1.
Camcorder
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A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and recorder. Although marketing materials may use the term camcorder, the name on the package. The earliest camcorders are tape-based, recording analog signals onto videotape cassettes, in 2006, digital recording became the norm, with tape replaced by storage media such as internal flash memory and SD cards. Earlier, the term camcorder exclusively referred to a camera with a recorder, but almost all of the electronic cameras built in 2006 provide recording capability essentially making them a camcorder. The term camcorder is now used for a particular camera range which provides advanced functions over more common cameras. Video cameras originally designed for television broadcast were large and heavy, mounted on special pedestals, as technology improved, out-of-studio video recording was possible with compact video cameras and portable video recorders, a detachable recording unit could be carried to a shooting location. Although the camera itself was compact, the need for a separate recorder made on-location shooting a two-person job, specialized videocassette recorders were introduced by JVC and Sony releasing a model for mobile work. Portable recorders meant that video footage could be aired on the early-evening news. In 1982, Sony released the Betacam system, a key component was a single camera-recorder unit, eliminating a cable between the camera and recorder and increasing the camera operators freedom. The Betacam used the same format as the Betamax, and became standard equipment for broadcast news. Sony released the first consumer camcorder in 1983, the Betamovie BMC-100P used a Betamax cassette and rested on the operators shoulder, due to a design not permitting a single-handed grip. That year, JVC released the first VHS-C camcorder, Sony introduced its compact Video8 format in 1985. That year, Panasonic, RCA and Hitachi began producing camcorders using a full-size VHS cassette with a three-hour capacity and these shoulder-mount camcorders were used by videophiles, industrial videographers and college TV studios. Full-size Super-VHS camcorders were released in 1987, providing a way to collect news segments or other videographies. Sony upgraded Video8, releasing the Hi8 in competition with S-VHS, Digital technology emerged with the Sony D1, a device which recorded uncompressed data and required a large amount of bandwidth for its time. In 1992 Ampex introduced DCT, the first digital video format with data compression using the cosine transform algorithm present in most commercial digital video formats. In 1995 Sony, JVC, Panasonic and other video-camera manufacturers launched DV, Panasonic launched DVCPRO HD in 2000, expanding the DV codec to support high definition. The format was intended for professional camcorders, and used full-size DVCPRO cassettes, in 2003 Sony, JVC, Canon and Sharp introduced HDV as the first affordable HD video format, due to its use of inexpensive MiniDV cassettes
2.
International Electrotechnical Commission
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The IEC also manages three global conformity assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components conform to its International Standards. The first International Electrical Congress took place in 1881 at the International Exposition of Electricity, at that time the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units was agreed to. The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly Gauss, Hertz and it also first proposed a system of standards, the Giorgi System, which ultimately became the SI, or Système International d’unités. In 1938, it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify terminology relating to electrical, electronic and this effort continues, and the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries. The CISPR – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC, originally located in London, the commission moved to its current headquarters in Geneva in 1948. It has regional centres in Asia-Pacific, Latin America and North America, today, the IEC is the worlds leading international organization in its field, and its standards are adopted as national standards by its members. The work is done by some 10,000 electrical and electronics experts from industry, government, academia, test labs, IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as IEC60417, Graphical symbols for use on equipment. Following the Dresden Agreement with CENELEC the numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC27 became IEC60027. Standards of the 60000 series are also preceded by EN to indicate that the IEC standard is also adopted by CENELEC as a European standard. The IEC cooperates closely with the International Organization for Standardization and the International Telecommunication Union, Standards developed jointly with ISO such as ISO/IEC26300, ISO/IEC27001, and CASCO ISO/IEC17000 series, carry the acronym of both organizations. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix covers publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 - Information Technology, as well as conformity assessment standards developed by ISO CASCO, other standards developed in cooperation between IEC and ISO are assigned numbers in the 80000 series, such as IEC 82045-1. IEC standards are also being adopted by other certifying bodies such as BSI, CSA, UL & ANSI/INCITS, SABS, SAI, SPC/GB, IEC standards adopted by other certifying bodies may have some noted differences from the original IEC standard. The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, national committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, about 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry
3.
Videotape
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Videotape is magnetic tape used for storing video and usually sound in addition. Information stored can be in the form of either a signal or digital signal. Videotape is used in video tape recorders or, more commonly, videocassette recorders and camcorders. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the produced by an electrocardiogram. Tape is a method of storing information and thus imposes delays to access a portion of the tape that is not already under the heads. The early 2000s saw the introduction and rise to prominence of high quality video recording media such as hard disks. Since then, videotape has been relegated to archival and similar uses. The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosbys production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises, overall the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film. Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a version available in 1954. The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA and it used half-inch tape traveling at 200 inches per second. RCA demonstrated the magnetic recording of both black-and-white and color television programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1,1953. The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record, the color system used half-inch tape to record five tracks, one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch tape with two tracks, one for video and one for audio, both systems ran at 360 inches per second. RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23,1956 when a song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live television program. BCE demonstrated a color system in February 1955 using a longitudinal recording on half-inch tape. CBS, RCAs competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system, BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. Quad employed a transverse four-head system on a tape. On January 22,1957, the NBC Television game show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder
4.
576i
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576i is a standard-definition video mode originally used for broadcast television in most countries of the world where the utility frequency for electric power distribution is 50 Hz. Because of its association with the colour encoding system, it is often referred to as simply PAL, PAL/SECAM or SECAM when compared to its 60 Hz NTSC-colour-encoded counterpart. The 576 identifies a vertical resolution of 576 lines, and the i identifies it as an interlaced resolution and its basic parameters common to both analogue and digital implementations are,576 scan lines or vertical pixels of picture content,25 frames per second. Digital information not to be displayed as part of the image can be transmitted in the lines, teletext and other services. Analogue television signals have no pixels, they are rastered in scan lines, in digital applications, the number of pixels per line is an arbitrary choice as long as it fulfils the sampling theorem. Values above about 500 pixels per line are enough for conventional broadcast television, DVB-T, DVD and DV allow better values such as 704 or 720. The video format can be transported by major digital television formats, ATSC, DVB and ISDB, and on DVD, when 576i video is transmitted via baseband, most of the differences between the one-letter systems are no longer significant, other than vertical resolution and frame rate. Digital video uses its own separate space, so even the minor colour space differences between PAL and SECAM become moot in the digital domain. When 576i is used to transmit content that was composed of 25 full progressive frames per second. This is the opposite of NTSC, motion pictures are typically shot on film at 24 frames per second. When telecined and played back at PALs standard of 25 frames per second and this also applies to most TV series that are shot on film or digital 24p. Depending on the system in use, it also slightly increases the pitch of the soundtrack by 70.67 cents. More recently, digital conversion methods have used algorithms which preserve the pitch of the soundtrack. Conversion methods exist that can convert 24 frames per second video to 25 frames per second with no speed increase, however image quality suffers when conversions of this type are used. This method is most commonly employed through conversions done digitally, and is employed in situations where the importance of preserving the speed of the video outweighs the need for image quality. Many movie enthusiasts prefer PAL over NTSC despite the formers speed-up, because the results in telecine judder. States the majority of authorities on the subject favour PAL over NTSC for DVD playback quality, also DVD reviewers often make mention of this cause. For example, in his PAL vs. NTSC article, the founder of MichaelDVD says, Personally, I find all but intolerable and find it very hard to watch a movie on an NTSC DVD because of it
5.
HDV
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HDV is a format for recording of high-definition video on DV cassette tape. The format was developed by JVC and supported by Sony, Canon. The four companies formed the HDV consortium in September 2003, HDV and HDV logo are trademarks of JVC and Sony. HDV video and audio are encoded in digital form, using lossy interframe compression, video is encoded with the H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression scheme, using 8-bit chroma and luma samples with 4,2,0 chroma subsampling. Stereo audio is encoded with the MPEG-1 Layer 2 compression scheme, the compressed audio and video are multiplexed into an MPEG-2 transport stream, which is typically recorded onto magnetic tape, but can also be stored in a computer file. The data rate for both the audio and video is constant and is roughly the same as DV data rate, in contrast to the video, HDV audio bitrate is relatively generous. At the coded bitrate of 384 kbit/s, MPEG-1 Layer 2 audio is regarded as perceptually lossless, two major versions of HDV are HDV 720p and HDV 1080i. The former is used by JVC and is known as HDV1. The latter is preferred by Sony and Canon and is referred to as HDV2. The HDV 1080i defines optional progressive recording modes, and in recent publications is sometimes called HDV1080 or 1080-line HDV as progressive 1080-line recording becomes commonplace, HDV 720p format allows recording high definition video as well as progressive-scan standard definition video. HDV-HD closely matches broadcast 720p progressive scan video standard in terms of scanning type, frame size, aspect ratio, earlier HDV 720p camcorders could shoot only at 24,25 and 30 frames per second. Later models offer both film-like and reality-like frame rates, HDV-SD is a mode for recording progressive-scan standard definition video. Such a video is called enhanced definition video, but is considered high definition video in Australia. Depending on region, HDV-SD video is recorded either as 576p50 or as 480p60, like DVCPRO Progressive, HDV-SD was meant as an intermediate format during the transition time from standard definition to high definition video. Later models of HDV 720p camcorders do not record in this mode, JVC was the only manufacturer of HDV 720p camcorders. JVC was the first to release an HDV camcorder, the handheld GR-HD1, later JVC shifted its HDV development to shoulder-mounted cameras. A common misconception is that JVC developed an extension to HDV called ProHD, featuring film-like 24-frame/s progressive recording mode and LPCM audio. JVC has clarified that ProHD is not a video recording format, but an approach for delivering affordable HD products, Sony adapted HDV, originally conceived as progressive-scan format by JVC, to interlaced video
6.
