Army personnel and their families, in war and in peace. Together with the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, the Royal Army Dental Corps and Queen Alexandras Royal Army Nursing Corps, because it is not a fighting arm, under the Geneva Conventions, members of the RAMC may only use their weapons for self-defence. Other ranks do not fix bayonets, neither do they prefix Surgeon in front of their rank as medical officers of the Royal Navy do. The RAMC, like every other British regiment, has its own distinctive unit insignia, dark blue beret, the default Army colour worn by units without distinctive coloured berets. There is also a small attachment to Special Forces, the Medical Support Unit who wear the beret of the SAS. Cap badge depicting the Rod of Asclepius, surmounted by a crown, enclosed within a wreath, with the regimental motto In Arduis Fidelis. The cap badge is worn 1 inch above the eye on the beret. The cap badge of the ranks must also be backed by an oval patch of dull cherry-red coloured cloth measuring 3.81 cm wide and 6.35 cm high sewn directly to the beret. Officers do not use the backing, but have a cloth cap badge instead. Silver regimental collar badges, a miniature of the cap badge, stable belt comprising equal horizontal bands of dull cherry, royal blue, and old gold, reflecting the old uniform worn in the 1900s, the gold depicting the royal in the title. Silver belt buckle with engraved regimental badge, Medical services in the British armed services go as far back as the formation of the Standing Regular Army after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. This was the first time a career was provided for a Medical Officer, known as the Regimental Surgeon, both in peacetime and in war. The Army was formed entirely on a basis, and an MO with a Warrant Officer as his Assistant Surgeon was appointed to each regiment. The MO was also for the first time concerned in the health of his troops. This regimental basis of appointment for MOs continued until 1873, when an army medical service was set up. There was much unhappiness in the Army Medical Service in the following years, for medical officers did not actually have military rank but advantages corresponding to relative military rank. They had inferior pay in India, excessive amounts of Indian and colonial service and they did not have their own identity as did the Army Service Corps, whose officers did have military rank. A number of complaints were published, and the British Medical Journal campaigned loudly, for over two years after 27 July 1887 there were no recruits to the Army Medical Department
19.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
20.
Indian Forest Service
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Indian Forest Service was created in 1966 under the All India Services Act 1951. Previously, the Imperial Forestry Service existed during the British Raj from 1865 to 1935, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, under the Government of India, is the cadre controlling authority of Indian Forest Service. India was one of the first countries in the world to introduce scientific forest management, in 1864, the British Raj established the Imperial Forest Department. In 1864 Dr Dietrich Brandis, a German forest officer, was appointed Inspector General of Forests, the Imperial Forestry Service was organised subordinate to the Imperial Forest Department in 1867 when five candidates were selected to undergo training in France & Germany. This continued up to 1885 except for a break on account of war between France and Russia. Officers appointed from 1867 to 1885 were trained in Germany and France, from 1905 to 1926, the University of Oxford, University of Cambridge, and University of Edinburgh had undertaken the task of training Imperial Forestry Service officers. The Government of India Act 1935, which transferred forestry to Provisional list, with the retirement of IFS officers, the demand for trained foresters cropped up and thus Indian Forest College was born in 1938. The Superior Forest Service officers, recruited from different states, were trained in the Indian Forest College thus retaining the all India character of the service, the main mandate of the service was scientific management of the forests to exploit it on a sustained basis for primarily timber products. It was during this time large tracts of the forest were brought under state control through the process of reservation under the Indian Forest Act,1927. Since the subject of forestry was shifted to the concurrent list in the year 1977, the main thrust of managing forests for production of timber products as in the British period continued even after the reconstitution of IFS in 1966. The recommendations of National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 was a shift in forest management. It was for the first time that peoples perception was taken care of in addressing biomass needs, the concept of sustained yield was addressed in tandem with biomass needs of the people living in and around forest areas. Equal thrust was given to habitat management in protected area and conserving the biodiversity of the land, today there are over 2700 IFS officers serving in the country. The modern Indian Forest Service was established in 1966, after independence, the first Inspector General of Forests, Hari Singh, was instrumental in the development of the IFS. India has an area of 635,400 km2 designated as forests, indias forest policy was created in 1894 and revised in 1952 and again in 1988. Officers are recruited via a competitive examination conducted by the UPSC. Their services are placed under various State cadres and joint cadres, an IFS officer is largely independent of district administration and exercises administrative, judicial and financial powers in their own domain. All top positions in state forest department are held by IFS officers, positions like Divisional Forest Officer, Conservator of Forests and Principal Chief Conservator of Forests etc. are some examples
21.
