1.
DOS
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None of these systems were officially named DOS, and indeed DOS is a general term for disk operating system. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, and Microsoft Windows, still ran on top of it until about 2001, dozens of other operating systems also use the acronym DOS, including DOS/360 from 1966. Others are Apple DOS, Apple ProDOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, TRSDOS, see List of DOS operating systems § Other operating systems. IBM PC DOS and its predecessor, 86-DOS, resembled Digital Researchs CP/M—the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080, DOS instead ran on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. Starting with MS-DOS1.28 and PC DOS2.0 the operating system incorporated various features inspired by Xenix, when IBM introduced the IBM PC, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates, IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down, Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license. Digital Research founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew, Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, the system was initially named QDOS, before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000 and this became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies, Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC, Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM, and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement, they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the operating system for PCs. Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers, one major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the specific device driver code and the DOS kernel. Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system, by the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling MS-DOS in retail with MS-DOS5.0. In the mid-1980s Microsoft developed a version of DOS
2.
IBM PC compatible
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IBM PC compatible computers are those similar to the original IBM PC, XT, and AT, able to run the same software and support the same expansion cards as those. Such computers used to be referred to as PC clones, or IBM clones, Columbia Data Products built the first clone of the IBM personal computer by a clean room implementation of its BIOS. Early IBM PC compatibles used the computer bus as the original PC. The IBM AT compatible bus was named the Industry Standard Architecture bus by manufacturers of compatible computers. The term IBM PC compatible is now a historical description only, only the Apple Macintosh classic Mac OS and macOS kept significant market share without compatibility with the IBM personal computer, so consumers are typically identified as being a PC or Mac user. IBM decided in 1980 to market a low-cost single-user computer as quickly as possible in response to Apple Computers success in the microcomputer market. On 12 August 1981, the first IBM PC went on sale, there were three operating systems available for it. The least expensive and most popular was PC DOS made by Microsoft, in a crucial concession, IBMs agreement allowed Microsoft to sell its own version, MS-DOS, for non-IBM computers. The only component of the original PC architecture exclusive to IBM was the BIOS and this software would run on any machine using MS-DOS or PC-DOS. Software that directly addressed the hardware instead of making standard calls was faster, however, software addressing IBM PC hardware in this way would not run on MS-DOS machines with different hardware. The 808x computer marketplace rapidly excluded all machines which were not hardware-, the 640 KB barrier on conventional system memory available to MS-DOS is a legacy of that period, other non-clone machines, while subject to a limit, could exceed 640 kB. Rumors of lookalike, compatible computers, created without IBMs approval, by June 1983 PC Magazine defined PC clone as a computer accommodate the user who takes a disk home from an IBM PC, walks across the room, and plugs it into the foreign machine. Because of a shortage of IBM PCs that year, many customers purchased clones instead, Columbia Data Products produced the first computer more or less compatible to the IBM PC standard during June 1982, soon followed by Eagle Computer. Compaq announced its first IBM PC compatible in November 1982, the Compaq Portable, the Compaq was the first sewing machine-sized portable computer that was essentially 100% PC-compatible. The company could not copy the BIOS directly as a result of the decision in Apple v. Franklin. Each computer would have its own Original Equipment Manufacturer version of MS-DOS, any software written for MS-DOS would operate on any MS-DOS computer, despite variations in hardware design. This expectation seemed reasonable in the marketplace of the time. Until then Microsoft was based primarily on computer languages such as BASIC, the established small system operating software was CP/M from Digital Research which was in use both at the hobbyist level and by the more professional of those using microcomputers
3.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
4.