Lossy compression
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In information technology, lossy compression or irreversible compression is the class of data encoding methods that uses inexact approximations and partial data discarding to represent the content. These techniques are used to reduce data size for storage, handling, different versions of the photo of the cat above show how higher degrees of approximation create coarser images as more details are removed. This is opposed to data compression which does not degrade the data. The amount of data reduction possible using lossy compression is often higher than through lossless techniques. Well-designed lossy compression technology often reduces file sizes significantly before degradation is noticed by the end-user, even when noticeable by the user, further data reduction may be desirable. Lossy compression is most commonly used to compress multimedia data, especially in such as streaming media. By contrast, lossless compression is required for text and data files, such as bank records. A picture, for example, is converted to a file by considering it to be an array of dots and specifying the color. If the picture contains an area of the color, it can be compressed without loss by saying 200 red dots instead of red dot. The original data contains an amount of information, and there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information. Basic information theory says there is an absolute limit in reducing the size of this data. When data is compressed, its entropy increases, and it cannot increase indefinitely, as an intuitive example, most people know that a compressed ZIP file is smaller than the original file, but repeatedly compressing the same file will not reduce the size to nothing. Most compression algorithms can recognize when further compression would be pointless, in many cases, files or data streams contain more information than is needed for a particular purpose. Developing lossy compression techniques as closely matched to human perception as possible is a complex task, the terms irreversible and reversible are preferred over lossy and lossless respectively for some applications, such as medical image compression, to circumvent the negative implications of loss. The type and amount of loss can affect the utility of the images, artifacts or undesirable effects of compression may be clearly discernible yet the result still useful for the intended purpose. Or lossy compressed images may be visually lossless, or in the case of medical images and this is because uncompressed audio can only reduce file size by lowering bit rate or depth, whereas compressing audio can reduce size while maintaining bit rate and depth. This compression becomes a loss of the least significant data. From this point of view, perceptual encoding is not essentially about discarding data, green, and 50 pixels of blue vs. red, which are proportional to human sensitivity to each component
7.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
8.
Intra-frame coding
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Intra-frame coding is used in video coding. It is part of an intra-frame codec like ProRes, a group of pictures codec without inter frames and it is one of the two classes of predictive coding methods in video coding. Its counterpart is inter-frame prediction which exploits temporal redundancy, temporally independently coded so-called intra frames use only intra coding. The temporally coded predicted frames may use intra- as well as inter-frame prediction, usually only few of the spatially closest known samples are used for the extrapolation. Formats that operate sample by sample like Portable Network Graphics can usually use one of four adjacent pixels or some function of them like e. g. their average. Block-based formats prefill whole blocks with prediction values extrapolated from usually one or two lines of pixels that run along their top and left borders. In other words, no temporal processing is performed outside of the current picture or frame, non-intra coding techniques are extensions to these basics. It turns out that this diagram is very similar to that of a JPEG still image video encoder. Inter frame has been specified by the CCITT in 1988–1990 by H.261 for the first time, H.261 was meant for teleconferencing and ISDN telephoning. Data is usually read from a camera or a video card in the YCbCr data format. Video compression Inter frame Group of pictures application of frame types http, //www. cs. cf. ac. uk/Dave/Multimedia/node248. html
9.
Data compression
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In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy, no information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information, the process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called coding in opposition to channel coding. Compression is useful because it reduces resources required to store and transmit data, computational resources are consumed in the compression process and, usually, in the reversal of the process. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off, Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy, for example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels, instead of coding red pixel, red pixel. The data may be encoded as 279 red pixels and this is a basic example of run-length encoding, there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage, DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip, and PNG, LZW is used in GIF images. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data, for most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded, current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsofts CAB format, the best modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as a form of statistical modelling. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string, sequitur and Re-Pair are practical grammar compression algorithms for which software is publicly available. In a further refinement of the use of probabilistic modelling. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols
10.
Discrete cosine transform
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A discrete cosine transform expresses a finite sequence of data points in terms of a sum of cosine functions oscillating at different frequencies. DCTs are important to numerous applications in science and engineering, from lossy compression of audio and images, in particular, a DCT is a Fourier-related transform similar to the discrete Fourier transform, but using only real numbers. DCTs are equivalent to DFTs of roughly twice the length, operating on data with even symmetry. There are eight standard DCT variants, of four are common. The most common variant of discrete cosine transform is the type-II DCT and its inverse, the type-III DCT, is correspondingly often called simply the inverse DCT or the IDCT. Multidimensional DCTs are developed to extend the concept of DCT on MD Signals, there are several algorithms to compute MD DCT. A new variety of fast algorithms are developed to reduce the computational complexity of implementing DCT. For strongly correlated Markov processes, the DCT can approach the efficiency of the Karhunen-Loève transform. As explained below, this stems from the boundary conditions implicit in the cosine functions, a related transform, the modified discrete cosine transform, or MDCT, is used in AAC, Vorbis, WMA, and MP3 audio compression. The DCT is used in JPEG image compression, MJPEG, MPEG, DV, Daala, there, the two-dimensional DCT-II of N × N blocks are computed and the results are quantized and entropy coded. In this case, N is typically 8 and the DCT-II formula is applied to each row, due to enhancement in the hardware, software and introduction of several fast algorithms, the necessity of using M-D DCTs is rapidly increasing. DCT-IV has gained popularity for its applications in fast implementation of real-valued polyphase filtering banks, lapped orthogonal transform, like any Fourier-related transform, discrete cosine transforms express a function or a signal in terms of a sum of sinusoids with different frequencies and amplitudes. Like the discrete Fourier transform, a DCT operates on a function at a number of discrete data points. The obvious distinction between a DCT and a DFT is that the former uses only cosine functions, while the latter uses both cosines and sines. However, this difference is merely a consequence of a deeper distinction. That is, once you write a function f as a sum of sinusoids, you can evaluate that sum at any x, the DFT, like the Fourier series, implies a periodic extension of the original function. A DCT, like a cosine transform, implies an even extension of the original function, however, because DCTs operate on finite, discrete sequences, two issues arise that do not apply for the continuous cosine transform. First, one has to specify whether the function is even or odd at both the left and right boundaries of the domain, second, one has to specify around what point the function is even or odd
11.
Rec. 601
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It includes methods of encoding 525-line 60 Hz and 625-line 50 Hz signals, both with an active region covering 720 luminance samples and 360 chrominance samples per line. The color encoding system is known as YCbCr 4,2,2, the standard has been revised several times in its history. Its edition 7, referred to as BT. 601-7, was approved in March 2011 and was published in October 2011. The Rec.601 signal can be regarded as if it is a digitally encoded analog component video signal, regardless of the frame rate, the luminance sampling frequency is 13.5 MHz. The samples are uniformly quantized using 8 or 10 bit PCM codes in the YCbCr domain, for each 8 bit luminance sample, the nominal value to represent black is 16 and the value for white is 235. Eight-bit code values from 1 through 15 provide footroom, and can be used to accommodate transient signal content such as filter undershoots, similarly, code values 236 through 254 provide headroom and can be used to accommodate transient signal content such as filter overshoots. The values 0 and 255 are used to encode the sync pulses and are forbidden within the picture area. The Cb and Cr samples are unsigned and use the value 128 to encode the neutral color difference value, as used when encoding a white, slightly different primaries are specified for the 625 line and 525 line systems. Rec.601 defines a nonlinear transfer function which is linear near 0 and then transfers to a gamma curve for the rest of the light intensity range. E = {4.500 L L <0.0181.099 L0.45 −0.099 L ≥0.018 The CCIR received a 1982–83 Technology,709, the corresponding standard for high-definition television Rec. 2020, ITU-R Recommendation for ultra-high-definition television ITU-R BT.656, ITU-R Recommendation for parallel and serial transmission formats for BT.601 video Pixel aspect ratio
12.
Interlaced video
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Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
13.