Punjab
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The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains
22.
Forest Research Institute (India)
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The Forest Research Institute is an institute of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education and is a premier institution in the field of forestry research in India. It is located at Dehradun in Uttarakhand, and is one of the oldest institutions of its kind, in 1991, it was declared a deemed university by the University Grants Commission. The Forest Research Institute campus hosts the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy and it was founded in 1878 as the British Imperial Forest School. In 1906, it was reestablished as the Imperial Forest Research Institute, the Indian Forest College was established in 1938, officers recruited to the Superior Forest Service by the states and provinces were trained there. Established as Imperial Forest Research Institute in 1906, the Forest Research Institute Dehradun, was first located at Chandhbagh on the Mall Road, a much larger campus at the present location was acquired ca 1923. Construction of the present buildings commenced thereafter, styled in Greeko Roman Architecture by C. G. Blomfield, the building was inaugurated in 1929 by then Viceroy Willingdon. It is now a National Heritage site, FRI Dehradun is one of the oldest institutions of its kind and acclaimed the world over. The institute’s history is synonymous with the evolution and development of scientific forestry, not only in India. The building was listed for a time, in the Guinness Book of Records and it is 7 km from Clock Tower, on the Dehradun-Chakrata motorable road and is of the biggest forest based training institute in India. Most of the forest officers are a part of this institute, the FRIs building also houses a Botanical Museum. FRI and College Area campus is a town, between Kashmir in the north and the Indian Military Academy to the south. The Tons River forms its Western Boundary, within its campus it hosts Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, which is a separate organisation of the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests. It also hosts the Central Academy for State Forest Services, the Wildlife Institute of India was on campus but now has moved to Chandrabani, and is an independent organisation under MoEF. IIFM is an independent autonomous organisation of MoEF and has good liaisoning with FRI for forestry research, the deemed university of FRI runs four MSc courses viz. Cellulose & Paper Technology, Environment Management, Forestry Management, Wood Science Technology and it also enrolls large number of research scholars every year for PhD. FRI also contains a museum on forestry and it is open from 9, 30am to 5, 00pm daily, which an entry fee of Rs 25 per person and a nominal entry fee for vehicles. 404, Paan Singh Tomar, Nanban, Student of the Year, Dilli Khabar, Yaara, television commercial ad of Bournvita was also shot here
23.