IBM Personal System/2
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The Personal System/2 or PS/2 was IBMs third generation of personal computers. Released in 1987, it replaced the IBM PC, XT, AT. The PS/2 line was created by IBM in an attempt to control of the PC market by introducing an advanced yet proprietary architecture. IBMs considerable market presence plus the reliability of the PS/2 ensured that the systems would sell in large numbers. Also the evolving Wintel architecture was seeing a period of dramatic reductions in price, the OS/2 operating system was announced at the same time as the PS/2 line and was intended to be the primary operating system for models with Intel 286 or later processors. However, at the time of the first shipments, only PC DOS was available, OS/21.0 and Microsofts Windows 2.0 became available several months later. IBM also released AIX PS/2, a UNIX operating system for PS/2 models with Intel 386 or later processors, for years before IBM released the PS/2, rumors spread about IBMs plans for successors to its IBM PC, XT, and AT personal computers. Among the rumors that did not come true, The company would use proprietary, the company would release a version of its VM mainframe operating system for them. The company would design the new computers to make third-party communications products more difficult to design, IBMs PS/2 was designed to remain software compatible with their PC/AT/XT line of computers upon which the large PC clone market was built, but the hardware was quite different. CBIOS was so compatible that it even included Cassette BASIC, while IBM did not publish the BIOS source code, it did promise to publish BIOS entry points. With the IBM PS/2 line, Micro Channel Architecture was also introduced, MCA was conceptually similar to the channel architecture of the IBM System/360 mainframes. MCA was technically superior to ISA and allowed for higher speed communications within the system, MCA featured many advances not seen in other standards until several years later. Transfer speeds were on par with the much later PCI standard, MCA allowed one-to-one, card to card, and multi-card to processor simultaneous transaction management which is a feature of the PCI-X bus format. Bus mastering capability, bus arbitration, and a form of plug-and-play BIOS management of hardware were all benefits of MCA. (One book from the year 2000 writes, MCA used a version of what we know now as “Plug-N′-Play”, requiring a special setup disk for each machine. MCA never gained wide acceptance outside of the PS/2 line due to IBMs anti-clone practices and incompatibilities with ISA, IBM offered to sell an MCA license to anyone who could afford the royalty. However, royalties were required for every MCA-compatible machine sold and a payment for every IBM-compatible machine the particular maker had made in the past, there was nothing unique in IBM insisting on payment of royalties on the use of its patents applied to Micro Channel based machines. However, up until that time, some companies had failed to pay IBM for the use of its patents on the generation of Personal Computer
5.
Kanji
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Kanji, or kanji, are the adopted logographic Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese writing system along with hiragana and katakana. The Japanese term kanji for the Chinese characters literally means Han characters and is using the same characters as the Chinese word hànzì. Chinese characters first came to Japan on official seals, letters, swords, coins, mirrors, the earliest known instance of such an import was the King of Na gold seal given by Emperor Guangwu of Han to a Yamato emissary in 57 AD. Chinese coins from the first century AD have been found in Yayoi-period archaeological sites, however, the Japanese of that era probably had no comprehension of the script, and would remain illiterate until the fifth century AD. The earliest Japanese documents were written by bilingual Chinese or Korean officials employed at the Yamato court. For example, the correspondence from King Bu of Wa to Emperor Shun of Liu Song in 478 has been praised for its skillful use of allusion. Later, groups of people called fuhito were organized under the monarch to read, during the reign of Empress Suiko, the Yamato court began sending full-scale diplomatic missions to China, which resulted in a large increase in Chinese literacy at the Japanese court. The Japanese language had no form at the time Chinese characters were introduced. Chinese characters also came to be used to write Japanese words, around 650 CE, a writing system called manyōgana evolved that used a number of Chinese characters for their sound, rather than for their meaning. Manyōgana written in cursive style evolved into hiragana, or onna-de, that is, ladies hand, major works of Heian-era literature by women were written in hiragana. Katakana emerged via a path, monastery students simplified manyōgana to a single constituent element. Thus the two writing systems, hiragana and katakana, referred to collectively as kana, are descended from kanji. Katakana are mostly used for representing onomatopoeia, non-Japanese loanwords, the names of plants and animals, and for emphasis on certain words. In 1946, following World War II and under the Allied Occupation of Japan and this was done with the goal of facilitating learning for children and simplifying kanji use in literature and periodicals. The number of characters in circulation was reduced, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established, some characters were given simplified glyphs, called shinjitai. Many variant forms of characters and obscure alternatives for common characters were officially discouraged and these are simply guidelines, so many characters outside these standards are still widely known and commonly used, these are known as hyōgaiji. The kyōiku kanji are 1,006 characters that Japanese children learn in elementary school, originally the list only contained 881 characters. This was expanded to 996 characters in 1977 and it was not until 1982 the list was expanded to its current size
6.
NEC
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NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational provider of information technology services and products, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. NEC provides IT and network solutions to enterprises, communications services providers and to government agencies. The company was known as the Nippon Electric Company, Limited and its NEC Semiconductors business unit was one of the worldwide top 20 semiconductor sales leaders before merging with Renesas Electronics. NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group, kunihiko Iwadare and Takeshiro Maeda established Nippon Electric Limited Partnership on August 31,1898 by using facilities that they had bought from Miyoshi Electrical Manufacturing Company. Iwadare acted as the partner, Maeda handled company sales. Western Electric, which had an interest in the Japanese phone market, was represented by Walter Tenney Carleton, Carleton was also responsible for the renovation of the Miyoshi facilities. It was agreed that the partnership would be reorganized as a company when treaty would allow it. On July 17,1899, the treaty between Japan and the United States went into effect. Nippon Electric Company, Limited was organized the day with Western Electric Company to become the first Japanese joint-venture with foreign capital. Ernest Clement and Carleton were named as directors, Maeda and Mototeru Fujii were assigned to be auditors. Iwadare, Maeda and Carleton handled the overall management, the company started with the production, sales and maintenance of telephones and switches. NEC modernized the facilities with the construction of the Mita Plant in 1901 at Mita Shikokumachi. It was completed in December 1902, the Japanese Ministry of Communications adopted a new technology in 1903, the common battery switchboard supplied by NEC. The common battery switchboards powered the subscriber phone, eliminating the need for a permanent magnet generator in each subscribers phone, the switchboards were initially imported, but were manufactured locally by 1909. NEC started exporting telephone sets to China in 1904, in 1905, Iwadare visited Western Electric in the U. S. to see their management and production control. On his return to Japan he discontinued the system of sub-contracting and replaced it with a new system where managers. Inefficiency was also removed from the production process, the company paid higher salaries with incentives for efficiency. New accounting and cost controls were put in place, and time clocks installed, between 1899 and 1907 the number of telephone subscribers in Japan rose from 35,000 to 95,000
7.