Pixel aspect ratio
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Pixel aspect ratio is a mathematical ratio that describes how the width of a pixel in a digital image compares to the height of that pixel. Most digital imaging systems display an image as a grid of tiny, Pixel Aspect Ratio describes this difference. Use of pixel aspect ratio mostly involves pictures pertaining to standard-definition television, most other imaging systems, including those that comply with SMPTE standards and practices, use square pixels. In digital images, there is a distinction with the Storage Aspect Ratio, if an image is displayed with square pixels, then these ratios agree, if not, then non-square, rectangular pixels are used, and these ratios disagree. The aspect ratio of the pixels themselves is known as the Pixel Aspect Ratio – for square pixels this is 1,1 – and these are related by the identity, SAR × PAR = DAR. For example, a 640 ×480 VGA image has a SAR of 640/480 =4,3, by contrast, a 720 ×576 D-1 PAL image has a SAR of 720/576 =5,4, but is displayed on a 4,3 display. In analog images such as there is no notion of pixel, nor notion of SAR or PAR. Today they arise also in transcoding between resolutions with different SARs, actual displays do not generally have non-square pixels, though digital sensors might, they are rather a mathematical abstraction used in resampling images to convert between resolutions. However, by a sampling rate, the effective horizontal resolution can be determined by the sampling theorem. Also, the resolution may be rounded, third, analog video signals are interlaced – each image is sent as two fields, each with half the lines. Thus pixels are either twice as tall as they would be without interlacing, Video is presented as a sequential series of images called video frames. Historically, video frames were created and recorded in analog form, as digital display technology, digital broadcast technology, and digital video compression evolved separately, it resulted in video frame differences that must be addressed using Pixel Aspect Ratio. Digital video frames are defined as a grid of pixels used to present each sequential image. The horizontal component is defined by pixels, and is known as a video line, the vertical component is defined by the number of lines, as in 480 lines. Such standards define an image as an array of well-defined horizontal Lines, well-defined vertical Line Duration, however, there is not a standard-definition television standard that properly defines image edges or explicitly demands a certain number of picture elements per line. As a result of becoming powerful enough to serve as video editing tools, video digital-to-analog converters. To convert analog video lines into a series of square pixels, the luma sampling rate for 480i pictures was 12 3⁄11 MHz and for 576i pictures was 14 3⁄4 MHz. The term pixel aspect ratio was first coined when ITU-R BT.601 specified that standard-definition television pictures are made of lines of exactly 720 non-square pixels and it designated 177,160 for 480i or 1035,1132 for 576i
14.
Chroma subsampling
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It is used in many video encoding schemes — both analog and digital — and also in JPEG encoding. Digital signals are compressed to save transmission time and reduce file size. In compressed images, for example, the 4,2,2 YCbCr scheme requires two-thirds the bandwidth of RGB and this reduction results in almost no visual difference as perceived by the viewer. Because the human system is less sensitive to the position and motion of color than luminance. At normal viewing distances, there is no perceptible loss incurred by sampling the color detail at a lower rate, in video systems, this is achieved through the use of color difference components. The signal is divided into a component and two color difference components. In human vision there are three channels for detection, and for many color systems, three channels is sufficient for representing most colors. For example, red, green, blue or magenta, yellow, but there are other ways to represent the color. In many video systems, the three channels are luminance and two chroma channels, in video, the luma and chroma components are formed as a weighted sum of gamma-corrected RGB components instead of linear RGB components. As a result, luma must be distinguished from luminance, indeed, similar bleeding can occur also with gamma =1, whence the reversing of the order of operations between gamma correction and forming the weighted sum can make no difference. The chroma can influence the luma specifically at the pixels where the subsampling put no chroma, the parts are, J, horizontal sampling reference. A, number of samples in the first row of J pixels. B, number of changes of chrominance samples between first and second row of J pixels, may be omitted if alpha component is not present, and is equal to J when present. This notation is not valid for all combinations and has exceptions, the mapping examples given are only theoretical and for illustration. Also note that the diagram does not indicate any chroma filtering, to calculate required bandwidth factor relative to 4,4,4, one needs to sum all the factors and divide the result by 12. Each of the three YCbCr components have the sample rate, thus there is no chroma subsampling. This scheme is used in high-end film scanners and cinematic post production. Note that 4,4,4 may instead be referring to RGB color space, formats such as HDCAM SR can record 4,4,4 RGB over dual-link HD-SDI
15.
Chroma key
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Chroma key compositing, or chroma keying, is a visual effects / post-production technique for compositing two images or video streams together based on color hues. The technique has been used heavily in many fields to remove a background from the subject of a photo or video – particularly the newscasting, motion picture and videogame industries. A color range in the footage is made transparent, allowing separately filmed background footage or a static image to be inserted into the scene. The chroma keying technique is used in video production and post-production. No part of the subject being filmed or photographed may duplicate the color used as the backing, when using a blue screen, different weather maps are added on the parts of the image where the color is blue. If the news presenter wears blue clothes, his or her clothes will also be replaced with the background video, chroma keying is also common in the entertainment industry for visual effects in movies and videogames. Prior to the introduction of travelling mattes and optical printing, double exposure was used to introduce elements into a scene which werent present in the initial exposure and this was done using black draping where a green screen would be used today. George Albert Smith first used this approach in 1898, in 1903, The Great Train Robbery by Edwin S. Porter used double exposure to add background scenes to windows which were black when filmed on set, using a garbage matte to expose only the window areas. In 1918 Frank Williams patented a travelling matte technique, again based on using a black background and this was used in many films, such as The Invisible Man. In the 1920s, Walt Disney used a backdrop to include human actors with cartoon characters. The blue screen method was developed in the 1930s at RKO Radio Pictures, at RKO, Linwood Dunn used an early version of the travelling matte to create wipes – where there were transitions like a windshield wiper in films such as Flying Down to Rio. In 1950, Warner Brothers employee and ex-Kodak researcher Arthur Widmer began working on a travelling matte process. He also began developing techniques, one of the first films to use them was the 1958 adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novella, The Old Man. Petro Vlahos was awarded an Academy Award for his refinement of techniques in 1964. His technique exploits the fact that most objects in real-world scenes have a color whose blue-color component is similar in intensity to their green-color component, zbigniew Rybczyński also contributed to bluescreen technology. An optical printer with two projectors, a camera and a beam splitter, was used to combine the actor in front of a blue screen together with the background footage. In the early 1970s, American and British television networks began using green backdrops instead of blue for their newscasts, during the 1980s, minicomputers were used to control the optical printer. For the film The Empire Strikes Back, Richard Edlund created an optical printer that accelerated the process considerably
16.
Pulse-code modulation
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Pulse-code modulation is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals. Linear pulse-code modulation is a type of PCM where the quantization levels are linearly uniform. This is in contrast to PCM encodings where quantization levels vary as a function of amplitude, though PCM is a more general term, it is often used to describe data encoded as LPCM. Early electrical communications started to sample signals in order to interlace samples from multiple telegraphy sources, the American inventor Moses G. Farmer conveyed telegraph time-division multiplexing as early as 1853. Electrical engineer W. M. Miner, in 1903, used an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division multiplexing multiple telegraph signals and he obtained intelligible speech from channels sampled at a rate above 3500–4300 Hz, lower rates proved unsatisfactory. This was TDM, but pulse-amplitude modulation rather than PCM, in 1920 the Bartlane cable picture transmission system, named after its inventors Harry G. Bartholomew and Maynard D. In 1926, Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric patented a machine which transmitted its signal using 5-bit PCM. The machine did not go into production, british engineer Alec Reeves, unaware of previous work, conceived the use of PCM for voice communication in 1937 while working for International Telephone and Telegraph in France. He described the theory and advantages, but no practical application resulted, Reeves filed for a French patent in 1938, and his US patent was granted in 1943. By this time Reeves had started working at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, the first transmission of speech by digital techniques, the SIGSALY encryption equipment, conveyed high-level Allied communications during World War II. In 1943 the Bell Labs researchers who designed the SIGSALY system became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Alec Reeves. In 1949 for the Canadian Navys DATAR system, Ferranti Canada built a working PCM radio system that was able to transmit digitized radar data over long distances, PCM in the late 1940s and early 1950s used a cathode-ray coding tube with a plate electrode having encoding perforations. The plate collected or passed the beam, producing current variations in binary code, rather than natural binary, the grid of Goodalls later tube was perforated to produce a glitch-free Gray code, and produced all bits simultaneously by using a fan beam instead of a scanning beam. Patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, another patent by the same title was filed by John R. Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948, U. S. The three of them published The Philosophy of PCM in 1948, PCM is the method of encoding generally used for uncompressed audio, although there are other methods such as pulse-density modulation. The 4ESS switch introduced time-division switching into the US telephone system in 1976, LPCM is used for the lossless encoding of audio data in the Compact disc Red Book standard, introduced in 1982
17.