Dehradun
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Dehradun or Dehra Dun is the capital city of the state of Uttarakhand in the northern part of India. Dehradun is in the Doon Valley on the foothills of the Himalayas nestled between the river Ganges on the east and the river Yamuna on the west, the city is famous for its picturesque landscape and slightly milder climate and provides a gateway to the surrounding region. It hosts training institutions of importance such as the Indian Military Academy, ITBP Academy & Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy. The city population has significant contribution of government servants, Dehradun Municipal Corporation is locally known as Nagar Nigam Dehradun. Dehradun is also known for its Basmati rice and bakery products, Dehradun is made up of two words, Dehra is derived from the word dera, deriving from griha and meaning home. Doon is a term for the valley lies between the Himalayas and the Shivaliks. When Ram Rai Ji, son of Guru Har Rai Ji, came to region with his followers. Around this time, the city of Dehradun started to develop. This is when the word dehra was linked to doon, in Skanda Purana, Dun is mentioned as a part of the region called Kedar Khand, the abode of Shiva. In ancient India during the Mahabharata epic era, Dronacharya the great teacher of Kauravas and Pandavas, lived here hence the name, some historians believe that the word dehra can be regarded as a term for camping. The history of the city of Uttarakhand, Dehradun is linked to the story of Ramayana and it is believed that after the battle between Ravan and Lord Ram, Lord Ram and his brother Laxman visited this site. Dronacharya, the legendary Royal guru to the Kauravas and Pandavas in the epic Mahabharata, is believed to have been born, evidence such as ancient temples and idols have been found in the areas surrounding Dehradun which have been linked to the mythology of Ramayana and Mahabharata. These relics and ruins are believed to be around 2000 years old, furthermore, the location, the local traditions and the literature reflect this regions links with the events of Mahabharata and Ramayana. Even after the battle of Mahabharata, the Pandavas had influence on this region as the rulers of Hastinapur with the descendants of Subahu ruled the region as subsidiaries. Likewise, Rishikesh is mentioned in the pages of history when Lord Vishnu answered the prayers of the saints, slaughtered the demons, sudhnagar later came to be recognised as the name of Kaalsi. Edicts of Ashoka have been found in the region along the banks of river Yamuna in Kaalsi indicating the wealth, gerards map names the place as Dehra or Gooroodwara. Surrounding this original Sikh temple were many villages that are now the names of parts of the modern city. Dehradun itself derives its name from the fact that Shri Ram Rai
24.
Adderbury
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Adderbury is a winding linear village and rural civil parish about 3 miles south of Banbury in northern Oxfordshire, England. East and West Adderbury are divided by the south- then east-flowing Sor Brook, Sor Brook rises at Ratley and Upton in Warwickshire and joins the Cherwell between Adderbury and Aynho, Northamptonshire, the latter river being the eastern parish boundary. The Oxford Canal and beyond which the Cherwell characterise the far east of the parish, the M40 motorway passes close to the north-east of Adderbury near Twyford wharf. Banbury Business Park and Banbury Golf Course are also in the part of the parish. Railways briefly pass through the eastern most river meander, the combined Chiltern Main, the village toponym has had several changes of spelling. The earliest known record of it is in a document from the middle of the 10th century, the Domesday Book records it as Edburgberie, meaning Eadburgs town. Church of England The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary the Virgin is in East Adderbury, St Marys is one of the largest parish churches in Oxfordshire and architecturally one of the most important. It is nicknamed the Cathedral of the Feldon, St Marys building retains evidence of its 13th century origins but was enlarged in the 14th century and again in the Perpendicular style in the early 15th century. By 1611, St Marys had a clock, for there are records of repairs in 1617,1621,1626 and 1631. In 1684 it was replaced with a new clock, which with periodic repairs served the parish until late in the 19th century. It has since replaced with a new clock built by John Smith and Sons of Derby, and little has been preserved of the 1684 clock except one shaft from the motion. In the 18th century, St Marys fell into disrepair, St Marys had a ring of six bells until 1789, when John Briant of Hertford took them down and re-cast them into a ring of eight. The third bell was recast again in 1863, this time by George Mears, the sixth bell was recast again in 1927, this time by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough. St Marys has also a Sanctus bell that was cast by Matthew I Bagley of Chacombe, St Marys is a Grade I listed building. Methodist The Methodist Church in High Street was built in 1893 and it is a member of the Banbury Methodist Circuit. Roman Catholic The Roman Catholic Saint Georges chapel in Round Close Road in West Adderbury was built in 1956, Society of Friends The former West Adderbury Friends meeting house was built in 1675 for Bray Doyley. This was before the Act of Toleration 1689 legalised Quaker worship in England, Quaker meetings ceased in the early 20th century and the meeting house was leased to the Parish Council, who maintain the building but had the adjoining womens meeting house demolished in about 1955. Today, the Meeting House is used for up to four special Friends meetings per year, the meeting house is also used as a waiting room for the Parish Councils adjoining cemetery
25.
Academic journal
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An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
26.