PC-9800 series
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The PC-9800 Series is a lineup of Japanese 16-bit and 32-bit personal computers manufactured by NEC from 1982 through 2000. The platform established NECs dominance in the Japanese personal computer market, the first model, the PC-9801, was launched on October 1982, and employed an 8086 CPU. It ran at a speed of 5 MHz, with two µPD7220 display controllers, and shipped with 128 KB of RAM, expandable to 640 KB. Its 8-color display had a resolution of 640×400 pixels. Its successor, the PC-9801E, which appeared in 1983, employed an 8086-2 CPU, the NEC PC-9801VM used NEC V30 CPU. When the PC-9801 was launched in 1982, it was priced at 298,000 yen. In the 1980s and early 1990s, NEC dominated the Japan domestic PC market with more than 60% of the PCs sold as PC-9801 or PC-8801, in 1990, IBM Japan introduced the DOS/V operating system which enabled displaying Japanese text on standard IBM PC/AT VGA adapters. After that, the decline of the PC-98 began, the PC-9801s last successor was the Celeron-based PC-9821Ra43, which appeared in 2000. While NEC did not market these specific machines in the West, it did sell the NEC APC III, however, localized MS-DOS or Windows will still run on PC-9801s. Seiko Epson manufactured PC-9801 clones, as well as compatible peripherals, software for the PC-98 generally ran from program and data disks, and NEC did not have a strong GUI to go up against Microsofts Windows 95 when it took Japans PC market by storm. The PC9801 had thousands of game titles designed for it, many of which made use of the systems limitations to great commercial success. Partial list of PC-98 models sold in the Japanese market,2, June 2000, pp. 197–216 Ascii Techwrite. DOS/V, The Soft Solution to Hard Problems, archived from the original on 2017-01-15. From Chaos to Competition - Japans PC industry in transformation, archived from the original on 2017-01-16. Intro to NEC PC-9800 World PC9801, the first model of the series Info about NEC PC-9801M with uPD8086D-2 PC博物館, モデルナンバー （本体） - PC-9800 - NEC - レトロＰＣ - Retro Computer People. Neko Project II, a PC-98 emulator for Windows and Mac OS X
8.
VGA
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Video Graphics Array is the display hardware first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of computers in 1987. Today, the VGA analog interface is used for high definition video, including resolutions of 1080p, while the transmission bandwidth of VGA is high enough to support even higher resolution playback, there can be picture quality degradation depending on cable quality and length. How discernible this degradation is depends on the individuals eyesight and the display, though it is noticeable when switching to. The VGA supports both All Points Addressable graphics modes, and alphanumeric text modes, the other color modes defaulted to standard EGA or CGA compatible palettes, but could still be redefined if desired using VGA-specific programming. g. 400×600 or 360×480, and thin pixels,16 colors and the 70 Hz refresh rate with e. g. 736×410 mode. Its single-chip implementation allowed the VGA to be placed directly on a PC′s motherboard with a minimum of difficulty, since it only required video memory, timing crystals, the original VGA specifications are as follows,256 KB Video RAM 16-color and 256-color paletted display modes. 262, 144-color global palette Selectable 25.175 MHz or 28.322 MHz master pixel clock Usual line rate fixed at 31, compatibility is almost full at BIOS level, but even at register level, a very high value of compatibility is reached. The formula for the VGA horizontal frequency is thus ×525 kHz =4500 ÷143 kHz ≈31.4685 kHz, All other frequencies used by the VGA card are derived from this value by integer multiplication or division. Since the exactness of quartz oscillators is limited, real cards will have higher or lower frequency. All derived VGA timings can be varied widely by software that bypasses the VGA firmware interface and communicates directly with the VGA hardware, the use of other timings may in fact damage such monitors and thus was usually avoided by software publishers. For the most common VGA mode, the timings are. The figures shown in this image may be inaccurate and not match the above table exactly. The same general layout applies, merely at a lower frequency and these timings are the same in the higher frequency mode, but all pixel counts are correspondingly multiplied by 9/8ths – thus,720 active pixels,900 total per line, and a 54 pixel back porch. The monitor is triggered into synchronising at the higher frame rate by use of a positive-polarity VSync pulse. Depending on manufacturer, the details of active period and front/back porch widths, particularly in the horizontal domain. 640×400 @70 Hz is traditionally the video used for booting most VGA-compatible x86 personal computers which show a graphical boot screen. 640×480 @60 Hz is the default Windows graphics mode, up to Windows 2000 and it remains an option in XP and later versions via the boot menu low resolution video option and per-application compatibility mode settings. 320×200 @70 Hz is the most common mode for VGA-era PC games, using exactly the same timings as the 640×400 mode, the actual timings vary slightly from the defined standard
9.