Stereophonic sound
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Stereophonic sound or, more commonly, stereo, is a method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective. Thus the term applies to so-called quadraphonic and surround-sound systems as well as the more common two-channel. It is often contrasted with monophonic, or mono sound, where audio is heard as coming from one position, in the 2000s, stereo sound is common in entertainment systems such as broadcast radio and TV, recorded music and the cinema. The word stereophonic derives from the Greek στερεός, firm, solid + φωνή, sound, tone, voice and it was coined in 1927 by Western Electric, the signal is then reproduced over multiple loudspeakers to recreate, as closely as possible, the live sound. Secondly artificial or pan-pot stereo, in which a sound is reproduced over multiple loudspeakers. By varying the amplitude of the signal sent to each speaker an artificial direction can be suggested. The control which is used to vary this relative amplitude of the signal is known as a pan-pot, by combining multiple pan-potted mono signals together, a complete, yet entirely artificial, sound field can be created. In technical usage, true stereo sound recording and sound reproduction that uses stereographic projection to encode the relative positions of objects and events recorded. During two-channel stereo recording, two microphones are placed in strategically chosen locations relative to the source, with both recording simultaneously. The two recorded channels will be similar, but each will have distinct time-of-arrival and sound-pressure-level information, during playback, the listeners brain uses those subtle differences in timing and sound level to triangulate the positions of the recorded objects. Stereo recordings often cannot be played on systems without a significant loss of fidelity. This phenomenon is known as phase cancellation and this two-channel telephonic process was commercialized in France from 1890 to 1932 as the Théâtrophone, and in England from 1895 to 1925 as the Electrophone. Both were services available by coin-operated receivers at hotels and cafés, modern stereophonic technology was invented in the 1930s by British engineer Alan Blumlein at EMI, who patented stereo records, stereo films, and also surround sound. In early 1931, Blumlein and his wife were at a local cinema, Blumlein declared to his wife that he had found a way to make the sound follow the actor across the screen. The genesis of ideas is uncertain, but he explained them to Isaac Shoenberg in the late summer of 1931. His earliest notes on the subject are dated 25 September 1931, the application was dated 14 December 1931, and was accepted on 14 June 1933 as UK patent number 394,325. The patent covered many ideas in stereo, some of which are used today and these discs used the two walls of the groove at right angles in order to carry the two channels. Much of the development work on this system for cinematic use did not reach completion until 1935, in Blumleins short test films, his original intent of having the sound follow the actor was fully realised
18.
Sampling (signal processing)
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In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A common example is the conversion of a wave to a sequence of samples. A sample is a value or set of values at a point in time and/or space, a sampler is a subsystem or operation that extracts samples from a continuous signal. A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples equivalent to the value of the continuous signal at the desired points. Sampling can be done for functions varying in space, time, or any other dimension, then the sampled function is given by the sequence, s, for integer values of n. The sampling frequency or sampling rate, fs, is the number of samples obtained in one second. Reconstructing a continuous function from samples is done by interpolation algorithms, the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula is mathematically equivalent to an ideal lowpass filter whose input is a sequence of Dirac delta functions that are modulated by the sample values. When the time interval between adjacent samples is a constant, the sequence of functions is called a Dirac comb. Mathematically, the modulated Dirac comb is equivalent to the product of the function with s. That purely mathematical abstraction is sometimes referred to as impulse sampling, most sampled signals are not simply stored and reconstructed. But the fidelity of a reconstruction is a customary measure of the effectiveness of sampling. That fidelity is reduced when s contains frequency components whose periodicity is smaller than 2 samples, the quantity ½ cycles/sample × fs samples/sec = fs/2 cycles/sec is known as the Nyquist frequency of the sampler. Therefore, s is usually the output of a lowpass filter, without an anti-aliasing filter, frequencies higher than the Nyquist frequency will influence the samples in a way that is misinterpreted by the interpolation process. In practice, the signal is sampled using an analog-to-digital converter. This results in deviations from the theoretically perfect reconstruction, collectively referred to as distortion, various types of distortion can occur, including, Aliasing. Some amount of aliasing is inevitable because only theoretical, infinitely long, Aliasing can be made arbitrarily small by using a sufficiently large order of the anti-aliasing filter. Aperture error results from the fact that the sample is obtained as a time average within a sampling region, in a capacitor-based sample and hold circuit, aperture error is introduced because the capacitor cannot instantly change voltage thus requiring the sample to have non-zero width. Jitter or deviation from the precise sample timing intervals, noise, including thermal sensor noise, analog circuit noise, etc
19.
Computer file
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A computer file is a computer resource for recording data discretely in a computer storage device. Just as words can be written to paper, so can information be written to a computer file, there are different types of computer files, designed for different purposes. A file may be designed to store a picture, a message, a video. Some types of files can store different several types of information at once, by using computer programs, a person can open, read, change, and close a computer file. Computer files may be reopened, modified, and copied a number of times. Typically, computer files are organised in a system, which keeps track of where the files are. The word file derives from the Latin filum, such a file now exists in a memory tube developed at RCA Laboratories. Electronically it retains figures fed into calculating machines, holds them in storage while it memorizes new ones - speeds intelligent solutions through mazes of mathematics, in 1952, file denoted, inter alia, information stored on punched cards. In early use, the hardware, rather than the contents stored on it, was denominated a file. For example, the IBM350 disk drives were denominated disk files, although the contemporary register file demonstrates the early concept of files, its use has greatly decreased. On most modern operating systems, files are organized into one-dimensional arrays of bytes, for example, the bytes of a plain text file are associated with either ASCII or UTF-8 characters, while the bytes of image, video, and audio files are interpreted otherwise. Most file types also allocate a few bytes for metadata, which allows a file to some basic information about itself. Some file systems can store arbitrary file-specific data outside of the file format, on other file systems this can be done via sidecar files or software-specific databases. All those methods, however, are susceptible to loss of metadata than are container. At any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, in most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. Many older operating systems kept track only of the number of blocks or tracks occupied by a file on a storage device. In such systems, software employed other methods to track the exact byte count, the general definition of a file does not require that its size have any real meaning, however, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage. A special case is a zero byte file, these files can be newly created files that have not yet had any data written to them, or may serve as some kind of flag in the file system, or are accidents
20.
Linear video editing
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Linear video editing is a video editing post-production process of selecting, arranging and modifying images and sound in a predetermined, ordered sequence. Regardless of whether it was captured by a camera, tapeless camcorder. For the most part video editing software has replaced linear editing, until the advent of computer-based random access non-linear editing systems in the early 1990s, linear video editing was simply called video editing. Live television is still produced in the same manner as it was in the 1950s. Before videotape, the way of airing the same shows again was by filming shows using a kinescope. However, kinescopes suffered from various sorts of degradation, from image distortion and apparent scan lines to artifacts in contrast. Kinescopes had to be processed and printed in a film laboratory, the primary motivation for the development of video tape was as a short or long-term archival medium. Only after a series of technical advances spanning decades did video tape editing finally become a production tool. The first widely accepted video tape in the United States was 2 inch Quadruplex videotape, to gain enough head-to-tape speed, four video recording and playback heads were spun on a head wheel across most of the two-inch width of the tape. This system was known as Quad, for quadruplex recording, the resulting video tracks were slightly less than a ninety-degree angle. This was a process and avoided where possible. When it was used, the two pieces of tape to be joined were painted with a solution of fine iron filings suspended in carbon tetrachloride. This developed the magnetic tracks, making them visible when viewed through a microscope so that they could be aligned in a designed for this task. The tracks had to be cut during a vertical retrace, without disturbing the odd-field/even-field ordering, the cut also had to be at the same angle that the video tracks were laid down on the tape. Since the video and audio read heads were several inches apart it was not possible to make an edit that would function correctly in both video and audio. The cut was made for video and a portion of audio then re-copied into the correct relationship, the disadvantages of physically editing tapes were many. Others, such as the BBC, allowed reuse of spliced tape in certain circumstances as long as it conformed to strict criteria about the number of splices in a given duration. In the USA, the 1961-62 Ernie Kovacs ABC specials and Rowan & Martins Laugh-In were the only TV shows to make use of splice editing of videotape
21.
Telecine
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Telecine is the process of transferring motion picture film into video and is performed in a color suite. The term is used to refer to the equipment used in the post-production process. Telecine enables a motion picture, captured originally on film stock, to be viewed with standard equipment, such as television sets, video cassette recorders, DVD. Within the film industry, it is referred to as a TK. With the advent of popular broadcast television, producers realized they needed more than live television programming, however, the difference in frame rates between film and television meant that simply playing a film into a television camera would result in flickering. Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a display to film. This could then be re-played directly into a camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the cameras, edited mechanically as normal. As the film was run at the speed as the television. Color was supported by using a video camera, prisms. However, this still left film shot at cinema frame rates as a problem, the obvious solution is to simply speed up the film to match the television frame rates, but this, at least in the case of NTSC, is rather obvious to the eye and ear. This problem is not difficult to fix, however, the solution being to play a selected frame twice. For NTSC, the difference in rates can be corrected by showing every fourth frame of film twice. A more convincing technique is to use 2,3 pulldown, discussed below, PAL uses a similar system,2,2 pulldown. In recent decades, telecine has primarily been a film-to-videotape process, changes since the 1950s have primarily been in terms of equipment and physical formats, the basic concept remains the same. Home movies are video tapes of films that used this technique, the most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the part of the telecine samples the light electronically. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true
22.