Joseph Knibb
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Joseph Knibb was an English clockmaker of the Restoration era. He was born in 1640, the son of Thomas Knibb. He was cousin to Samuel Knibb, clockmaker, to whom he may have apprenticed in about 1655. After serving his seven years he moved to Oxford in 1663, Knibb set up premises in St Clements, Oxford, where he was outside the city liberties. In 1665 or 1666 he moved to premises in Holywell Street, the freemen of the city objected to his presence, demanding that he “suddenly shut his windows” because he was not a freeman of the city. Knibb applied for the Freedom of Oxford twice in 1667 but on occasions the smiths and watchmakers of the city objected and he was refused. In 1669 Wadham College, Oxford had a new clock built. It is the earliest surviving clock with an escapement. In 1954 the antiquarian horologist Dr. C. F. C, beeson proposed the theory that Joseph Knibb had built the clock. Beesons theory has become widely accepted. By 1670 Knibb had moved to London where he was free of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers. Initially he set up business at the Dyal, near Serjeants Inn in Fleet Street, subsequently moving to the House at the Dyal and he was elected as a steward of the Clockmakers Company in August 1684 and assistant in July 1689. He retired from London in 1697 and went to live in Hanslope in Buckinghamshire, Joseph Knibb is renowned for both the quality of his work and his invention. The aesthetic beauty and simplicity of his work is unparalleled, among his many inventions was the system of Roman striking, the tic-tac escapement, and probably the anchor escapement. His merits were recognised by his being appointed clockmaker to Charles II, clock cases of Knibbs era were wooden, and therefore were made by specialist clockcase makers who were members of the Worshipful Company of Joiners and Ceilers. Lett me have thy advice by the next, leghs young wife, Elizabeth, replied in agreement, My dearest Soule, as for the Pandolome Case I think Blacke suits anything. Joseph Knibb is the most accomplished of an family of clockmakers that included his cousin Samuel. A younger cousin Peter Knibb from Farnborough, Warwickshire was apprenticed to Joseph in 1668, John Knibbs youngest son, also called Joseph was apprenticed in London in 1710 and received a substantial bequest from the elder Joseph Knibbs will in 1712
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John Knibb
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John Knibb was an English clockmaker born in Claydon, Oxfordshire. He produced various clocks and watches including bracket clocks, lantern clocks, longcase clocks and some wall-clocks, even though his main market was catering to customers of modest means, he also dominated the higher-quality sector. Only six of Knibbs watches are known to survive, Knibb was born in 1650, the sixth son of Thomas and Elizabeth Knibb of Claydon, Oxfordshire. He was cousin to the clock- and instrument maker Samuel Knibb and younger brother of the distinguished clock-, in about 1664 Knibb moved from Claydon to Oxford to join his elder brother as either an apprentice or an assistant. In 1670 Samuel Knibb died and Joseph moved to London to replace him, however, John was not a freeman of the City of Oxford, so all the clocks that he made still had to be signed Joseph Knibb. In 1672 Knibb applied to become a freeman of Oxford, Knibb considered this excessive so he asked Brome Whorwood, one of the two MPs for Oxford, to intervene. Under Whorwoods persuasion the Council reduced the fee to 20 marks, Knibb and his wife Elizabeth had three sons and five daughters between 1679 and 1695. Four of their daughters predeceased them, Knibb died at Oxford in 1722, followed by his widow Elizabeth in 1726. They are buried at St Cross parish church with their four daughters, John and Elizabeth were survived by their one remaining daughter and three sons, of whom the youngest, Joseph, had been apprenticed to a London clockmaker in 1710. Knibb left young Joseph only one shilling in his will, because he had inherited a legacy of £200 from his uncle Joseph. Knibb had several apprentices during his career, one was Samuel Aldworth, from Childrey, who was apprenticed to Knibb in 1673 and became a freeman of the city with his own clock business in 1689. In 1697 Joseph Knibb retired from London to Hanslope and Aldworth moved to London to succeed him, in 1703 Aldworth married into the Knibb extended family, his bride being Elizabeth Knibb, from Collingtree in Northamptonshire. Knibb worked in Oxford at a time when clockmaking suddenly flourished in the city, during the Commonwealth of England Oxford had only two or three clockmakers and at times none of them had an apprentice. However, after the restoration of the Stuart monarchy Oxfords number of clockmakers apprentices increased to five in 1670 and 12 for much of the 1680s, the number of qualified clockmakers with freedom of the city increased more slowly, peaking at seven early in the 1690s. In the late 1680s and early 1690s apprentices were not replaced after they completed their seven years of training, the number of apprentices fell rapidly, and from the mid-1690s until the mid-1720s there were only ever one or two in the whole of Oxford. This was largely because the market was now fully supplied, sustaining between three and five freemen clockmakers for the three decades. Knibb himself took a succession of 10 apprentices between 1673 and 1722, between 1681 and 1688 he seems to have had three apprentices at the same time, as well as Aldworth as his journeyman. In this busy period for clockmaking John Knibb was preeminent, when Joseph moved to London in 1670, John took more responsibility for the business in Oxford
28.