Seiko Epson
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Seiko Epson Corporation, or simply Epson, is a Japanese electronics company and one of the worlds largest manufacturers of computer printers, and information and imaging related equipment. It is one of three companies of the Seiko Group, a name traditionally known for manufacturing Seiko timepieces since its founding. In 1968 the company moved its UK headquarters to Audenshaw, Manchester, after acquiring the Jones Sewing Machine Company, Daiwa Kogyo was supported by an investment from the Hattori family and began as a manufacturer of watch parts for Daini Seikosha. The company started operation in a 2, 500-square-foot renovated miso storehouse with 22 employees, in 1943, Daini Seikosha established a factory in Suwa for manufacturing Seiko watches with Daiwa Kogyo. In 1959, the Suwa Factory of Daini Seikosha was split up, Ltd, the forerunner of the Seiko Epson Corporation. The company has developed many timepiece technologies, the watches made by the company are sold through the Seiko Watch Corporation, a subsidiary of Seiko Holdings Corporation. In 1961, Suwa Seikosha established a company called Shinshu Seiki Co. as a subsidiary to supply parts for Seiko watches. In September 1968, Shinshu Seiki launched the worlds first mini-printer, in June 1975, the name Epson was coined for the next generation of printers based on the EP-101 which was released to the public. In April of the same year Epson America Inc. was established to sell printers for Shinshu Seiki Co, in June 1978, the TX-80, eighty-column dot-matrix printer was released to the market, and was mainly used as a system printer for the Commodore PET Computer. After two years of development, an improved model, the MX-80, was launched in October 1980. It was soon described in the companys advertising as the best selling printer in the United States, in November 1985, Suwa Seikosha Co. Ltd. and the Epson Corporation merged to form Seiko Epson Corporation. Shortly after in 1994, Epson released the first high resolution color inkjet printer, newer models of the Stylus series employed Epson’s special DURABrite ink. They also had two hard drives, the HD850 and the HD860 MFM interface. The specifications are reference The WINN L. ROSCH Hardware bible 3rd addition SAMS publishing, in 1994 Epson started outsourcing sales reps to help sell their products in retail stores in the United States. In 1994 Epson started the Epson Weekend Warrior sales program, the purpose of the program was to help improve sales, improve retail sales reps knowledge of Epson products and to address Epson customer service in a retail environment. Reps were assigned on weekend shift, typically around 12–20 hours a week, Epson started the Weekend Warrior program with TMG Marketing, later with Keystone Marketing Inc, then to Mosaic, and now with Campaigners INC. The Mosaic contract expired with Epson on June 24,2007 and Epson is now represented by Campaigners, the sales reps of Campaigners, Inc. are not outsourced as Epson hired rack jobbers to ensure their retail customers displayed products properly. This frees up their regular sales force to concentrate on profitable sales solutions to VARs and system integrators, in June 2003, the company became public following their listing on the 1st section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange
10.