Electronic news-gathering
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The term was commonly used in the television news industry in the 1980s and 1990s, but it has since been less frequently used as the technology has become ubiquitous. The vehicle on which the equipment is fitted is called DSNG. The term ENG was created as television news departments moved from film-based news-gathering to electronic field production technology in the 1970s, Editing was done by hand on what was known as color reversal film, usually Kodak Ektachrome, meaning there were no negatives. Color reversal film had replaced black-and-white film as television itself evolved from black-and-white to color broadcasting, filmo cameras were most commonly used for silent filming, while Auricon cameras were used for filming with synchronized sound. Since editing required cutting the film segments and then splicing them together. News stories were often transferred to bulky 2-inch videotape for distribution and playback, by the mid-1980s, film had all but disappeared from use in television journalism. Coupled with live microwave and/or satellite trucks, reporters were able to live what was happening, bringing the audience into news events as they happened. CNN launched in October 1980, as ENG technologies were emerging, the technology was still in its developmental stages, and had yet to be integrated with satellites and microwave relays, which caused some problems with the networks early transmissions. However, ENG proved to be a development for all television news as news content recorded using videocassette recorders was easier to edit. Over time, as editing technology has become simpler and more accessible, video production processes have largely passed from broadcast engineers to producers and writers, however, initially the ENG cameras and recorders were heavier and bulkier than their film equivalents. This restricted the ability of camera operators from escaping danger or hurrying toward a news event, Editing equipment was expensive and each scene had to be searched out on the master recording. Using technology such as multicast or RTP over UDP, these systems achieve similar performance to high end-microwave, since the video stream is already encoded for IP, the video can be used for traditional television broadcast or Internet distribution without modification. As mobile broadband has developed, broadcast devices using this technology have appeared and these devices are often more compact than previous technology and can aggregate multiple mobile data lines to deliver a high definition-quality content live. The trend is toward lighter-weight equipment that can deliver more resolution at higher speeds, there has been an evolution from Film to Standard-definition television, High-definition television and now 4K. This monitor fits on the back of a broadcast video camera, outside broadcasts are when the editing and transmission of the news story are done outside of the stations headquarters. Use of ENG has made possible the use of outside broadcasts. At some of stations, the reporters sometimes even anchor the news and introduce the packages they have shot. Short-form news stories are local news reporters deliver to their stations
23.
Digital cinema
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Digital cinema refers to the use of digital technology to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Digital movies are projected using a digital projector instead of a film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, in digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K or 4K. As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most of the theaters across the world converted to digital, Digital media playback of high-resolution 2K files has at least a 20-year history. Early video data storage units fed custom frame buffer systems with large memories, in early digital video units, content was usually restricted to several minutes of material. Transfer of content between remote locations was slow and had limited capacity and it was not until the late 1990s that feature-length films could be sent over the wire. In conjunction with Texas Instruments, the movie was publicly demonstrated in five theaters across the United States. In Europe, on February 2,2000, Texas Instruments DLP Cinema projector technology was demonstrated, by Philippe Binant. On January 19,2000, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, in the United States, by December 2000, there were 15 digital cinema screens in the United States and Canada,11 in Western Europe,4 in Asia, and 1 in South America. Digital Cinema Initiatives was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of many motion picture studios to develop a specification for digital cinema. In April 2004, in cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material for testing of 2K and 4K playback, DCI selected JPEG2000 as the basis for the compression in the system the same year. In China, in June 2005, an E-Cinema System called dMs was established and was used in over 15,000 screens spread across Chinas 30 provinces, DMS estimated that the system would expand to 40,000 screens in 2009. In 2005 the UK Film Council Digital Screen Network launched in the UK by Arts Alliance Media creating a chain of 250 2K digital cinema systems, the roll out was completed in 2006. This was the first mass roll out in Europe, axis IT/Christie Digital also started a roll out in the United States and Canada. By mid 2006, about 400 theaters were equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month, several digital 3D films surfaced in 2006 and several prominent filmmakers committed to making their next productions in stereo 3D. VUE West End was one of the first 3D Digital Cinemas along with Odeon Printworks Manchester and this was done by Emil and Eric Digital Films, a company based at Thrissur using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore-based DG2L Technologies. This film was mastered at Real Image Media Technologies in India. In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema Virtual Print Fee agreements, by June 2010, there were close to 16,000 digital cinema screens, with over 5000 of them being stereoscopic setups
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High definition video
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High-definition video is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with more than 480 horizontal lines or 576 horizontal lines is considered high-definition. 480 scan lines is generally the even though the majority of systems greatly exceed that. Images of standard resolution captured at rates faster than normal, by a camera may be considered high-definition in some contexts. Some television series shot on video are made to look as if they have been shot on film. The first electronic scanning format,405 lines, was the first high definition television system, from 1939, Europe and the US tried 605 and 441 lines until, in 1941, the FCC mandated 525 for the US. In wartime France, René Barthélemy tested higher resolutions, up to 1,042, in late 1949, official French transmissions finally began with 819. In 1984, however, this standard was abandoned for 625-line color on the TF1 network, modern HD specifications date to the early 1980s, when Japanese engineers developed the HighVision 1, 125-line interlaced TV standard that ran at 60 frames per second. The Sony HDVS system was presented at a meeting of television engineers in Algiers, April 1981. HighVision video is still usable for HDTV video interchange, but there is almost no modern equipment available to perform this function, attempts at implementing HighVision as a 6 MHz broadcast channel were mostly unsuccessful. All attempts at using this format for terrestrial TV transmission were abandoned by the mid-1990s, Europe developed HD-MAC, a member of the MAC family of hybrid analogue/digital video standards, however, it never took off as a terrestrial video transmission format. HD-MAC was never designated for video interchange except by the European Broadcasting Union, in essence, the end of the 1980s was a death knell for most analog high definition technologies that had developed up to that time. In the end, however, the DVB standard of resolutions, the FCC officially adopted the ATSC transmission standard in 1996, with the first broadcasts on October 28,1998. In the early 2000s, it looked as if DVB would be the video standard far into the future, high definition video is defined threefold, by, The number of lines in the vertical display resolution. High-definition television resolution is 1,080 or 720 lines, in contrast, regular digital television is 480 lines or 576 lines. However, since HD is broadcast digitally, its introduction sometimes coincides with the introduction of DTV, additionally, current DVD quality is not high-definition, although the high-definition disc systems Blu-ray Disc and the HD DVD are. The scanning system, progressive scanning or interlaced scanning, progressive scanning redraws an image frame when refreshing each image, for example 720p/1080p. Interlaced scanning yields greater image resolution if subject is not moving, the number of frames or fields per second
25.
Space Race (TV series)
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For the childrens space TV show, see Space Racers. It focuses on Sergei Korolev, the Soviet chief rocket designer, the series was a joint effort between British, German, American and Russian production teams. Korolev announces that the Americans have evened the score and that they are in a space race, at the end of the episode we see the silhouettes of two men walking down a corridor, one appears to be in a spacesuit. Both the Americans and Soviets are planning manned space flight, both sides now plan to put a man on the Moon - the Americans pull ahead in the space race with Project Gemini, but then suffer a disaster with the Apollo 1 fire. Meanwhile, despite a few notable successes such as the first space walk by Alexei Leonov, Glushko and Korolev permanently fall out in an argument about fuel, Korolev turns to Nikolai Kuznetsov to develop engines instead. Kuznetsov delivers the NK-33, very efficient but much less powerful than the Americans F-1, the final episode finishes with brief textual summaries of the remaining careers of the various people involved. BBC filmed the Space Race in and around the town of Sibiu, Transylvania, Romania has signed the EU co-production treaty which allows for EU co-productions. Compared to other locations, Romania attracted BBC with unspoiled natural locations, experienced crews, the series was filmed with the Panasonic SDX900 DVCPro 50 professional camcorder. This allowed keeping to the shooting schedule and provided the ‘gritty’ look appropriate to the time period. Shot in widescreen 25fps progressive mode, the series deliver rich, filmic feel, the series would best be described and interpreted as giving a general impression of the subject matter, rather than rigorous factual account. An early scene shows Serov executing Polish resistance fighters who discovered a V-2, a team of British and Polish soldiers and scientists formed a mission to retrieve a fallen V-2 near Blizna in Poland. Footage showing early rocket club activity of von Braun actually shows Reinhold Tilings rockets, the VfR rockets were crude engines attached to sticks. Key figures are missing from the presented history. Andrei Tupolev, Vladimir Chelomei and Mikhail Yangel are also absent, for example. In the series, Glushko is generally identified with all rocket projects competing with Korolev within the USSR, the narrator said twice that the Mercury-Redstone could put an astronaut into orbit. In reality, the best the Redstone rocket could do was putting an astronaut into a 15-minute suborbital ballistic trajectory, the first orbital flight of an American astronaut did not occur until 20 February 1962, when the Mercury capsule was put into orbit with a more powerful Atlas rocket. Indeed, NASA report TMX-53107 called Mercury-Redstone a prelude to an orbital flight program, however, at episode 3, Race for Survival, is at pains to disclaim orbital capability. The narrator says only that the V-derived Redstone has only a tenth of the power of Korolevs rocket, barely enough to put a man into space
26.
Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire
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Ancient Rome, The Rise and Fall of an Empire is a 2006 BBC One docudrama series, with each episode looking at a different key turning points in the history of the Roman Empire. This docudrama focuses on the Latin-speaking western half of the Roman Empire, series Producer Mark Hedgecoe has stated that he made the series in response to previous films that have tended to ignore the real history and chosen to fictionalise the story. The series was filmed with the Panasonic SDX900 DVCPRO50 professional camcorder in widescreen progressive scan mode at 25 frames/s. In his opinion, the camera delivered better footage than a Digital Betacam camera, and provided rich, filmic feel, the series was co-produced by BBC, ZDF and the Discovery Channel. BBC History commissioned the online-game CDX to tie-in with the series, of episode two on Caesar she stated that the historians have got their chilly mitts on, pointing out that it was so painstakingly dull that Nero, always a crowd pleaser, had to be shown first. He states that after extensive research, I declare this one to be historically accurate. This is the story of the most famous Roman of them all, how he risked everything to tear down the government he served and bring revolution to Rome. At the close of the Gallic Wars, Gaius Julius Caesar finds his army encircled by a force of Gauls. An inspiring speech to his troops, promising to rescue Rome from its rulers and restore it to its people, raises opposition from Senators Cato. Caesar refuses to disband his army crossing the Rubicon, plunging the Republic into civil war and turning his deputy Labienus. Caesar captures Rome unopposed after Pompey is forced to withdraw his vastly outnumbered legions, Caesar seizes the emergency funds from the treasury to fund his campaign, but, failing to pay off his soldiers, is later forced to decimate his own rebellious Ninth Legion. Pompey amasses an army in Greece while Caesar leads a one-year campaign against opposition in Spain. In Greece, Caesar is forced to retreat inland by Pompey at the Battle of Dyrrachium but is victorious when the Senators force Pompey into an attack at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar overturns the Republic and has himself made dictator for life and this is the story of what happened when the most powerful man on Earth lost his mind and brought the Empire to the brink of destruction. Nero witnesses the Great Fire of Rome from his villa in Antium and hurries back to the capital to try to control the fire, Seneca tells him to rule like the gods and he vows to build an inspirational city of marble and stone on the ruins. The expense threatens to bankrupt the empire and Tigellinus is sent to rob the temples, the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero and have Gaius Calpurnius Piso proclaimed as emperor is revealed, and the conspirators, including the trusted Seneca, are executed. Nero inaugurates the biggest arts festival in Roman history with himself at the top of the bill, in the furious throes of increasing megalomania he kicks his wife Poppea to death. A now isolated Nero leaves Rome in the hands of the Senate as he sets out on a tour of the empire
27.
Digital-S
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D-9 or Digital-S as it was originally known, is a professional digital video videocassette format created by JVC in 1995. It is a competitor to Sonys Digital Betacam. Its name was changed to D-9 in 1999 by the SMPTE and it was used to a small extent in Europe and Asia and saw some use in the US, notably by the Fox news channel, but was a commercial failure compared with Digital Betacam. It was superseded by high definition tapeless formats, D-9 uses a tape shell of the VHS form factor, but the tape itself uses a much higher quality metal particle formulation. The recording system is digital and for video uses DV compression at a 50 Mbit/s bitrate, video is recorded in 4,2,2 component format at a variety of standard definition resolutions, in either 4,3 or 16,9 aspect ratios. Audio is recorded as 16-bit/48 kHz pcm with up to four separate channels, video quality is generally very high, at standard definition, D-9s quality is comparable with Digital Betacam. This variant can also record 8 channels of PCM audio at 16 bits and 48 kHz, the higher data rate and increased tape speed mean that the recording time of any given cassette would be halved. D-9 HD, based on specifications, would have higher quality than Sony HDCAM but lower than Sony HDCAM SR. It is not clear whether this proposed format was ever manufactured or sold, although D-9 uses the same video codec as MiniDV, the video bitrate of D-9 is significantly higher than that of the prosumer format. DVCPRO achieves bitrate parity with D-9 and D-9 HD, but has a tape speed. Some of the D-9 television studio gear is capable of recording with Sel-Sync or pre-read and is provided with four-channel audio like Digital Betacam, serial digital interfaces are also provided. A dockable recorder, the JVC BR-D40, attached to a variety of cameras, and there was a one-piece camcorder, jVCs Japanese D-9 product page Betacam Digital Betacam HDCAM D-VHS
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VHS
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The Video Home System is a standard for consumer-level analog video recording on tape cassettes. Developed by Victor Company of Japan in the early 1970s, it was released in Japan in late 1976, from the 1950s, magnetic tape video recording became a major contributor to the television industry, via the first commercialized video tape recorders. At that time, the devices were used only in professional environments such as television studios. In the 1970s, videotape entered home use, creating the video industry and changing the economics of the television. The television industry viewed videocassette recorders as having the power to disrupt their business, in the 1980s and 1990s, at the peak of VHSs popularity, there were videotape format wars in the home video industry. Two of the formats, VHS and Betamax, received the most media exposure, VHS eventually won the war, dominating 60 percent of the North American market by 1980 and emerging as the dominant home video format throughout the tape media period. Optical disc formats later began to better quality than analog consumer video tape such as standard. The earliest of these formats, LaserDisc, was not widely adopted, however, after the introduction of the DVD format in 1997, VHSs market share began to decline. By 2008, DVD had replaced VHS as the preferred method of distribution. After several attempts by other companies, the first commercially successful VTR, at a price of US$50,000 in 1956, and US$300 for a 90-minute reel of tape, it was intended only for the professional market. Kenjiro Takayanagi, a broadcasting pioneer then working for JVC as its vice president, saw the need for his company to produce VTRs for the Japan market. In 1959, JVC developed a video tape recorder. In 1964, JVC released the DV220, which would be the companys standard VTR until the mid-1970s, in 1969 JVC collaborated with Sony Corporation and Matsushita Electric in building a video recording standard for the Japanese consumer. The effort produced the U-matic format in 1971, which was the first format to become a unified standard, U-matic was successful in business and some broadcast applications, but due to cost and limited recording time very few of the machines were sold for home use. Soon after, Sony and Matsushita broke away from the collaboration effort, Sony started working on Betamax, while Matsushita started working on VX. JVC released the CR-6060 in 1975, based on the U-matic format, Sony and Matsushita also produced U-matic systems of their own. In 1971, JVC engineers Yuma Shiraishi and Shizuo Takano put together a team to develop a consumer-based VTR, by the end of 1971 they created an internal diagram titled VHS Development Matrix, which established twelve objectives for JVCs new VTR. These included, The system must be compatible with any television set
29.
Betacam
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Betacam is a family of half-inch professional videocassette products developed by Sony in 1982. In colloquial use, Betacam singly is often used to refer to a Betacam camcorder, a Betacam tape, the cassettes are available in two sizes, S and L. The Betacam camcorder can only load S magnetic tapes, while television studio sized video tape recorders designed for video editing can play both S and L tapes, the cassette shell and case for each Betacam cassette is colored differently depending on the format, allowing for easy visual identification. There is also a key, that allows a video tape recorder to identify which format has been inserted. The smaller S cassettes use the form factor as Betamax. The format supplanted the three-quarter-inch U-Matic format, which Sony had introduced in 1971, in addition to improvements in video quality, the Betacam configuration of an integrated professional video camera/recorder led to its rapid adoption by electronic news gathering organizations. DigiBeta, the name for Digital Betacam, went on to become the single most successful professional broadcast digital recording video tape format in history. The original Betacam format was launched on August 7,1982, a blank Betamax-branded tape will work on a Betacam deck, and a Betacam-branded tape can be used to record in a Betamax deck. However, in later years Sony discouraged this practice, suggesting, in particular, the guide rollers tend to be noisy. Another common point between Betamax and Betacam is the placement of the linear audio tracks. Also, some Betacam and Betamax portables share the same batteries, Betacam was initially introduced as a camera line along with a video cassette player. The first cameras were the BVP-3, which utilized three saticon tubes, and the BVP1, which used a single tri-stripe Trinicon tube, both these cameras could be operated standalone, or with their docking companion VTR, the BVV-1, to form the BVW-1 integrated camcorder. The only transport controls on the deck were Eject and Rewind, the docked cameras VTR button started and paused the tape recorder. Later the Betacam SP docking decks had full transport controls but tapes could not be played back except in the viewfinder in black-and-white only. Sony then came out with the Play Adapter, a portable unit that connected via a multi-pin cable and had a composite video out jack for color playback. At first color playback required the studio source deck, the BVW-10 and it was primarily designed as a feeder deck for A/B roll edit systems, usually for editing to a one-inch Type C or three-quarter-inch U-matic cassette edit master tape. There was also the BVW-20 field playback deck, which was a unit with DC power and a handle. Unlike the BVW-10, it did not have a built in Time Base Corrector, or TBC, with the popular success of the Betacam system as a news acquisition format, the line was soon extended to include the BVW-15 studio player, and the BVW-40 Studio Edit Recorder
30.