Turret clock
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A turret clock or a public clock is a clock that is larger than a domestic clock and has a mechanism designed to drive a visual time indicator such as dials and or bells as a public amenity. Turret clocks specifically had mechanisms mounted high in a building often a purpose built tower such as churches, town halls, clocks were not referred to as turret clocks by clockmakers until recent times, often old clocks were recognised as turret clocks by their location. A true turret clock has mechanical and latterly electrical power and therefore sits late in the history of timekeeping, the following timeline of clocks is not comprehensive but does indicate the placement of turret clocks. Water clocks are reported as early as 4000 B. C, in Europe, water clocks were used from around 1000 A. D. to around 1350 A. D. Mercury clocks used a drum with several chambers that were connected through calibrated holes, a rope was wound around the drum with a weight connected to one end. The movement of the drum could be used to measure time, the first all-mechanical clocks which emerged in the 14th century kept time with a verge escapement and foliot. In the second half of the 14th century, over 500 striking turret clocks were installed in buildings all over Europe. This was the first time public clocks became easy to maintain, as water clocks needed more or less constant attention, the verge and foliot mechanical clocks were relatively easy to maintain and so found their way into many churches, bell towers and town halls. This new technology spread quite fast, the fourth generation of clocks were mechanical clocks with a pendulum, which was invented in 1657 by Christiaan Huygens. As the pendulum was more exact than the foliot, some clocks were converted to pendulum. Again, this new technology was adopted quickly throughout Europe, with many clocks being converted, electric turret clocks and hybrid mechanical/electric and were introduced in the late 19th century. Some mechanical turret clocks are wound by electric motor and these still are considered mechanical clocks. This table shows some of the clocks which were installed throughout Europe. It is not complete and mainly serves to illustrate the rate of adoption, there are hardly any surviving turret clock mechanisms that date before 1400, and because of extensive rebuilding of clocks the authenticity of those that do survive is disputed. What little is known of their mechanisms is mostly gleaned from manuscript sources, the country column refers to the present international boundaries. For example, Colmar was in Germany in 1370, but is now in France, during the fourteenth century, the emergence of the foliot replaced the high-maintenance water clocks. It is not known when that happened exactly and which of the early 14th century clocks were water clocks, the Heinrich von Wieck clock in Paris dating from 1362 is the first clock of which it is known with certainty that it had a foliot and a verge escapement. The fact that there is a increase in the number of recorded turret clock installations points to the fact that these new clocks use verge & foliot
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Wadham College, Oxford
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Wadham College /ˈwɒdəm/ is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. It is located in the centre of Oxford, at the intersection of Broad Street, Wadham College was founded in 1610 by Dorothy Wadham, according to the will of her late husband Nicholas Wadham, a member of an ancient Devon and Somerset family. The central buildings, an example of Jacobean architecture, were designed by the architect William Arnold. They include a large and ornate Hall, adjacent to the central buildings are the Wadham Gardens, notable for their collection of trees and one of the largest gardens amongst Oxford colleges. Amongst Wadhams