IBM PC DOS
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IBM PC DOS is a discontinued operating system for the IBM Personal Computer, manufactured and sold by IBM from the 1981 into the 2000s. Before version 6.1, PC DOS was an IBM-branded version of MS-DOS, from version 6.1 on, PC DOS became IBMs independent product. The IBM task force assembled to develop the PC decided that critical components of the machine, including the operating system and this radical break from company tradition of in-house development was one of the key decisions that made the IBM PC an industry standard. At that time private company Microsoft, founded five years before by Bill Gates, was selected for the operating system. IBM wanted Microsoft to retain ownership of whatever software it developed, according to task force member Jack Sams, The reasons were internal. We had a problem being sued by people claiming we had stolen their stuff. It could be expensive for us to have our programmers look at code that belonged to someone else because they would then come back and say we stole it. We had lost a series of suits on this, and so we didnt want to have a product which was clearly someone elses product worked on by IBM people and we went to Microsoft on the proposition that we wanted this to be their product. IBM first contacted Microsoft to look the company over in July 1980, negotiations continued over the next months, and the paperwork was officially signed in early November. Although IBM expected that most customers would use PC DOS, The IBM PC also supported CP/M-86, which became available six months after PC DOS, and UCSD p-System operating systems. IBMs expectation proved correct, one found that 96. 3% of PCs were ordered with the $40 PC-DOS compared to 3. 4% for the $240 CP/M-86. Microsoft first licensed, then purchased 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, ORear got 86-DOS to run on the prototype PC in February 1981. 86-DOS had to be converted from 8-inch to 5. 25-inch floppy disks and integrated with the BIOS, IBM had more people writing requirements for the computer than Microsoft had writing code. ORear often felt overwhelmed by the number of people he had to deal with at the ESD facility in Boca Raton, 86-DOS was rebranded IBM PC DOS1.0 for its August 1981 release with the IBM PC. The initial version of DOS was largely based on CP/M-801. x and most of its architecture, function calls, the most significant difference was the fact that it introduced a different file system, FAT12. Unlike all later DOS versions, the DATE and TIME commands were separate rather than part of COMMAND. COM. Single-sided 160 kilobyte 5.25 floppies were the only disk format supported, in late 1981 Paterson, now at Microsoft, began writing PC DOS1.10. It debuted in May 1982 along with the Revision B IBM PC, support for the new double-sided drives was added, allowing 320 kB per disk
11.
MS-DOS
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MS-DOS is a discontinued operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for a system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, IBM licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS1.0 for use in their PCs. During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform and it was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a operating system, and consumes negligible installation space. MS-DOS was a form of 86-DOS – owned by Seattle Computer Products. This first version was shipped in August 1980, Microsoft, which needed an operating system for the IBM Personal Computer hired Tim Paterson in May 1981 and bought 86-DOS1.10 for $75,000 in July of the same year. Microsoft kept the number, but renamed it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS1. 10/1.14 to IBM, within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies. It was designed to be an OS that could run on any 8086-family computer, thus, there were many different versions of MS-DOS for different hardware, and there is a major distinction between an IBM-compatible machine and an MS-DOS machine. This design would have worked well for compatibility, if application programs had only used MS-DOS services to perform device I/O, Microsoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsofts Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was fully multi-user. After the breakup of the Bell System, however, AT&T Computer Systems started selling UNIX System V, believing that it could not compete with AT&T in the Unix market, Microsoft abandoned Xenix, and in 1987 transferred ownership of Xenix to the Santa Cruz Operation. On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP MS-DOS1.25, as an April Fools joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked similar to MS-DOS. Version 3.1 – Support for Microsoft Networks Version 3.2 – First version to support 3.5 inch,720 kB floppy drives and diskettes. Version 3.21 Version 3.22 – Version 3.25 Version 3.3 – First version to support 3.5 inch,1.44 MB floppy drives and diskettes, Version 3. 3a Version 3.31 – supports FAT16B and larger drives. MS-DOS4.0 and MS-DOS4.1 – A separate branch of development with additional multitasking features and it is unrelated to any later versions, including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below MS-DOS4. x – includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues. Version 4.00 – First version to support a hard disk partition that is greater than 32 MiB. Version 4.01 – Microsoft rewritten Version 4.00 released under MS-DOS label, First version to introduce volume serial number when formatting hard disks and floppy disks
12.