High-definition video
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High-definition video is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with more than 480 horizontal lines or 576 horizontal lines is considered high-definition. 480 scan lines is generally the even though the majority of systems greatly exceed that. Images of standard resolution captured at rates faster than normal, by a camera may be considered high-definition in some contexts. Some television series shot on video are made to look as if they have been shot on film. The first electronic scanning format,405 lines, was the first high definition television system, from 1939, Europe and the US tried 605 and 441 lines until, in 1941, the FCC mandated 525 for the US. In wartime France, René Barthélemy tested higher resolutions, up to 1,042, in late 1949, official French transmissions finally began with 819. In 1984, however, this standard was abandoned for 625-line color on the TF1 network, modern HD specifications date to the early 1980s, when Japanese engineers developed the HighVision 1, 125-line interlaced TV standard that ran at 60 frames per second. The Sony HDVS system was presented at a meeting of television engineers in Algiers, April 1981. HighVision video is still usable for HDTV video interchange, but there is almost no modern equipment available to perform this function, attempts at implementing HighVision as a 6 MHz broadcast channel were mostly unsuccessful. All attempts at using this format for terrestrial TV transmission were abandoned by the mid-1990s, Europe developed HD-MAC, a member of the MAC family of hybrid analogue/digital video standards, however, it never took off as a terrestrial video transmission format. HD-MAC was never designated for video interchange except by the European Broadcasting Union, in essence, the end of the 1980s was a death knell for most analog high definition technologies that had developed up to that time. In the end, however, the DVB standard of resolutions, the FCC officially adopted the ATSC transmission standard in 1996, with the first broadcasts on October 28,1998. In the early 2000s, it looked as if DVB would be the video standard far into the future, high definition video is defined threefold, by, The number of lines in the vertical display resolution. High-definition television resolution is 1,080 or 720 lines, in contrast, regular digital television is 480 lines or 576 lines. However, since HD is broadcast digitally, its introduction sometimes coincides with the introduction of DTV, additionally, current DVD quality is not high-definition, although the high-definition disc systems Blu-ray Disc and the HD DVD are. The scanning system, progressive scanning or interlaced scanning, progressive scanning redraws an image frame when refreshing each image, for example 720p/1080p. Interlaced scanning yields greater image resolution if subject is not moving, the number of frames or fields per second
31.
Serial digital interface
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Serial digital interface is a family of digital video interfaces first standardized by SMPTE in 1989. For example, ITU-R BT.656 and SMPTE 259M define digital video interfaces used for broadcast-grade video, a related standard, known as high-definition serial digital interface, is standardized in SMPTE 292M, this provides a nominal data rate of 1.485 Gbit/s. Additional SDI standards have been introduced to support increasing video resolutions, frame rates, stereoscopic video, 3G-SDI consists of a single 2.970 Gbit/s serial link that allows replacing dual link HD-SDI. 6G-SDI and 12G-SDI standards were published on March 19,2015 and these standards are used for transmission of uncompressed, unencrypted digital video signals within television facilities, they can also be used for packetized data. Coaxial variants of the range in length but are typically less than 300 meters. Fiber optic variants of the such as 297M allow for long-distance transmission limited only by maximum fiber length or repeaters. Several professional video and HD-video capable DSLR cameras and all uncompressed video capable consumer cameras use the HDMI interface, there are various mod kits for existing DVD players and other devices, which allow a user to add a serial digital interface to these devices. The various serial digital interface standards all use coaxial cables with BNC connectors and this is the same type of cable used in analog video setups, which potentially makes for easier upgrades. The specified signal amplitude at the source is 800 mV peak-to-peak, using equalization at the receiver, it is possible to send 270 Mbit/s SDI over 300 meters without use of repeaters, but shorter lengths are preferred. The HD bitrates have a maximum run length, typically 100 meters. Uncompressed digital component signals are transmitted, data is encoded in NRZI format, and a linear feedback shift register is used to scramble the data to reduce the likelihood that long strings of zeroes or ones will be present on the interface. The interface is self-synchronizing and self-clocking, * Working group 32NF-70 is in the process of developing standard ST-2083 for 24Gbit/s SDI. 270 Mbit/s is by far the most commonly used, though the 360 Mbit/s interface is sometimes encountered, the 143 and 177 Mbit/s interfaces were intended for transmission of composite-encoded video digitally, and are now considered obsolete. For enhanced definition applications, there are several 540 Mbit/s interfaces defined, for HDTV applications, the serial digital interface is defined by SMPTE 292M. Two bit rates are defined,1.485 Gbit/s, and 1. 485/1.001 Gbit/s. The factor of 1/1.001 is provided to allow SMPTE 292M to support video formats with rates of 59.94 Hz,29.97 Hz. The 1.485 Gbit/s version of the standard supports other frame rates in widespread use, including 60 Hz,50 Hz,30 Hz,25 Hz and it is common to collectively refer to both standards as using a nominal bit rate of 1.5 Gbit/s. For very high-definition applications, requiring resolution, frame rate, or color fidelity than the HD-SDI interface can provide
32.
HDCAM
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The HDCAM codec uses rectangular pixels and as such the recorded 1440×1080 content is upsampled to 1920×1080 on playback. The recorded video bit rate is 144 Mbit/s, audio is also similar, with four channels of AES3 20-bit,48 kHz digital audio. Like Betacam, HDCAM tapes are produced in small and large cassette sizes, the main competitor to HDCAM is the DVCPRO HD format offered by Panasonic. It uses a compression scheme and bit rates ranging from 40 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s depending on frame rate. HDCAM is standardized as SMPTE 367M, also known as SMPTE D-11, SMPTE 367M, also known as SMPTE D-11, is the SMPTE standard for HDCAM. The standard specifies compression of digital video. Each D11 source frame is composed of a channel at 1920 x 1080 pixels. During compression, each frames luminance channel is subsampled at 1440 x 1080, HDCAM SR was introduced in 2003 and standardised in SMPTE 409M-2005. It uses a particle density tape and is capable of recording in 10 bits 4,2,2 or 4,4,4 RGB with a video bit rate of 440 Mbit/s. The increased bit rate allows HDCAM SR to capture more of the full bandwidth of the HDSDI signal. Some HDCAM SR VTRs can also use a 2× mode with a higher video bit rate of 880 Mbit/s. HDCAM SR uses MPEG-4 Part 2 Simple Studio Profile for compression, there are 12 channels of audio recorded uncompressed at 24 bit 48 kHz sampling. Each channel is capable of recording AES3 non-audio data, HDCAM SR is used commonly for HDTV television production. As of 2007, many network television shows use HDCAM SR as a master recording medium. Tape lengths are the same as for Digital Betacam, up to 40 minutes for S and 124 minutes for L tapes, in 24p mode the runtime increases to 50 and 155 minutes, respectively. HDCAM tapes are black with a lid, and HDCAM SR tapes black with a cyan lid. 440 Mbit/s mode is known as SQ, and 880 Mbit/s mode is known as HQ, in 2008 the SRW-5800 will give the HQ4,4,4 option. Sony has also announced a higher compression mode called SR Lite, as with the 440 and 880 mode, SR Lite utilizes the MPEG-4 Part 2 Simple Studio Profile but decreases the bit rate down to 220 Mbit/s for 60i and 183 Mbit/s for 50i
33.
Video clip
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Video clips are short clips of video, usually part of a longer recording. The term is more loosely used to mean any short video less than the length of a traditional television program. With the spread of Internet global accessing, video clips have become popular online. With the spread of broadband Internet access, video clips have become popular online. Whereas most of this content is non-exclusive and available on competing sites, some companies produce all their own videos, while some video clips are taken from established media sources, community or individual-produced clips are becoming more common. Some individuals host their created works on vlogs, which are video blogs, the use of Internet video is growing very fast. Between March and July 2006, YouTube grew from 30 to 100 million views of videos per day, more recent developments includes the BBCs iPlayer, which was released for open beta testing in July 2007. The widespread popularity of video clips, with the aid of new channels, has evolved into clip culture. It is compared to lean-back experience of seeing traditional movies, refers to the Internet activity of sharing and viewing a short video, such video clips often show moments of significance, humour, oddity, or prodigy performance. Sources for video clips include news, movies, music video, in addition to clips recorded by high-quality camcorders, it has become more common to produce clips with digital cameras, webcams, and mobile phones. Online video advertising is used by advertisers, with online entertainment sites delivering high-quality television programming content free of charge, online video entertainment is rising in popularity. MAGNA estimated that online video advertisement spending will approach nearly US$700 million in 2008, as businesses seek to tighten budgetary allocations, online video is a highly measurable and results-driven delivery platform. Unlike traditional movies largely dominated by studios, clip movies are overwhelmingly supplied by amateurs, in May 2006, The Economist reported that 90% of clips on YouTube came from amateurs, a few of whom are young comedians. It, in effect, also brought amateur talents and they appeared on television shows and concerts, and were also granted a contract by a media company in Beijing for lip-syncing for cash. An earlier celebrity was David Elsewhere, a talent at popping and liquiding and his performance to Kraftwerks song Expo 2000 at the Kollaboration talent show in 2001 was widely viewed on the Internet, leading later to his being hired for TV commercials and music videos. Not only have video clips submerged into the world of TV commercials and music videos but it is now also a form of entertainment. Many professional video bloggers can be found on the Internet, additionally many notable amateur video bloggers have also emerged, scenes rarely broadcast on television, and many first-witnessed scenes have since become publicly available. Notably, in December 2004, tourist videos of the Indian Ocean earthquake, in December 2003, videos in Hong Kong showing the bully in De La Salle School outraged the public and raised a wide concern on school violence that led to the arrest of 11 students
34.