most famous alumni is Sir Christopher Wren, Wren was one of a brilliant group of experimental scientists at Oxford in the 1650s, the Oxford Philosophical Club, which included Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. This group held meetings at Wadham College under the guidance of the warden, John Wilkins. Wadham is a liberal and progressive college which aims to maintain the diversity of its student body, in 1974 it was among the first of the former mens colleges to admit women, and the college has been a promoter of gay rights and equal rights for women. As of 2014, it had a financial endowment of £80.8 million, and in 2014/2015 ranked 3rd in the Norrington Table. The college was founded by Dorothy Wadham in 1610, according to the set out in the will of her husband Nicholas Wadham. Although she never visited Oxford, she kept control of her new college. The wardenship of John Wilkins is a significant period in the history of the college, Wilkins was a member of a group which had met for some years in London to discuss problems in the natural sciences. Many of the moved to Oxford and held regular meetings in the Wardens lodgings at Wadham. Among them were Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, John Locke, William Petty, John Wallis, Wadham provided the largest contingent, some twelve of the fifty names mentioned. These included Christopher Brookes, John Mayow, Lawrence Rooke, Thomas Sprat, Seth Ward, Sir Christopher Wren was an undergraduate at Wadham before he became a fellow of All Souls and then succeeded Rooke as astronomy professor at Gresham College, London. He eventually returned to occupy rooms at Wadham while he was the Savilian Professor of Astronomy from 1661, Wren had notable achievements in pure and applied mathematics, astronomy, physics and biology to his credit before, in his thirties, turning to architecture. Alone in mathematical ability Wren was ranked by competent authorities second only to Newton among the men of his time, the Wardens lodgings were stuffed with ingenious instruments, and powerful telescopes were mounted on the college tower. Wilkins was the first president of the body, and became the first secretary of the Royal Society itself. These were the beginnings of organised scientific research in Britain, Maurice Bowra was Warden of the College from 1938 until 1970, and was influential in determining the character of the College as open and meritocratic
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Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
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The Museum of the History of Science in Broad Street, Oxford, England, holds a leading collection of scientific instruments from Middle Ages to the 19th century. The museum building is known as the Old Ashmolean Building to distinguish it from the newer Ashmolean Museum building completed in 1894. The museum was built in 1683, and it is the worlds oldest surviving purpose-built museum, the museum is open to the general public with free admission every afternoon except Mondays. Built in 1683 to house Elias Ashmoles collection, it was the worlds first purpose-built museum building and was open to the public. The collection and the building now occupies a special position in the study of the history of science and in the development of western culture. J. Bowen and Gavin de Beer, the museum shows the development of mechanical clocks. Lantern clocks and longcase clocks are exhibited in the Beeson Room, early turret clocks are exhibited above the stairs from the basement to the raised ground floor. From October 2009 until February 2010, the Museum hosted the first major exhibition of Steampunk art objects, curated by Art Donovan and presented by Dr Jim Bennett, then the museum director. The following have been Curator or Secretary to the Committee or Director at the museum, R. T. Gunther F. Sherwood Taylor C. H. Josten F. R. Maddison J
31.