Fujitsu
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Fujitsu Ltd. commonly referred to as Fujitsu, is a Japanese multinational information technology equipment and services company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. In 2015, it was the worlds fourth-largest IT services provider measured by IT services revenue, fortune named Fujitsu as one of the worlds most admired companies and a Global 500 company. It has approximately 159,000 employees and its products and services are available in over 100 countries, Fujitsu is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices. Despite its connections to the Furukawa zaibatsu, Fujitsu escaped the Allied occupation of Japan after the Second World War mostly unscathed, in 1954, Fujitsu manufactured Japans first computer, the FACOM100, and in 1961 launched the transistorized FACOM222. In 1955, Fujitsu founded Kawasaki Frontale as a football club. In 1967, the name was officially changed to the contraction Fujitsū. The company also fields a company American football team, the Fujitsu Frontiers, who play in the corporate X-League, have appeared in 6 Japan X Bowls, winning one, and winning one Rice Bowl. In 1971, Fujitsu signed an OEM agreement with the Canadian company Consolidated Computers Limited to distribute CCLs data entry product, mers Kutt, inventor of Key-Edit and founder of CCL, was the common thread that led to Fujitsu’s later association with ICL and Gene Amdahl. In 1986, Fujitsu and The Queens University of Belfast business incubation unit established a joint venture called Kainos, in 1990, Fujitsu acquired 80% of the UK-based computer company International Computers Limited for $1.29 billion. In September 1990, Fujitsu announced the launch of a new series of computers which were at that time the fastest in the world. In July 1991, Fujitsu acquired more than half of the Russian company KME-CS, in 1992, Fujitsu introduced the worlds first 21-inch full-color plasma display. It was a hybrid, based upon the plasma display created at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and NHK STRL, in 1993, Fujitsu formed a flash memory manufacturing joint venture with AMD, Spansion. From February 1989 until mid-1997, Fujitsu built the FM Towns PC variant and it started as a proprietary PC variant intended for multimedia applications and computer games, but later became more compatible with regular PCs. In 1993, the FM Towns Marty was released, a console compatible with the FM Towns games. Fujitsu agreed to acquire the 58 percent of Amdahl Corporation that it did not already own for around $850 million in July 1997, in April 2000, Fujitsu acquired the remaining 70% of GLOVIA International. In April 2002 ICL was re-branded as Fujitsu, on March 2,2004, Fujitsu Computer Products of America lost a class action lawsuit over hard disk drives with defective chips and firmware. In October 2004, Fujitsu acquired the Australian subsidiary of Atos Origin, in August 2007, Fujitsu signed a £500 million, 10-year deal with Reuters Group under which Reuters outsourced the majority of its internal IT department to Fujitsu. As part of the agreement around 300 Reuters staff and 200 contractors transferred to Fujitsu, in October 2007, Fujitsu announced that it would be establishing an offshore development centre in Noida, India with a capacity to house 1,200 employees, in an investment of US$10 million
13.
FM Towns
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The FM Towns system is a Japanese PC variant, built by Fujitsu from February 1989 to the summer of 1997. It started as a proprietary PC variant intended for applications and PC games. In 1993, the FM Towns Marty was released, a console compatible with existing FM Towns games. The FM part of the name means Fujitsu Micro like their products, while the Towns part is derived from the code name the system was assigned while in development. This refers to Charles Townes, one of the winners of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics, the e in Townes was dropped when the system went into production to make it clearer that the term was to be pronounced like the word towns rather than the potential tow-nes. From this experience, Fujitsu learned that software sales drove hardware sales, in order to acquire usable software quickly, the new computer was to be based on Fujitsus FMR50 system architecture. The FMR50 system, released at 1986, was another x86/DOS-based computer similar to NECs popular PC-9801, the FMR50 computers were sold to moderate success in Japanese offices, particularly in Japanese government offices. There were hundreds of software available for the FMR, including Lotus 1-2-3, Wordstar, Multiplan. With this basis of compatibility, the more multimedia-friendly FM Towns was born, NECs PC-9801 computers were widespread and dominated in the 1980s, at one point reaching 70% of the 16/32-bit computer market. However, they had poor graphics and sounds, with many multimedia innovations for its time, the FM Towns was that system, though for a number of reasons it never broke far beyond the boundaries of its niche market status. It was delivered with a gamepad, a mouse and a microphone, most featured 3 memory expansion slots and used 72-pin non-parity SIMMs with a required timing of 100ns or less and a recommended timing of 60ns. Hard drives were not standard equipment, and were not required for most uses, the OS was loaded from CD-ROM by default. A SCSI Centronics 50/SCSI-1/Full-Pitch port was provided for connecting external SCSI disk drives, the video output was 15 kHz RGB using the same DB15 connector and pinouts as the PC-9801. The operating system used was Windows 3. 0/3. 1/95 and a graphical OS called Towns OS, based on MS-DOS, most games for the system were written in protected mode Assembly and C using the Phar Lap DOS extender. These games usually utilized the Towns OS API for handling several graphic modes, sprites, sounds, the FM Towns was capable of booting its graphical Towns OS straight from CD in 1989 - a year before Amiga CDTV booted its full multitasking GUI-based AmigaOS1. To boot the system from CD-ROM, the FM TOWNS had a hidden C, ROM drive in which a minimum MS-DOS system, CD-ROM driver and this minimal DOS system ran first, and the DOS system read and executed the Towns OS IPL stored in CD-ROM after that. The Towns OS CD-ROM had an IPL, MS-DOS system, DOS extender, various Linux and BSD distributions have also been ported to the FM Towns system, including Debian and Gentoo. A version of GNU called GNU for FM Towns was released in 1990 and it also had a built-in font ROM for the display of kanji characters
14.