DVD-Video
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DVD-Video is a consumer video format used to store digital video on DVD discs, and as of 2003 is the dominant consumer video format in Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia. Discs using the DVD-Video specification require a DVD drive and an MPEG-2 decoder, commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats. Typically, the rate for DVD movies ranges from 3 Mbit/s to 9.5 Mbit/s. It was first available in November 1996 in Japan, the DVD-Video specification was created by DVD Forum and can be obtained from DVD Format/Logo Licensing Corporation for a fee of $5,000. The specification is not publicly available and every subscriber must sign a non-disclosure agreement, certain information in the DVD Book is proprietary and confidential. To record moving pictures, DVD-Video uses either H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression at up to 9.8 Mbit/s or MPEG-1 Part 2 compression at up to 1.856 Mbit/s. DVD-Video supports video with a bit depth of 8-bits per color YCbCr with 4,2,0 chroma subsampling,704 ×480 pixels 352 ×480 pixels. Widescreen video is supported only in D-1 resolutions, the MPEG-1 Part 2 format does not support interlaced video. The H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 format supports both interlaced and progressive-scan content, Content with a frame rate different from one of the rates shown above can be encoded to H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 by using pulldown. This is most commonly used to encode 23.976 frame/s content for playback at 29.97 frame/s. Alternately, the content can be encoded on the disc itself at one of several alternate frame rates, such flags can be added in video stream by the H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 encoder. A DVD player uses these flags to convert progressive content into interlaced video in real-time during playback and these flags also allow reproducing progressive content at their original, non-interlaced format when used with compatible DVD players and progressive-scan television sets. The audio data on a DVD movie can be PCM, DTS, MPEG-1 Audio Layer II, a similar standard exists in countries using the NTSC system, though with no requirement mandating the use of or support for the MP2 format. DTS audio is optional for all players, as DTS was not part of the draft standard and was added later, thus. Only PCM and DTS support 96 kHz sampling rate, because PCM, being uncompressed, requires a lot of bandwidth and DTS is not universally supported by players,96 kHz sampling rate is rare for DVDs. The vast majority of commercial DVD-Video releases today employ AC-3 audio. The official allowed formats for the tracks on a DVD Video are, PCM,48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling rate,16 bit or 24 bit Linear PCM,2 to 6 channels, up to 6,144 kbit/s. DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content and this is most commonly used for different audio formats – DTS5.1, AC-32.0 etc. – as well as for commentary and audio tracks in different languages
35.
Film-out
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Film-out is the process in the computer graphics, video production and filmmaking disciplines of transferring images or animation from videotape or digital files to a traditional film print. Film-out is a term that encompasses the conversion of frame rates, color correction, as well as the actual printing. Many modern documentaries and low-budget films are shot on videotape or other digital media, instead of film stock. Video production means substantially lower costs than 16 mm or 35 mm film production on all levels, until recently, the relatively low cost of video ended when the issue of a theatrical presentation was raised, which required a print for film projection. With the growing presence of digital projection, this is becoming less of a factor, film-out of standard-definition video – or any source that has an incompatible frame rate – is the up-conversion of video media to film for theatrical viewing. To understand these two steps, it is important to understand how video and film differ, Film has remained unchanged for almost a century and creates the illusion of moving images through the rapid projection of still images, frames, upon a screen, typically 24 per second. Traditional interlaced SD video has no frame rate. Since visual movement in video is infused in this cascade of scans lines. Therefore, when transferring video to film, it is necessary to invent individual film frames,24 for every second of elapsed time, the bulk of the work done by a film-out company is this first step, creating film frames out of the stream of interlaced video. Each company employs its own technology for turning interlaced video into high-resolution digital video files of 24 discrete images every second, the technology must filter out all the visually unappealing artifacting that results from the inherent mismatch between video and film movement. Moreover, the process usually requires human intervention at every edit point of a video program. The use of footage in video especially calls for extra attention. Step two, the scanning to film, is the part of the process. This is the step where lasers print each of the newly created frames of the 24p video, stored on computer files or HD videotape. Most companies that do film-out, do all the stages of the process themselves for a lump sum, the job includes converting interlaced video into 24p and often a color correction session –, before scanning to physical film, – is offered. At the very least, film-out can be understood as the process of converting interlaced video to 24p, NTSC is the most challenging of the formats when it comes to standards conversion and, specifically, converting to film prints. NTSC runs at the rate of 29.97 video frames per second. In this way, NTSC resolves actual live action movement at almost –, because of this 29.97 rate, no direct correlation to film frames at 24 frames per second can be achieved
36.
Magnetic tape
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Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording, devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording, when all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded. At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It was a key technology in computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods. Nowadays, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape, in many cases, these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues, and Sony, over years, magnetic tape made in the 1970s and 1980s can suffer from a type of deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome. Caused by hydrolysis of the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable, the oxide side of a tape is the surface that can be magnetically manipulated by a tape head. This is the side that stores the information, the side is simply a substrate to hold the tape together. The name originates from the fact that the side of most tapes is made of an oxide of iron. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Oberlin Smith in 1888, pfleumers invention used a ferric oxide powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring-shaped tape head, previous head designs were needle-shaped and tended to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing, due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War II, these developments were largely kept secret. A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel, the practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television, television signals are similar to audio signals. A major difference is that video signals use more bandwidth than audio signals, existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal
37.
Gigabyte
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The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote 1073741824 bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of 1024. With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity. The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either 10003 bytes or 10243 bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 is approximately 1000, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 10003 bytes and gibibyte denote 10243 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST and this is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission. The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are an example of this usage in software. The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte. Since the first disk drive, the IBM350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as 500 GB. The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as 1000000000bytes. Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example,400 GB might be reported by the operating system as 372 GB, meaning 372 GiB. The JEDEC memory standards use IEEE100 nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as 1073741824bytes and this means that a 300 GB hard disk might be indicated variously as 300 GB,279 GB or 279 GiB, depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity
38.
8 mm video format
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The 8mm video format refers informally to three related videocassette formats for the NTSC and PAL/SECAM television systems. These are the original Video8 format and its improved successor Hi8 and their user base consisted mainly of amateur camcorder users, although they also saw important use in the professional television production field. In 1985, Sony of Japan introduced the Handycam, one of the first Video8 cameras with commercial success, much smaller than the competitions VHS and Betamax video cameras, Video8 became very popular in the consumer camcorder market. The three formats are very similar, featuring both the same magnetic tape width and near-identical cassette shells, measuring 95 ×62.5 ×15 mm. This gives a measure of compatibility in some cases. One difference between them is in the quality of the tape itself, but the differences lie in the encoding of the video when it is recorded onto the tape. Video8 was the earliest of the three formats, and is entirely analog and it was followed by Hi8, a version with improved resolution. Although this was still analog, some professional Hi8 equipment could store additional digital stereo PCM sound on a reserved track. Digital8 is the most recent 8mm video format and it retains the same physical cassette shell as its predecessors, and can even record onto Video8 or Hi8 cassettes. However, the format in which video is encoded and stored on the tape itself is the entirely digital DV format, some Digital8 camcorders support Video8 and Hi8 with analog sound, but this is not required by the Digital8 specification. In all three cases, a length of 8mm-wide magnetic tape is wound between two spools and contained within a hard-shell cassette and these cassettes share similar size and appearance with the audio cassette, but their mechanical operation is far closer to that of VHS or Betamax videocassettes. Standard recording time is up to 180 minutes for PAL and 120 minutes for NTSC, like most other videocassette systems, Video8 uses a helical-scan 40mm head drum to read from and write to the magnetic tape. The drum rotates at high speed while the tape is pulled along the drums path, because the tape and drum are oriented at a slight angular offset, the recording tracks are laid down as parallel diagonal stripes on the tape. Unlike preceding systems, 8mm did not use a track on the tape to facilitate the head following the diagonal tracks. Instead 8mm recorded a sequence of four sine waves on each video track such that adjacent tracks would produce one of two heterodyne frequencies if the head mistracked, the system automatically adjusted the tracking such that the two frequencies produced were of equal magnitude. This system was derived from the track following used by the Philips Video 2000 system. Sony rechristened the system as automatic track following as the 8mm system lacked the ability of the heads to physically move within the head drum. The main disadvantage of the ATF system was that unlike in the case of a control track and this made editing using a non linear editing system problematic
39.
Tapeless camcorder
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A tapeless camcorder is a camcorder that does not use video tape for the digital recording of video productions as 20th century ones did. Tapeless camcorders record video as computer files onto data storage devices such as optical discs, hard disk drives. Most consumer-level tapeless camcorders use MPEG-2, MPEG-4 or its derivatives as video coding formats and they are normally capable of still-image capture to JPEG format additionally. Consumer-grade tapeless camcorders include a USB port to transfer video onto a computer, professional models include other options like Serial digital interface or HDMI. Some tapeless camcorders are equipped with a Firewire port to ensure compatibility with magnetic tape-based DV and HDV formats, AVCHD Camera phone Editcam Electronic field production HDV Pocket video camera Television production XDCAM