Longcase clock
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A longcase clock, also tall-case clock, floor clock, or grandfather clock, is a tall, freestanding, weight-driven pendulum clock with the pendulum held inside the tower or waist of the case. Clocks of this style are commonly 1. 8–2.4 metres tall, the case often features elaborately carved ornamentation on the hood, which surrounds and frames the dial, or clock face. The English clockmaker William Clement is credited with the development of this form in 1670, today they are kept mainly for their decorative and antique value. The advent of the clock is due to the invention of the anchor escapement mechanism by Robert Hooke around 1658. Prior to that, pendulum clock used an older verge escapement mechanism. Long pendulums with such wide swings could not be fitted within a case, the anchor mechanism reduced the pendulums swing to around 4° to 6°, allowing clockmakers to use longer pendulums, which had slower beats. These consumed less power allowing clocks to run longer between windings, caused friction and wear in the movement, and were more accurate. Almost all longcase clocks use a seconds pendulum meaning that each swing takes one second and these are about a metre long, requiring a long narrow case. The long narrow case actually predated the anchor clock by a few decades, however, once the seconds pendulum began to be used, this long weight case proved perfect to house it as well. British clockmaker William Clement, who disputed credit for the escapement with Robert Hooke. Within the year Thomas Tompion, the most prominent British clockmaker, was making them too, modern longcase clocks use a more accurate variation of the anchor escapement called the deadbeat escapement. Traditionally, longcase clocks were made two types of movement, eight-day and one-day movements. A clock with a movement required winding only once a week. Eight-day clocks are driven by two weights – one driving the pendulum and the other the striking mechanism, which usually consisted of a bell or chimes. Such movements usually have two keyholes, one on side of the dial to wind each one. By contrast, 30-hour clocks often had a weight to drive both the timekeeping and striking mechanisms. Some 30-hour clocks were made with false keyholes, for customers who wished that guests to their home would think that the household was able to afford the more expensive eight-day clock, all modern striking longcase clocks have eight-day movements. Most longcase clocks are cable-driven, meaning that the weights are suspended by cables, if the cable were attached directly to the weight, the load would cause rotation and untwist the cable strands, so the cable wraps around a pulley mounted to the top of each weight
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Alan Bullock
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Alan Louis Charles Bullock, Baron Bullock, Kt, FBA was a British historian. He is best known for his book Hitler, A Study in Tyranny which was the first comprehensive biography of Adolf Hitler, Bullock was born in Trowbridge in Wiltshire, England, where his father worked as a gardener and a Unitarian preacher. He was educated at Bradford Grammar School and Wadham College, Oxford, after graduating in 1938, he worked as a research assistant for Winston Churchill, who was writing his History of the English-Speaking Peoples. During World War II, Bullock worked for the European Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation, after the war he returned to Oxford as a history fellow at New College. He was the master of St. Catherines College, a college for undergraduates and graduates. He was credited with massive fundraising efforts to develop the college, later he was the first full-time Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University. In 1952, Bullock published Hitler, A Study in Tyranny, the first comprehensive biography of Adolf Hitler and this book dominated Hitler scholarship for many years. The book characterised Hitler as an opportunistic Machtpolitiker, in Bullocks opinion, Hitler was a mountebank, an opportunistic adventurer devoid of principles, beliefs or scruples whose actions throughout his career were motivated only by a lust for power. Bullocks views led in the 1950s to a debate with Hugh Trevor-Roper who argued that Hitler did possess beliefs, albeit repulsive ones, Bullocks Guardian obituary commented that Bullocks famous maxim Hitler was jobbed into power by backstairs intrigue has stood the test of time. Later, Bullock to some extent changed his mind about Hitler and his later works show the dictator as much more of an ideologue, who pursued the ideas expressed in Mein Kampf despite their consequences. This has become an accepted view of Hitler, particularly in relation to the Holocaust. Taking note of the shift of interest among professional historians toward social history in the 1960s, but not always, he argued, For there are times when the Great Man is decisive. In revolutionary circumstances, It is possible for an individual to exert an even an decisive influence on the way events develop. Among Bullocks other works included The Humanist Tradition in the West, and The Life and Times of Ernest Bevin and he was also editor of The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought, a project he suggested to the publisher when he found he could not define the word hermeneutics. He had earlier co-edited with Maurice Shock a collection on The Liberal Tradition, Bullock also appeared as a political pundit, including on the BBCs coverage of the 1959 British general election. He showed how the careers of Hitler and Joseph Stalin to some extent fed off each other, Bullock comes to a thesis that Stalins ability to consolidate power in his home country and, unlike Hitler, not to over-extend himself enabled him to retain power longer than Hitler. The writing is invariably interesting and informed and there are new insights and cogent analysis in every chapter and his writings always appeared under the name Alan Bullock. In May 1976, Bullock was awarded a degree from the Open University as Doctor of the University
33.