DR-DOS
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DR-DOS is an operating system of the DOS family, written for IBM PC-compatible personal computers. It was originally developed by Gary Kildalls Digital Research and derived from Concurrent PC DOS6.0, as ownership changed, various later versions were produced with names including Novell DOS and Caldera OpenDOS. Digital Researchs original CP/M for the 8-bit Intel 8080 and Z-80 based systems spawned numerous spin-off versions, IBM originally approached Digital Research, seeking an x86 version of CP/M. However, there were disagreements over the contract, and IBM withdrew, instead, a deal was struck with Microsoft, who purchased another operating system, 86-DOS, from Seattle Computer Products. This became Microsoft MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS, 86-DOS command structure and application programming interface imitated that of CP/M. Digital Research threatened legal action, claiming PC DOS/MS-DOS to be too similar to CP/M, IBM settled by agreeing to sell their x86 version of CP/M, CP/M-86, alongside PC DOS. However, PC DOS sold for $40, while CP/M-86 had a price tag. This was shown publicly in December 1983 and shipped in March 1984 as Concurrent DOS3.1 to hardware vendors, therefore, over time two attempts were made to sideline the product. Its DOS compatibility was limited, and Digital Research made another attempt and this new disk operating system was launched in 1988 as DR DOS. As requested by several OEMs Digital Research started to develop a new DOS operating system addressing the shortcomings left by MS-DOS in 1987. The first DR DOS version was released on 28 May 1988, the system files were named DRBIOS. SYS and DRBDOS. SYS, the disk OEM label used was DIGITAL␠. It was also cheaper to license than MS-DOS, and was ROMable right from the start, the ROMed version of DR DOS was also named ROS. DRI was approached by a number of PC manufacturers who were interested in a third-party DOS, at this time, MS-DOS was only available to OEMs bundled with hardware. Consequently, DR DOS achieved some success when it became possible for consumers to buy it through normal retail channels since 3. 4x. Known versions are DR DOS3.31,3.32,3.33,3.34,3.35,3.40,3.41, like MS-DOS, most of them were produced in several flavors for different hardware. While most OEMs kept the DR DOS name designation, one OEM version is known to be called EZ-DOS3.41. DR DOS version 5.0 was released in May 1990, still reporting itself as PC DOS3.31 for compatibility purposes, but internally indicating a single-user BDOS6.4 kernel. This introduced ViewMAX, a GEM-based GUI file management shell, the patented BatteryMAX power management system, bundled disk-caching software, and also offers vastly improved memory management
15.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
16.
Novell
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/noʊˈvɛl/ was a software and services company headquartered in Provo, Utah. It had been instrumental in making Utah Valley a focus for technology, Novell technology contributed to the emergence of local area networks, which displaced the dominant mainframe computing model and changed computing worldwide. The company began in 1979 in Orem, Utah as Novell Data Systems Inc. a hardware manufacturer producing CP/M-based systems, former Eyring Research Institute employee Dennis Fairclough was the member of the original team that started Novell Data Systems. It was co-founded by George Canova, Darin Field, and Jack Davis, victor V. Vurpillat brought the deal to Pete Musser, chairman of the board of Safeguard Scientifics, Inc. who provided the seed funding. The company initially did not do well, the microcomputer produced by the company was comparatively weak against performance by competitors. In order to compete on systems sales Novell Data Systems planned a program to more than one microcomputer to operate together. The former ERI employees Drew Major, Dale Neibaur and Kyle Powell, the Safeguard board then ordered Musser to shut Novell down. Davis left Novell Data Systems in November 1981, followed by Canova in March 1982, rubinstein and Dolin, along with Jack Messman, interviewed and hired Raymond Noorda. The required funding was obtained through an offering to Safeguard shareholders, managed by the Cleveland brokerage house, Prescott, Ball and Turben. Major, Neibaur and Powell continued to support Novell through their SuperSet Software Group, in January 1983, the companys name was shortened to Novell, Inc. and Raymond Noorda became the head of the firm. Later that same year, the company introduced its most significant product, a network interface card was developed for the IBM PC industry standard architecture bus. The server was using the first network operating system called ShareNet, later, ShareNet was ported to run on the Intel platform and renamed NetWare. The first commercial release of NetWare was version 1.5, Novell based its network protocol on Xerox Network Systems, and created its own standards from IDP and SPP, which it named Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced Packet Exchange. File and print services ran on the NetWare Core Protocol over IPX, as did Routing Information Protocol, NetWare uses Novell DOS as a boot loader. Novell DOS is similar to MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS, but no license for DOS is required. Novell had already acquired Kanwal Rekhis company Excelan, which manufactured smart Ethernet cards and commercialized the Internet protocol TCP/IP, Novell did extremely well throughout the 1980s. It aggressively expanded its share by selling its expensive Ethernet cards at cost. By 1990, Novell had an almost monopolistic position in NOS for any business requiring a network, with this market leadership, Novell began to acquire and build services on top of its NetWare operating platform
17.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
18.