Palace of the Kings of Majorca
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The Palace of the Kings of Majorca, is a palace and a fortress with gardens overlooking the city of Perpignan in Pyrenees-Orientales, Languedoc-Roussillon, France. In 1276, King James II of Majorca made Perpignan the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. He started to build a palace with gardens on the hill of Puig del rey on the south of the town, the architects were Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll, and Bernat Quer with completion in 1309. The pope refused to resign and to recognise the Pope that the Council had chosen, part of the northern wing of the palace was destroyed in a siege in 1502. Following the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, France gained Roussillon, the General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales bought the Palace and the gardens in 1958, to the Ministry of Defence who keeps the Vauban bastions and 19th century buildings and courts as a garrison. The Palace of the Kings of Majorca is a fortified Palace in the Gothic style and it is organised around three courtyards 60 m square. The first foremen on the site were Ramon Pau and especially Pons Descoyl, very active in Perpignan and it has two chapels, one above the other, the lower is the Queens Chapel, while the upper is Holy Cross with a pink marble door. Here we have together in the “Great Hall“, the seat of power, the chapel. The position of the chapel in the heart the royal apartments, opposite the throne room, the plan of the palace was inspired by those of Majorca, and the chapel is like that of the earlier Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. The walls, built with stones and bricks bound with mortar, were coated with lime. The Guitares au Palais, a free three-day guitar music festival, is held in the last weekend of August in the Palace, list of castles in France Abulafia, David. A Mediterranean emporium - The Catalan kingdom of Majorca
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Perpignan
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Perpignan is a city, a commune, and the capital of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France. Perpignan was the capital of the province and County of Roussillon. In 2013 Perpignan had 118,238 inhabitants in the city proper, the metropolitan area had a total population of 305,837 in 2010. Perpignan is located in the center of the Roussillon plain,13 km west of the Mediterranean coast and it is the southern most of the cities of metropolitan France. Perpignan is crossed by the largest river in Roussillon, the Têt, and by one of its tributaries, floods often occur, as in 1892 when the rising of the Têt in Perpignan destroyed 39 houses, leaving more than 60 families homeless. Perpignan experiences a Mediterranean climate similar to much of the Mediterranean coastline of France, roads The motorway A9 connects Perpignan with Barcelona and Montpellier. Trains Perpignan is served by the Gare de Perpignan railway station, which offers connections to Paris, Barcelona, Toulouse, salvador Dalí proclaimed it to be the Center of the Universe after experiencing a vision of cosmogonic ecstasy there in 1963. Airport The nearest airport is Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport, attested forms The name of Perpignan appears in 927 as Perpinianum, followed in 959 by Villa Perpiniano, Pirpinianum in the 11th century, Perpiniani in 1176. Perpenyà, which appears in the 13th century, is the most common form until the 15th century, though settlement in the area goes back to Roman times, the medieval town of Perpignan seems to have been founded around the beginning of the 10th century. Soon Perpignan became the capital of the counts of Roussillon, historically, it was part of the region known as Septimania. In 1172 Count Girard II bequeathed his lands to the Counts of Barcelona, Perpignan acquired the institutions of a partly self-governing commune in 1197. French feudal rights over Roussillon were given up by Louis IX in the Treaty of Corbeil, when James I the Conqueror, king of Aragon and count of Barcelona, founded the Kingdom of Majorca in 1276, Perpignan became the capital of the mainland territories of the new state. The succeeding decades are considered the age in the history of the city. It prospered as a centre of manufacture, leather work, goldsmiths work. King Philippe III of France died there in 1285, as he was returning from his crusade against the Aragonese Crown. In 1344 Peter IV of Aragon annexed the Kingdom of Majorca, a few years later it lost approximately half of its population to the Black Death. Perpignan is one of the houses of Lancaster Girls Grammar School, the festival has a broad mainstream focus with pop-related music as well as traditional acoustic guitar music and alternative music. The festival has attracted international guests like Caetano Veloso, Rumberos Catalans, Pedro Soler, Bernardo Sandoval, Peter Finger, in 2008, Perpignan became Capital of Catalan Culture
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