DR DOS 6.0
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DR-DOS is an operating system of the DOS family, written for IBM PC-compatible personal computers. It was originally developed by Gary Kildalls Digital Research and derived from Concurrent PC DOS6.0, as ownership changed, various later versions were produced with names including Novell DOS and Caldera OpenDOS. Digital Researchs original CP/M for the 8-bit Intel 8080 and Z-80 based systems spawned numerous spin-off versions, IBM originally approached Digital Research, seeking an x86 version of CP/M. However, there were disagreements over the contract, and IBM withdrew, instead, a deal was struck with Microsoft, who purchased another operating system, 86-DOS, from Seattle Computer Products. This became Microsoft MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS, 86-DOS command structure and application programming interface imitated that of CP/M. Digital Research threatened legal action, claiming PC DOS/MS-DOS to be too similar to CP/M, IBM settled by agreeing to sell their x86 version of CP/M, CP/M-86, alongside PC DOS. However, PC DOS sold for $40, while CP/M-86 had a price tag. This was shown publicly in December 1983 and shipped in March 1984 as Concurrent DOS3.1 to hardware vendors, therefore, over time two attempts were made to sideline the product. Its DOS compatibility was limited, and Digital Research made another attempt and this new disk operating system was launched in 1988 as DR DOS. As requested by several OEMs Digital Research started to develop a new DOS operating system addressing the shortcomings left by MS-DOS in 1987. The first DR DOS version was released on 28 May 1988, the system files were named DRBIOS. SYS and DRBDOS. SYS, the disk OEM label used was DIGITAL␠. It was also cheaper to license than MS-DOS, and was ROMable right from the start, the ROMed version of DR DOS was also named ROS. DRI was approached by a number of PC manufacturers who were interested in a third-party DOS, at this time, MS-DOS was only available to OEMs bundled with hardware. Consequently, DR DOS achieved some success when it became possible for consumers to buy it through normal retail channels since 3. 4x. Known versions are DR DOS3.31,3.32,3.33,3.34,3.35,3.40,3.41, like MS-DOS, most of them were produced in several flavors for different hardware. While most OEMs kept the DR DOS name designation, one OEM version is known to be called EZ-DOS3.41. DR DOS version 5.0 was released in May 1990, still reporting itself as PC DOS3.31 for compatibility purposes, but internally indicating a single-user BDOS6.4 kernel. This introduced ViewMAX, a GEM-based GUI file management shell, the patented BatteryMAX power management system, bundled disk-caching software, and also offers vastly improved memory management
19.
Hex dump
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In computing, a hex dump is a hexadecimal view of computer data, from RAM or from a file or storage device. Looking at a hex dump of data is commonly done as a part of debugging, in a hex dump, each byte is represented as a two-digit hexadecimal number. Hex dumps are commonly organized into rows of 8 or 16 bytes, sometimes separated by whitespaces, some hex dumps have the hexadecimal memory address at the beginning and/or a checksum byte at the end of each line. Although the name implies the use of base-16 output, some hex dumping software may have options for base-8 or base-10 output, some common names for this program function are hexdump, od, xxd and simply dump or even D. This checksum would be used to determine whether users entered the row correctly or not, a variety of hex dump file formats -- including S-record, Intel HEX, and Tektronix extended HEX -- have a similar checksum value at the end of each row. In the Unix programs od and hexdump, not all lines of output that contain the same data as the previous line are shown, instead. Depending on your system type, either or both of two utilities will be available--BSD systems deprecate od for hexdump, GNU systems the reverse. The two utilities, however, have exactly the purpose, just slightly different switches. Bytes outside the range of printable ASCII characters would be displayed as a single period for visual alignment. This same format was used to display memory when invoking the D command in the standard CP/M debugger DDT, later incarnations of the format changed the space between the 8th and 9th byte to a dash without changing the overall width. This notation has been retained in operating systems that were directly or indirectly derived from CP/M, including DR-DOS, MS-DOS, OS/2, on Linux systems, the command hexcat produces this classic output format too. The main reason for the design of this format is that it fits the maximum amount of data on a standard 80 character wide screen or printer, while still being easy to read. Hexdump Linux in a Nutshell Manual on How to Use the Hexdump Unix Utility Argument Description Doing a Reverse Hex Dump using xxd command hdr Hexdump with colored ranges to ease visualization, options to skip data, displaying bitfields, complex range definition. Data, HexDump, Range Module used by the hdr command, Use it to create applications that display complex binary data. Hexd Hexdump with colored ranges application part of libma, Hex cheatsheet for looking up byte-nibbles and nibble-bits. RFC4194 The S Hexdump Format
